AGSUrbanFutures2009 Bali Seminar Report

The urban futures initiative
Evolution of space and resources for human settlements

International Workshop on Sustainable City Region
INNA Grand Beach Hotel
February 23-24, 2009
This workshop is co-hosted by Alliance for Global Sustainability,
Trasdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability/Integrated Research
System for Sustainability Science, Global Center for Excellent for
Sustainable Urban Regeneration and Udayana University Bali.
http://www2.ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/scrws2009/
Outline
The fusion between urban and rural areas has been a main subject of urban planning discussed for over
100 years. Recently it is drawing renewed attention from the viewpoint of sustainable city in particular.
A mosaic of urban-rural land uses is a common phenomenon in the fringe areas of Asian large cities.
Although the current planning systems in various cities attempt to separate urban from rural, mixed
use of land is expected to have certain advantages. The increased urban-rural interactions are expected
to contribute to establishing sustainable urban communities in Asia. Under the Alliance for Global
Sustainability (AGS), the University of Tokyo is focusing on Asian city region and playing a leading
role in developing a new concept of sustainable city region for Asia. This international workshop aims
at exchanging current knowledge of each city regions status among participating researchers, and
further developing this concept.

This workshop consists of the following five sessions:

Urban Rural Systems session addresses social networks that control flows of people, capital, energy
and materials between urban and rural areas. Such social networks generally emerge in the form of
private organizations as companies and NPOs/NGOs, and also public organizations as departments of
a government which have functions to manage individual private organizations activities, thereby
contributing to sustainable development in both urban and rural areas. In this Urban Rural Systems
Session, each speaker will present a case study focusing on a particular system such as food flows in
agribusiness between urban and rural areas under the current rules, industrial and household waste
flows treated by both public and private sectors in urban and rural areas, territorial or blood-bonded
peoples network to sustain informal sectors in cities, and floating population flow from rural to urban
areas. Discussions will also address the question on how and by which kinds of planning measures to
lead total system connecting urban and rural areas toward sustainable city region.

City Regional Forms session deals with spatial structures including land-use/landscape in urban and
rural areas, and network infrastructures connecting urban and rural areas including roads, railroads,
water courses, and ecological networks. The session also addresses the applicability of planning
measures developed in Europe and North America based on the theory of clearly separating the city
from surrounding rural areasso-called modern city planning concepts such as zoning, greenbelt, and
compact cityto the management of land use and landscape in Asian cities. Asian cities have taken it
for granted to apply those concepts to themselves but in most cases failed to successfully control urban
developments, resulting in a disordered mixture of urban and rural land uses. The session aims to
discuss a new planning concept for Asian cities based on the idea to take the mixture of urban and
1
rural land uses not only as a vernacular landscape of Asian cities, but also as a sustainable garden city
landscape which may restore sound urban-rural relationships.

Water Management session discusses required systems and technologies to establish sustainable
water systems accommodating the needs of both city rural regions. Water management is an essential
issue in both city and rural regions. In terms of quality, the deterioration of water caused not only by
the development of city center but also urbanization of urban fringe areas must be considered. Thus,
in addressing water quality management in urban fringe and rural areas in relation to city regions, we
need to establish appropriate treatment systems dependent on the purpose of water use. That means
there is a need for the development of not only centralized high-value technologies but also
decentralized low-cost systems. In terms of quantity, the different characteristics should be
considered: cities demand relatively large amount of water per area while rural areas usually require
a larger amount of water for agriculture as a whole. Reuse or reclamation of waste water throws
new light on water resources management to solve these conflicts of water demand. On the other
hand, excess volume of water during flood events sometimes threatens people's lives and properties.
Predicting discharge precisely and taking countermeasures against flooding are urgent issues under
the condition of global warming.

Culture and Settlements session highlights communities in Asian cities. Cities should be recognized
as social, economical as well as environmental systems formed through the network of cities, towns
and villages rather than as isolated entities. Those various types of cities, towns and villages should be
developed based on their unique characteristics: human resources, culture, natural environment, etc.
There are also rich evidences that cultural factors play an important role in fostering regional identity
which facilitates the collaborative activities among people. In order to foster such placeness of
settlements, the community initiative is essential. The advancement of community-based approach,
which requires the capacity building both at the community level and the local government level as
well as partnership-building among different levels of governments, NGOs, CBOs and the private
sector, will therefore be one of the keys to discussing the relation between culture and settlements. In
this session, we would like to discuss such key issues as cultural identity of human settlements of
Asian city-regions, characteristics of community based development, the role of culture for
place-making and city-regional identity, etc.

Poster Session includes short oral presentations on poster contents and free discussions in front of the
poster boards. Students and young researchers will present their ongoing masters/PhD research
contents relating to abovementioned four session topics, or sustainable city region.
2
Day 1
09:00~09:30
09:30~09:40
09:40~10:05
10:05~10:30
10:30~10:50
10:50~11:10
11:10~11:30
11:30~11:50
11:50~12:10
12:10~13:10
13:10~13:30
13:30~13:50
13:50~14:20
14:20~14:30
14:30~14:50
14:50~15:10 Norihisa Shima (Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
15:10~15:20
15:20~15:40
15:40~16:00
16:00~16:20
16:20~16:40
16:40~17:10
"Tokyo: Transportation Network and City Form"
"Controlling the Composition of population for suburban housing developments in Japan by
selecting building types - A Case Study of Yukarigaoka New-Town in Chiba, Japan -"
Peeyush Soni (Agriculturas Systems and Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology)
Tan Zong-bo (School of Architecture, Tsinghua University)
Hitoshi Ieda (Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
"A Strategic Planning from Regional Aspect -Experience of the Research work on Development
Plan of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone-"
Session 2-1:City Regional Form
Makoto Yokohari (Guraduate School of Frontier Science, The University of Tokyo)
Dietwalt Gruehn (School of Spatial Planning, Dortmund University of Technology
"Sustainability and Adaptation on Climate Change in German City Regions"
"Emerging Urban Governance in Southeast Asian Countries: How can we control these rapidly
expanding cities?"
Discussion
Toshio Otsuki (Department of Architecture, The University of Tokyo)
Program
"The Resilience and Vulnerability of the Extended Urban Spaces in Asia in the Twenty First
Century -Policy Research Challenges for the Future of Urban Asia-"
"Strategic Analysis of Urban/Peri-urban Agriculture in Asia: Issues, Potential and Challenges"
Keynote Speech
Terry McGee (Institute of Asian Research, University of Brihish Columbia)
Kazuhiko Takeuchi (IR3S, The University of Tokyo)
Photo Session & Coffee Break
"Establishing Sustainable Community through the Urban and Rural Fusion"
Session 1-1:Urban Rural Systems
"Food and Energy Production from Agriculture in Urban Rural Systems of Japan"
Coffee Break
Session 2-2:City Regional Form
Yuji Hara (TIGS, The University of Tokyo)
Irham (Agribusiness Graduate Study Program, Gadjah Mada University)
"Farmland Conversion and Sustainable City: A Case of Yogyakarta, Indonesia"
"Session Outline"
"Openness of private green and vacant spaces within exclusive subdivisions in the urban fringe
of Asian large cities: some cases of Bangkok and Metro Manila"
Discussion (led by Hideyuki Koizumi; Dept. of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
Niramon Kulsrisombat (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Chulalongkorn University)
"Vulnerable Agricultural Fringe: The Challenge for Sustainability of Bangkok"
Registration
Opening Remarks
Akimasa Sumi (TIGS, The University of Tokyo)
Shigenori Morita (Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo)
Zhilin Liu (School of Public Policy and Management, Tsinghua University)
"Governing Urbanization for Sustainability: An institutional analysis of government behavior in
Kensuke Katayama (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
"Spatial Planning and Urban Rural Relations in European Union"
Lunch
Session 1-2:Urban Rural Systems
17:10~
19:30~
Mo Hongpin (Division of Environmental system analysis, Tsinghua University)
"Industrial solid waste flows and recycling patterns of China: a case study in Suzhou"
Yutaka Araki (Civil Engineering Course, The University of Tokyo)
Kazuaki Tsuchiya (Graduate school of agricultural and life sciences, The University of Tokyo)
"Assessing policy implementation and social networks for agricultural landscape conservation
in a Japanese urban region"
Gerald Bolthouse (Natural Environment, The University of Tokyo)
"Woody biomass utilization in urban-rural mixed land-use areas:Strategies to sustainably
manage satoyama woodlands"
Haruna Watanabe (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
"Toxicity characterization of road dust and urban river sediments using bioassay with ostracod"
Hiroaki Fujimori (Civil Engineering Course, The University of Tokyo)
"Analysis of Climate Change Impact for sustainable development on Citarum River Basin,
Reception at Pool Side
Hirofumi Hori (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
Togu Pardede (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
"Build Back Better, Safer and Greener: Lesson from Aceh Post-Disaster Recovery"
Dendi Muhamad (Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University)
Asako Okuno (Department of urban engineering, The University of Tokyo)
"Evaluation of Environmental Burden in Cascade Recycling of Plastic Containers and
Packaging Wastes in Japan"
Arthit Limpiyakorn (Graduate School of Urban Engineering, University of Tokyo))
Poster Session 5minutes 14persons = 70minutes
"The comprehensive concept planning of urban greening: cast study Bangkok Metropolis, THAILAN
"Energetic analysis of various production systems in West Javan agricultural landscape: looking
for sustainable system"
Dingyang Zhou (Department of Ecosystem Studies, The University of Tokyo)
"Conceptual Framework for Agricultural Landscape Conservation and Food system for
Sustainable City Region in China"
"Examination of Maintaining Method of the Gravel Bed River Channel"
"The development review system and the application in the inner city area -The case studies on
the design review in North America -"
" A Place for Commons in Extended Urban Spaces?Community forestry networks and working
woodlands in peri-urban Tokyo"
Mariko Miyamoto (Department of Natural Environmental Studies, The University of Tokyo)
"Transformation of Pasture Landscapes on the Shimousa Plateau 1672- 1862"
Toru Terada (Graduate school of frontier sciences, The University of Tokyo)
4
Day 2
09:00~09:20
Sebastien Rauch (Water Environment Technology, Chalmers University of Technology)
09:20~09:40
09:40~10:00
10:00~10:20
10:20~10:40
10:40~11:00
11:00~11:20
11:20~11:40
11:40~12:00
12:00~13:00
13:00~13:20
13:20~13:40
13:40~14:00
14:00~14:30
14:30~14:50
14:50~15:00
15:00~15:20
15:20~15:40
15:40~16:00
16:00~16:20
16:20~16:50
16:50~17:00
Danai Taitakoo (Department of Landscape Architecture, Chulalongkorn University)
Sita Adishakti
Kaori Fujita (Department of Architecture, The University of Tokyo)
"Damage investigation of timber structures by the 2007 Noto Peninsula Earthquake"
Discussion
Wrap Up
"The Landscape of Bangkoks Agricultural Fringe and City Region Sustainability: An Ecological
and Cultural Co-Evolution"
"Catchment-scale water management of wastewater treatment in an urban sewage system
considering CO2 emission assessment"
Discussion
Session 4:Culture and Settlements
Coffee Break
Tetsuo Kidokoro (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
Qiang Charles Luo (Water & Env. Research Institute of the Western Pacific, University of Guam)
"Integration of Flood Control and Environmental Preservation in Urban River"
Goro Mouri (Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo)
Takeyoshi Chibana (Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
Session 3-2:Water Manegement
Lunch
Parikesit (Department of Biology, Padjadjaran University)
"The Impact of Guams Population Growth on Island Water Resources"
Shahram Khosrowpanah (Water & Env. Research Institute of the Western Pacific, University of Guam
"Urban-rural interrelation in water resource management: problems and factors affecting the
sustainability of drinking water supply in the City of Bandung Indonesia"
"A Concept on Integrated Groundwater Management to Sustain Cities of Indonesia using
System Interrelationship Model"
Ni Guandgheng (Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University)
"Impact of land use and land cover on evapotranspiration in urban area based on remote
Priana Sudjono (Department of Environmental Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology)
Kensuke Fukushi (TIGS, The University of Tokyo)
"Long-term indirect impacts of land development on flood risk and water quality -A case study
for the watershed of Lake Tega-"
Coffee Break
"Waterborne health risks due to rapid urbanization in Asia"
Kumiko Oguma (Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
Guangwei Huang (Department of Socio-Cultural Environmental Studies, The University of Tokyo)
Dipak Gyawali (Institute for Social and Environmental Transition)
Introduction of the AGS
"Supporting Urban Innovation"
"Infectious Risk Assessment with Exposure to Pathogens in the Flood Water assessment of
vulnerability of urban area to climate change (Case Study of Manila)"
"Daoism and Environmental Sustainability -A Completely Different Way of Thinking-"
"Deconstructing the Rural and the Urban: Lessons from Recent Desakota Research in South
Asia, Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and China"
5
Keynote Speech

THE RESILIENCE AND VULNERABILITY OF THE EXTENDED
URBAN SPACES IN ASIA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY.
POLICY RESEARCH
CHALLENGES FOR THE URBAN FUTURE OF ASIA.

TERRY MC GEE,
PROFESSOR EMERITUS
UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
VANCOUVER, B.C.
CANADA.
E-MAIL ADDRESS. tmcgee@interchange.ubc.ca
REVISED JANUARY 2008

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

1 INTRODUCTION.....7

2 RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR URBAN SUSTAINABILTY.... ...........9

Research Cluster 1. Understanding the Reconfiguration of Urban Space ......9

Research Cluster 2. Understanding the Functional Integration of Urban Space...10

Research Cluster 3. Establishing the strategic policy importance of desakota regions in
developing sustainable urban development trajectories11

Research Cluster 4. Developing policy responses to the challenges of extended urban
spaces.13

3 CONCLUSION: TOWARDS ASIAN URBAN FUTURES....14

NOTES.14

SELECTED EFERENCES..14

APPENDIX A.DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN: AN OUTLINE... 18

APPENDIX B. A CASE STUDY OF THE PEARL RIVER DELTA. GUANGDONG
PROVINCE, CHINA...19
6
Keynote Speech

THE RESILIENCE AND VULNERABILITY OF THE EXTENDED URBAN SPACES IN ASIA
IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY. POLICY RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR THE
URBAN FUTURE OF ASIA.

A few hundred square miles of the Himalayas are the source of all the major rivers
of Asia, the Ganges, the Yellow River, the Yangtse where three billon people live.
That's almost half of the worlds population.
Governments have been slow to accept the awful truth that usable water is
running out. Fresh rainfall is not enough to fill the underground water tables
Lord Stern (Former Chief Economist.World Bank
Goldman Sachs Top Five Risks Conference. May 2008.

(1)INTRODUCTION.
This rather hyperbolic statement captures the urgency that underlies the ideas
that infuse this presentation. I hope that you will regard it as is an ideas piece to
stimulate discussion during the workshop. It has been prepared after extensive
consultation with colleagues in based in New York, Tokyo and Vancouver. I have
also drawn widely on the research carried out by researchers in China, India, Nepal,
Malaysia, Viet Nam and Indonesia. In this presentation because of limited time I
have not included an extensive literature review but have focused on the priority
challenges for urban policy and research in the Asian region. In particular, I have
focused on the some of the issues that focus on global environmental change and
urbanization in Asia. Although, of course, I recognize that the urbanization process is
also shaped by the consequences of economic, social and political activities at the
global, national and local levels.
My reading of only a sampling of this literature suggests that three levels of
analysis dominate this discourse. First, the global reading of these processes that is
carried out by global agencies who utilize national or global data bases as their
major source of information. The second reading is at the national, or what I would
label the mesolevel that includes the both national data and scaled-up data from
other levels of government such as provinces. This research thus provides the basic
information for the construction of longitudinal databases that are used to measure
processes such as global climate and environmental changes and changes in the
urbanization trends. Finally there is a reading of these processes at the local level
that include innumerable regional and case-studies that are scaled up to thicken
data assembled at the national and global level. These micro-studies are carried out at
by many institutions and focus on the activities at many levels from the household
up to the largest multi-national or international agency. They vary massively in terms
of their geographic sites ranging from rural villages to cities. They provide the
meat on the bones of the national and global statistics that reinforce the
urgency of action. But they rarely attract the attention to force policy action.
As one the major entry points for this ongoing research I would argue that
another level of analysis needs to be added to the global and national and local levels
that would involve the assembling of data at the level of extended urban spaces.
This is not only at the level of the administratively defined urban areas but also at the
level of the urban core and the spreading area of urban activities that is occurring in
the urban fringes of these urban units. In this paper I refer to this form of urbanization
as extended urban spaces which while it is most ubiquitous in the mega-urban regions
is also occurring in smaller urban places in the urban hierarchy. If this definition of
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Keynote Speech

urban areas is accepted then it is clear that the pace of global urbanization is much
more rapid than is accepted by the use of the three previous levels of data analysis.
This means that the current level of global urbanization (50 per cent) is
almost certainly an underestimate and that the majority of the worlds population is
now urban and increasingly engaged in non-agricultural activities. It therefore follows
that the lives of these urban dwellers are being shaped by their urban activities,
consumption patterns, resource demands and the quality of the urban environments in
which they live. These extended urban spaces are also the locations in which an
increasing proportion of national GDP is generated. As the population and economic
wealth of these extended urban spaces increase it can be argued that these demands on
resources will increase as will effects of environmental change (unless adaptive
strategies are adopted) thus placing greater pressure on local, national and global
resources. This process increases the vulnerability of these extended urban spaces to
growing global environmental, fiscal, social and political problems. (See for example
Mc Granahan et.al 2007)
However, this assertion raises many issues. Most prominent in my view is
that it does not interrogate the spatial spread of the urbanization process. Most data on
the urbanization process are derived from national data collection systems that are
taken from national definitions of urban places often defined on the basis of
administrative divisions such as cities or municipalities, cities or towns. These vary
substantially at a national level but generally severely underestimate the spatial extent
of urbanization beyond urban administrative boundaries. At a national level this is
increasingly being recognized by the creation of larger statistical units such as the
SMA in the USA. But this statistical rethinking is still falling short of measuring
true urbanization as for instance measured by proportion of the work force engaged
in non agricultural activities or functionally integrated urban spaces. Even more
important is the functional interdependence of urban and rural areas. In fact it is now
generally recognized that extended urban spaces based upon core urban places
are an ubiquitous part of the contemporary urbanization process. This urban spread
has been driven by the changes in transport technology (particularly motor vehicles
and road systems,) communications, industrial, service and residential growth which
while it is occurring at a different pace though out the globe is now a common feature.
This has created large zones of urban activity outside the city cores of many urban
defined places that have been variously labeled peri-urban, urban fringe, etc.
My argument would be that prevailing urban definitions still fall short of
capturing the full extent of urban space neglecting large and important zones of
rural and non-rural activity that are part of the large extended urban spaces. There is a
historical persistence in the belief in rural and urban definitions of space that is based
upon existing rural and urban divisions and definitions in the last thirty years I have
attempted to carry out research that has attempted to conceptually reconfigure the
understanding of urban space. (See Mc Gee, 1991, pp. 3-26) Further, I would argue
that in doing policy relevant research on these broad global processes we need
entry-points that recognize the significant drivers of these processes that are
shaping urban space. These entry points might be global and process driven
(e.g. carbon emissions, sea-level rise), they could be place-driven (e.g. extended
urban spaces), government policy, or issue driven as for example in the case of food
security or urban poverty. However, I would argue that the complexity of these
entry points suggests a need to focus the research on the extended urban spaces
which are becoming more important as urbanization.
8
Keynote Speech

One other research issue remains. On which geographic region of the globe
should this research be focused? This is where the quote from Lord Stern has
resonance for it presents the overarching reality of the Asias importance at a global
level as the location of almost 66 per cent of the worlds population but it also
reminds us that non-insular part of Asia is linked to an regional eco-system that
effects the whole region. Broadly defined as the geographic area stretching from
Pakistan in the West to Japan in the East and from China in the North to Indonesia in
the South. It is estimated that level of urbanization was 36 per cent in 2007; one of the
lowest of any large region in the world, which means that the growth of urban
population in the Asian region will be very large in the next five decades making-up,
an estimated 80 per cent of all global urban population increase. The early post war
economic growth of the NICs of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan
has now been joined by other Asian countries particularly the two economic giants of
India and China so that the region is beginning to become a third pivot of the global
economy along with North America and Europe. If this region were to eventually to
achieve the economic and consumption levels of the developed countries with the
present levels of environmental control this would greatly accelerate the processes of
global environmental change. It is also important to emphasize that because of the
very large population involved in the urban transition the number of mega-cities in
Asia will be by far the largest in the world. in the world. This situation suggests that
an Asian focus for the research can be justified as driven by global imperatives. (see
Mc Gee 2007(a), Mc Gee (2008b) for a more detailed discussion of these arguments)
(1)
This introductory statement generates many research questions that have
policy relevance but I would suggest that they five main research questions might be
identified.
1) How can extended urban spaces be defined and how can data collected at the
level of extended urban spaces contribute to policy solutions?
2) Why are these extended urban spaces of major importance in the investigation of
processes of global, economic, and social change?
3) What conceptual approach offers the most viable entry to the study of extended
urban spaces?
4) What is the vulnerability and resilience of extended urban spaces to the processes
pf global, environmental, economic and social change?
5) What are the policy implications of this research for the governance, management
and planning of adaptive strategies in these extended urban spaces to the
challenges outlined above?
These questions are enlarged in the following sections.

(2) RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
This preceding section has identified a number of research questions that can
be collapsed into four main research clusters.

Research Cluster 1.Understanding the Reconfiguration of Extended Urban
Spaces
Conventional approaches to the measurement of urbanization focus on the
administrative definitions of urbanization. But the spread of urbanization outwards
form urban cores into surrounding areas have created an under-bounding or
urbanization This has been reinforced by the persistence of ideas of rural-urban
difference that are breaking down under the impact of this spatial spread of
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Keynote Speech

urbanization. (See Montgomery (2003) for discussion of the statistical dimensions of
this spatial spread) I have analyzed the reasons for this process of spatial spread in
recent decades in terms of the concept of telescoping transitions developed by Peter
Marcotullio et.al (2003) arguing that the current era of urbanization is characterized
by faster urbanization and forces of change ( technology, communications,
globalization) that accelerate both urbanization and spatial spread of urbanization
particularly in developing countries. This means that in most of the larger urban areas
of developed countries we now have three spatial elements of the urban form:
(a) a city cores consisting of the built-up core areas of city,
(b) a peri-urban region that is made up of built-up extensions of the city in linked
suburbs, industrial and commercial activity, and
(c) an extended urban region of diffusing urbanization that extends for up to 100
kilometres particularly along major arterial transportation routes into the hinterlands
of these extended urban regions. Within the Asian context such extended urban
regions often penetrate important agricultural regions that have developed dense rural
populations and are important sources for food provision for the city core and
periphery. In earlier work I have labeled these extended regions as desakota a
coined word from the Indonesian language meaning village and town designed to
capture the mixture of rural and urban activities that occur in such zones. (See Mc
Gee, T.G. (1991) and Mc Gee, T.G. et.al. (2007): pp.68-73 for an updating of the
concept of desakota.) (2.)
These 3 zones of urban space form part of integrated urban regions the
largest of which form extended urban regions of more than 10 million population in
size often called mega-urban regions. Almost 60 per cent of the worlds mega-urban
regions are located in Asia dominated by the population giants of India and China.
These mega-urban regions are generally argued to be the major engines of economic
growth and centres of innovation in their countries and contribute an important
component of the gross domestic product of their countries. The foundation for their
economic wealth stems from their dual role within their national economies and their
links with the global economy. Within the Asian context many of these mega-urban
regions are located in the low-lying areas at the mouths of rivers that form part of the
deltaic regions of major river systems. This places them at greater risk from climate
hazards such as cyclones, flooding, coastal erosion and deposition and sea-level
rise .As the population grows they are also exceptionally vulnerable to resource
availability that are the result of water shortages food availability, energy provision
etc.

Research Cluster 2. Understanding the functional integration of extended urban
spaces.
A second component of research should be a recognition that the extended
urban spaces are functionally linked by flows that include transportation and
communication systems that include the movement of goods people and information
and the flows of energy, resources. These form overlapping networks that involve
various densities of transactions. In another context this flow network has been
labeled transactiion networks and it is argued that their functionality is crucial to the
economic performance of these mega-urban regions. (see Marton 2000). Within the
Asian context the rural-urban linkages within these extended urban spaces are of
major importance in the flows of food, commodities and people. In general it is true to
say that most governments perceive these extended urban spaces as places where
flows are congested and inefficient. The policy response of most governments that
1 0
Keynote Speech

have the resources to invest in such developments is to rapidly increase investment in
infrastructure (built environment, energy provision, transportation systems) to
increase the efficiency of these transaction networks. This is one important driver of
the spread of cities for the space demands of new industries and upper-income
housing development can be provided more cheaply in the lower-cost land markets of
the outer two zones of the mega-urban regions. This process of urban expansion thus
involves a constant depletion of resources in the outer zones (now most marked in the
desakota zones) that is leading to restructuring of the two-way flows of food,
biomass, water, energy, products, livelihoods products and services between the
desakota and the two inner-urban zones of the mega-urban regions. Until recently
while this situation presented many challenges to national and local governments (e.g.
environmental pollution, etc) it was not regarded as a threat to the sustainability of the
mega-urban regions because governments assumed they would be able to extend the
reach of these flow networks both nationally and internationally. This process has
already occurred for instance in Japan, South Korea. Taiwan and other Asian
countries have benefited from becoming part of those countries extended flow
networks as well as other international trading partners.
But this development trajectory is reliant upon cheap fossil energy that has
fueled the extension and ubiquity of these networks. With the increasing volatility in
the price of oil and gas questions are raised whether this fossil-fuel-dependent
development trajectory is viable in the context of the developing countries. Therefore
the challenge to Asian governments must be whether they can develop a more
sustainable urban development trajectory that might be more appropriate involving
engagement with alternative strategies of energy provision, food sourcing, resource
utilization that involve greener systems of production and consumption. This raises
issues of whether new spatial responses in urban form will emerge to such
developments such as a policy push for more compact cities. (see Marcotullio,
1991)

Research Cluster 3. Establishing the strategic policy importance of desakota
regions in developing a sustainable urban development trajectory.

In the Asian context I would argue that the desakota regions will have to be
identified as crucial zones in which this new sustainable development trajectory
will need to be implemented because of their resource base and proximity to
mega-urban cores. They also become pivotal areas in the food security policies that
need to be restructured as a result of global volatility in gas and food prices in global
markets. Desakota regions are often perceived to present negative challenges in the
development of these strategies because the mixed character of economic activities in
these regions places great pressures on the eco-systems and the management of these
systems which involve new institutional responses to the management of joint
resources by agricultural and non-agricultural users as well as the management of the
flows between the urban cores and the desakota zones. On the other hand the adoption
of new sustainable development trajectories means that local responses become
more important and could lead to reemphasis of the agricultural activities in the
desakota regions. This was recognized in Yokohari, Takeuchi, Watanabe and Yokota
(2000) as a new ecological planning concept appropriate for Asian mega cities. This
statement summarises their position.
This planning concept is truly appropriate for Asian megacities since segmented
patches of agricultural land have such ecological features as water retention
1 1
Keynote Speech

capability, microclimate control, conservation of visual quality and the supply of safe,
fresh food Yokohari et.al 2000, p 170)
It must be pointed out that the arguments presented in the preceding section
have also been made by many researchers on Asia have been making them for some
years. (See Kelly (2000) Revi (2008) Gyawali (2008) Abdul Samad Hadi et al
(2006) I am particularly grateful to Dipak Gyawali for the ideas that drive this section.
In a draft document he raises the question What kind of science is needed to
understand the relationship between ecosystem stress and livelihoods in the desakota
regions?(Dipak Gyawali. 2008: 10)
Utilising definitions used in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment he points
out that ecosystem services are benefits that people obtain and include
. Provisioning services such as food and water
. Regulating services including floods, droughts, land degradation and diseases
as well as climate regulation
. Socio-cultural services such as aesthetic, spiritual recreational and other
non-material benefits.
All these services are held in place by the supporting services of eco-systems such as
soil formation and nutrient recycling, mitigation of climate events through floodplain
inland water bodies storage mechanisms, mangrove buffering etc.
The key scientific question that this formulation of the eco-system raises is
how resilient eco-systems are to the processes of population increase and
increasing intensity of urban activity that is occurring in the desakota regions of
extended urban spaces. The concept of ecosystem resilience has a well-established
tradition in bio-systems research and is usually defined as the capacity of an
ecosystem to tolerate disturbance. This is often broken into three components.

(1) the amount of change a system can undergo can undergo and still retain some
controls on function and structure,
(2) the degree to which a system is capable of self-organization and,
(3) the ability to build and increase the capacity for learning and self-organization

Thus a key component of this research would focus on developing a system of
defining the resilience of ecosystems to these forces of change that are being driven
by a combination of drivers within the bio-system and the societal system that
occur at a number of scales; global, national, extended urban spaces and local.
It is important to separate the concept of resilience from vulnerability.
Vulnerability can be defined .. as the degree to which a system or unit is likely to
experience harm due to perturbations or stresses. (De Sherbinen et.al.2007.p 41) and
has most frequently been applied in the research examining risks or hazards. But
increasingly it is being realized that the concept of vulnerability needs to include the
.. the responses of, and impacts on systems (social groups, ecosystems, places)
exposed to such perturbations ( Ibid p41). In addition it is necessary to disentangle
the relations between the macro-forces (e.g climate change) and the other systems
levels on which they are impacting. Different pressures across scales come together
in various sequences to create unique bundles of stress that affect local systems.
(Ibid.p41.) While it is often argued that the core regions are the most vulnerable to
these stresses of these drivers I would argue that the desakota regions deserve equal
attention as urbanization accelerates.
1 2
Keynote Speech

Any study of the desakota region must see its local eco-system which is part of
a wider urban metabolic footprint. ( See Curtis, (2004). Four areas of interlinked rapid
change are impacting it.
(1) the overall political economy characterized by migration, urbanization, food
supply, consumerism, restructuring of economic activity (particularly
industrialization) and communication driven by foreign, national and local investment
by both international, national and local firms and governmental and
quasi-governmental agencies.
(2) the policy environment in which these processes which particularly in
governmental context is driven by the desire to achieve rapid modernization
imitative of the developed countries of their own region and elsewhere.
(3) the forces of global and environmental change in climate, water availability
and quality, land degradation and loss of biodiversity, sea level change etc.
(4) the water-based eco-systems that are crucial components of the desakota
zones that are under most pressure by the changes induced by the preceding three
changes.

Research Cluster 4. Developing policy responses to the challenges of extended
urban spaces.
The final research cluster focused on the policy implications of the research
findings and the major policy challenges of extended urban spaces particularly the
desakota zones The following priorities can be suggested.
(1) First it must be established that the desakota zones are regions that deserve
priorities in policy development. As we have already suggested in a-priori terms it
may be suggested that sustainability of desakota zones is of major importance
because they are the locales of an increasing proportion of urban population and
economic growth. These are also areas of significant national and international
investment in which the breakdown of ecosystems would create major economic and
social problems that have global national and local implications.
(2) Secondly, the contemporary challenges in the fossil fuel energy driven mode
of urban expansion raise questions about the viability of these areas for the
development strategies of governments. This situation is further compounded by the
volatility in food prices driven by the international food system that create the need
for governments to revisit issues of national food security. Since many of these
desakota zones particularly in Asia that have been traditionally major food
baskets of their countries that are now losing this role in the face of urban expansion
there will be a need to revisit this role as part of revised national strategies of
sustainability. It is also likely that desakota zones may be vulnerable to
fluctuations in the international economy that may result in unemployment and
increases in poverty in these regions. This would also involve new policy responses
Such policy shifts would inevitably suggest that there would have to be institutional
and management and budgetary reconfigurations for which governments are ill
positioned for the following reasons. First, at present it is clear that most desakota
zones fall into some kind in institutional and management black box in which the
institutions that do exist are ill-equipped to develop responses to the challenges to the
resilience of the eco-systems of desakota regions. Secondly, because governments are
only slowly developing responses to the wider extended urban spaces of which the
desakota zones are part. This suggests that one important component of the policy
framework could be concerned with issues of governance and management of
extended urban spaces
1 3
Keynote Speech

3.CONCLUSION: TOWARDS ASIAN URBAN FUTURES.
In conclusion let me emphasize that what happens to the urbanization process
in Asia is central to the global urban future. Over the last thirty years while the global
level of urbanization increased from 36.8 per cent to 50 per cent in 2008 Asias
urbanization level has increased by roughly the same amount from 23.4 per cent to
37.5 per cent in the same period. UN population estimates suggest that in the next
30 years this urbanization trend will continue at a global level reaching 60 per cent
while Asia will increase to 51 per cent by 2030. Since Asia contained an estimated 60
per cent of the global population in 2000 this means that in the next 30 years some 1.3
billion people will be absorbed into urban areas while the population resident in rural
areas remains virtually at the same numerical level. ( See, United Nations (2000 )
( 2004) and UNPF ( 2007)
The numerical dimensions of these demographic trends are unique in the
world experience of urbanization. For example in Western Europe it was estimated
that in the nineteenth century the increase of urban levels to 40 per cent involved a
shift of only about 50 million people whereas in Asia the number is an estimated 1.3
billion. Of course at the sub-regional and national level within Asia this
demographic picture is dominated by the large developing Asian countries in excess
of 100 million in population that include China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and
Indonesia that will be joined by the Philippines and Viet Nam in the next thirty years.
By 2030 these large countries (in excess of 100 million people) will make-up almost
80 per cent of Asias population and 59 per cent of the global population. These
numerical dimensions thus present a basic challenge to the management of the urban
transition.(3)
In the light of the preceding discussion it is possible to imagine two very
different futures for the cities of Asia. An alarming scenario sees ongoing global
environmental change increasing the vulnerability of these extended urban spaces
within a framework on ongoing globalization that depletes resources, destroys the
ecosystems on which these extended urban spaces rely and presents major challenges
to the sustainability of these urban forms. Another part of this scenario is the
increasing social vulnerability of urban populations to an increasingly volatile global
economy (most obvious in the current global financial crisis) that threatens local jobs
and incomes and widens social divisions creating socially fragmented cities. This
creates political tension that dominates the governance concerns of urban
administrations.
Another more optimistic scenario suggests that as global awareness of these
urban challenges is growing local urban governments in Asia are experiencing
considerable expansions of power that enable locally elected leaders, whose roots are
deeply embedded in the urban place and have much wider understanding of local civil
society, to develop and implement policies that reflect the distinctiveness of different
places in which the priorities are placed on creating more socially inclusive and
sustainable cities. This will involve radical rethinking of the way cities are managed,
the mix of public and private transportation and local participation in the planning of
cities.(4) While economic policies designed to increase the economic wealth
generating capacities of cities cannot be discarded and are, in part, dependent upon
the international trade and other flows that are part of globalization they must be set
within the local context and priorities of creating sustainable cities.
1 4
Keynote Speech

Central to this recognition is the understanding that global forces map impact
an uneven terrain of culture, politics, economic conditions and power and that this
leads to different responses. Despite the fact that globalization is heralded as the
major generator of economic growth by many experts most economies are rooted in
the local and it indeed the local economy which is the foundation of most
communities. This means that the creation of sustainable cities where systems that
emphasize local production and consumption should be promoted rather than further
integrating the local into the international. It should be emphasized that this statement
is not an advocacy of self reliance or autarchy for all countries and local places
within countries will rely upon exports and imports of goods, services,
knowledge and people; but rather that the creation of sustainable cities involves the
local people taking control of the efforts to create sustainable cities. I am sure that an
audience such as this is only too aware of the many initiatives ranging from
alternative energy sources and technologies to increasing the role of local food
production and most of all developing a powerful commitment to sustainability
throughout nations so I will not list them here. But, undoubtedly a powerful shift is
needed in the way knowledge about sustainability becomes part of the common
conscience of nations. This is necessary for the ongoing sustainability of all societies
in the 21
st
century and it suggested a very different urban future.(5)
Opinion will differ on this but as I have attempted to argue in this paper one
of the major locales to develop local sustainability must be the extended urban spaces
of Asia because of their great population size, importance in the economies of
countries and the fact that the globalization path on which most of them are
embarked increases vulnerability and offers an increasingly unsustainable urban
future. I would further argue that these sustainability policies must be embedded in
the spatial realities of urban activities within existing eco-systems with emphasis upon
remaining the resilience of existing eco-systems that would involve use of alternative
energy systems, water conservation and place a major emphasis upon the
development of public transportation. Although neo-liberal planners may not regard it
as efficient the desakota regions of Asia need to be focus for such policies of
sustainability. (See Diaz-Chavez, R (2006) For example part of the policies of urban
sustainability should be the efforts to increase food production in these areas as well
as the conservation of the eco-system which is central to the functioning of the entire
urban space. At least in the case of the densely populated rice growing hinterlands of
many Southeast Asian extended urban space such as Manila, Jakarta, Bangkok and
Hanoi. But this would involve sustained investment in the margins of the extended
urban spaces that at present is secondary to policies that give priority to creating
international competitive urban cores Obviously these policies will have to be
embedded in the local contexts of extended urban spaces but they should contain the
following components:
(1) effectiveness in contributing to sustainable economic growth
(2) effectiveness in contributing to local and global sustainability
(3) effectiveness in contributing to social inclusiveness, increasing employment and
reducing urban poverty
(4) effectiveness in producing a livable environment by increasing the provision of
services such as education , health, education, access to housing and care for
disadvantaged groups.

1 5
Keynote Speech

NOTES.
1. I am only too well aware that Sterns reference to Asia excludes the insular and
island part of Southeast Asia made-up of Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,
Indonesia and Timor Leste where the major rivers are fed by rainfall run-off but the
fluctuations in rainfall that are predicted as part of global warming, together with
sea-level rises also threaten many of the major extended urban spaces in insular
Southeast Asia such as Manila and Jakarta in the same manner as the largest urban
agglomerations of mainland Asia.
2. For a selection of recent papers that focus on developments in Southeast Asias
extended urban spaces see De Gregorio, Leisz and Vogler (2003), Hugo (2006) Jones
(2006) Kelly (2003) Leaf (2008) Mc Gee (2008), MalaqueIII and Yokohari (2007)
Maneepong and Webster, D (2008) Nagagawa (2004) Spreitzhofer (2002), Waibel
2006
3. In fact as we have already discussed because these estimates are based upon
country definitions of urban and do not take into account extended urban spaces
they are almost certainly under-estimates of the increase of urban populations in Asia.
4. It is interesting to see how international and regional agencies such as the Asian
Development Bank are beginning to recognize shift in thinking about urban policy.
(see Asian Development Bank 2008)
5 For a thought provoking discussion of these issues of urban sustainability
particularly in the Japanese context see Makoto Maruyama (2006) In this paper I have
paid little attention to the way that energy use and transportation technologies
challenge the sustainability of cities in this paper but clearly there will have to be
changes in the fossil fuel dependencies of the automobile dependent cities of Asia
and North America. In this respect recent references to a major development of
alternative fuel sources and changes in the present transportation technologies and
types of transport that are being presented as part of what is New Deal by the
Obama administration is also being linked to partnerships and the sharing of
technology with India and China whose increasing reliance on imported oil and
automobile dependent transport paths will be major user of oil in the future. See
Nobrega, William (2009) India, China and Obamas Oil Policy Business Week, Jan
21.

4 SELECTED REFERENCES.

Abdul Samad Hadi, Shaharudin Idrus, Amad Faraz Hj Mohammed and Abdul Hadi
Harmon Shah ( 2006) Wilayah Perbandaran Seremban: Menyongsong Kelestaran
(The Territory of Seremban Urban Area. Welcoming Sustainability) Institute Alam
Sekitar dan Pembangunan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malalysia.
Asian Development Bank (2008) Managing Asian Cities. Asian Development Bank.
Manila.
Curtis, F. (2004) Eco- Localism and sustainability Ecological Economics: 283-102
De Gregorio.M/, Leisz,S.J. and Vogler, J (2003) The Invisible Urbanization
Transition: Rural Urbanization in the Red River Delta Paper presented at the 7
th

International Congress of the Asian Planning Schools Association, Hanoi 12-14
September.
De Sherbinin, A Schiller and Pulsipher, A. (2007) The vulnerability of global cities
to climate hazards Environment and Urbanization.19 (1) 39-64.
Diaz-Chavez, R. (2006) Measuring sustainability in peri-urban areas: case study of
Mexico City in D.Mc Gregor, D.Simon and D. Thompson (eds) (2006) The
1 6
Keynote Speech

Peri-Urban Interface: Approaches to Sustainable Natural and Human Resource Use.
Earthscan: 246-65
Gyawali, Dipak (2008) Reinterpreting the Rural-Urban Continuum. Conceptual
foundations for understanding the role ecosystem services play in the livelihoods
of the poor in regions undergoing rapid change Unpublished draft chapter
Holling, C.S. (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems Annual Review
of Ecology Systems4:1-23.
Hugo G. (2006) Population Development and Urban Outlook for Southeast Asia in
Wong, T-C, Shaw, B.J, and Goh, K.C. (eds) Challenging SustainabilityUrban
Development and Change in Southeast Asia. Marshall Cavendish International.
Singapore: 95-102
Jones, G.W. (2006) Urbanization in Southeast Asia in Wong T.C. Shaw, B.J and
Goh, K.C. (eds) Challenging Sustainability. Urban Development and Change in
Southeast Asia. Marshall Cavendish. Singapore: 247-265
Kelly, P.F. (2000) Landscapes of Globalization. Human Geographies of Economic
Change in the Philippines London. Routledge.
Kelly, P.F. (2003) Urbanization and the Politics of Land in the Manila Region
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 590: 170-187
Leaf, M (2008) New Urban Frontiers: Peri-urbanization and (Re) territorialization in
Southeast Asia. Paper presented at a Regional Conference on Urbanization in
Southeast Asia held in Ho Chi Minh City Dec 7-9,2008.
Malaque III, I.R. and Yokohari, M (2007) Urbanization process and the changing
agricultural landscape pattern in the urban fringe of Metro Manila Enviroment and
Urbanization, 19 (1): 19- 206
Mannepong. C and Webster, D (2008) Governance responses to emerging
peri-urbanisation issues at the global-local nexus: the case of Ayutthaya, Thailand.
International Development Planning Review. 30(2): 133-154.
Marcotullio, P.J. and Lee, Y.S.F. (2003) Environmental transitions and urban
transportation systems: a comparison of the North American and Asian experiences
International Development Planning Review.25 (4)325-54
Marcotullio, P.J. (1991) The compact city, environmental transition theory and
Asia- Pacific sustainable development Paper presented at an International Workshop
for Sustainable Urban Regions. 29-30
th
. October 1991. Department of Urban
Engineering, University of Tokyo.
Maruyama, Makoto (2006) Sustainable economies and urban sustainability in H.
Tamagawa (ed.) Sustainable cities: Japanese perspectives on physical and social
structures: Tokyo. United Nations University Press.: 70-95
Marton, A.M. (2000) Chinas Spatial Economic Development. Restless landscapes in
the lower Yangtze delta. London and New York. Routledge
Mc Gee, T.G, (1991) The emergence of desakota regions in Asia: expanding a
hypothesis in Ginsburg.N. Koppel,B. and Mc Gee,T.G. (eds.) .The Extended
Metropolis in Asia: Settlement Transition in Asia. Honolulu, University of Hawaii
Press; 3-25
Mc Gee, T.G. Lin, George, C.S., Marton.A.M, Wang, Mark Y.L and Wu, J. (2007).
Chinas Urban Space. Development under market socialism. London and New York.
Routledge.
Mc Gee, T.G. (2008a) Managing the rural-urban transition in Asia in the 21
st

century
Sustainability Science, 3(1): 155-16
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Mc Gee T.G (2008 b) Revisiting the urban fringe.: reassessing the challenges of the
mega-urbanization process in Southeast Asia Paper presented at a Regional
Conference on Urbanization in Southeast Asia held in Ho Chi Minh City December
7-9 2008.
Mc Granahan, G., Balk, D. and Anderson, B, (2007) The rising tide: assessing the
risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones
Environment and Urbanization. 19 (1): 17-37
Mannepong. C and Webster, D (2008) Governance responses to emerging
peri-urbanisation issues at the global-local nexus: the case of Ayutthaya, Thailand.
International Development Planning Review. 30(2): 133-154.
Montgomery, M., Stren, R., Cohen, B and Reed, H.E. (eds.) 2003 Cities Transformed.
Demographic Change and its Implications in the Developing World. Washington D.C.
national Academies Press.
Nakagawa, S. (2004) Changes in the Residential. Occupational and Gender
Structure of Greater Bangkok in the Globalization Process DELA 21:205-212
Nobrega, William (2009) India, China and Obamas Oil Policy Business Week. Jan
21.
Revi, A (2008) Climate change risk: an adaptation and mitigation agenda for Indian
citiesEnvironment and Urbanization.20 (1) 207-229
Spreitshofer, G. (2002) From Farming to Franchising: Current Aspects of
transformation in post-crisis Metro-Jakarta ASIEN, 87 (8): 52-64
U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division (2002) World
Urbanizationn Prospects: The 2001 Revision. Data, Tables and Highlights. United
Nations New York.
U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs; Population Division (2004) World
Urbanization Prospects 2003. United Nations New York.
U.N. Population Fund (2007) State of the World Population 2007. Unleashing the
Potential for Urban Growth United Nations New York.
Waibel, M. (2006) The Production of Urban Space in Vietnams Metropolis in the
course of transition. Internationalization, Polarization and Newly Emerging Life
Styles in Vietnamese Society TRIALOG, A Journal of Planning and Building in the
Third World.
89(2): 43-48
Yokohari, M. K., Takeuchi, T., Watanabe and S. Yokota (2000) Beyond greenbelts
and zoning: a new planning concept for the environment of Asian megacities
Landscape and Urban Planning .47(3/4): 159-171

APPENDIX A. DEVELOPING A RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
A possible research framework is suggested for studying the future
sustainability for Asia extended urban spaces. Clearly it is tentative and would
undergo changes as research developed. It could involve research participants from
many disciplines, agencies and research units.
a) Preliminary phase of project formulation involving identification of countries
research participants and literature reviews and workshops on three main research
clusters. At this point my suggestions would be researchers from India, Nepal, China,
Southeast Asia Japan, Malaysia Canada and the USA.
1 8
Keynote Speech

a) Workshop 1. Exploring the concepts of the resilience and vulnerability of
eco-systems in the extended urban spaces of Asia.
b) Workshop 2. Critically evaluating the context of desakota regions in the
extended urban spaces in Asia
c) Workshop 3. Establishing the policy priorities that can ensure the
resilience of extended urban spaces and particularly the urban margins within
national and regional contexts
b) Formulation of research proposal. Decisions on the main components of
the organizational structure necessary to achieve the goals of the research. These
could involve some combination of the following components.
i) Knowledge production and innovation. Learning partnerships in which
research is carried with stakeholders (academic, NGO, Government, private sector) in
joint learning processes that involves communication, education and training.
iii) The creation of knowledge hubs to improve knowledge of and
dissemination of research. This would involve knowledge networks to facilitate the
exchange of knowledge and experience.
iv) Comparative case studies to be carried out by local researchers.
v) Commitment of participants and institutional commitment. Funding
proposals

2. Year Two.
Research on case studies of extended urban spaces Preliminary reports
presented at year-end meeting.

3. Year Three.
Preparation of final report(s) and publications. Presentations at final
conference /workshop. Dissemination

APPENDIX B. THE CHALLENGES OF EXTENDED URBAN SPACES. A CASE
STUDY OF THE PEARL RIVER DELTA IN GUANDONG PROVINCE, CHINA.
Guandong Province is located in Southern China (See Figure 1). In 2000
the national Census recorded a population permanent residents of 80 million and a
migrant population of 30 million making a total population of some 120 million.
Adjacent to the province are the Special Autonomous Regions of Macau and Hong
Kong that make-up a combined population of some 8 million. Historically the core of
the region was focused on Guangzhou and the adjacent counties that form part of
the Zhujiang Delta (Pearl River Delta. This region has been developing over hundred
of years as one of the main regions of rice growing in China and its rich alluvial soils
provide a fertile foundation for multiple crops of rice, vegetables, tropical fruit, fish,
pig and poultry production using an ecologically effective system of animals- ponds
fertilizer cropping cycles that was highly productive, labour intensive and sensitive
to the ecological conditions of the delta.
Over the centuries this system was able to support increasing rural densities which
had reached more than 300 people per square kilometre by the latter half of the 19
th

century.
This despite the fact that the region had become one of the major centres of Chinese
out-migration that fueled the Chinese diaspora throughout the world.
1 9
Keynote Speech

After the Peoples Republic of China was established in 1949 it continued its
agricultural role including a considerable increase in exports to the colony of Hong
Kong where the population has increased from 600,000 in 1949 to almost 7 million
today.
Since 1978 and the introduction of the Post Reform Era in China Guangdong has
become one of the first areas where Chinas new economic policies were put in place.
In 1979 two special economic zones were established in Zhuhai next to the
Portuguese colony of Macao and Shenzhen adjacent to Hong Kong. In 1984
Guangdong was made an open city and in 1987 in which foreign direct investment
was permitted. In the period between 1986 and 1995 FDI experienced an annual
growth of 500 billion US a year. Most of this investment came from or through Hong
Kong (70 per cent) and went into labour intensive manufacturing (textiles, plastic
toys electronic products etc) most of it based on the towns and villages that may be
labeled rural-urbanization.
A major part of this investment occurred in the intensely populated rural
areas of the Pearl River delta made-up of 13 counties and six municipalities in an area
of 17,092 square kilometers. By 1995 this region had become one of the most densely
populated regions in China with a permanent population density of 743 ppsk
compared to 378 for Guangdong and 126 for China. Between 1980 and 1990 the
population of the PRD increased by some 30 per cent. This was mostly due to
in-migration that includes both illegal and legal migrants that it is estimated made-up
some 75 per cent of the population increase over the period. This created a population
density in the Delta of 1,173 per square kilometre much larger than many of the urban
areas of the Western world.
Predictably this development resulted in a decline in cultivated land of some
34.6 per cent in the same period as the built environment of the townships was
expanded and industrial factories sprouted among the rice fields. Total agricultural
production did not decline greatly but rice production declined and more specialized
and intensified production of livestock, vegetables and fruit were driven by the food
demands of the growing population of both the PRD and Hong Kong. While this
growth was reflected in a considerable growth of GDP in the region it also created a
number of policy challenges to the eco-system that arose from the competition for
resources between rural and non-rural activities. First by the end of the 1990s serious
problems had arisen with respect to the availability and quality of water. Most of the
water for industrial, agricultural and domestic use came from the extensive river and
canal system of the Delta that was becoming increasingly polluted by industrial
discharges as well as household sewerage. Most of the water for domestic
consumption comes from these water systems. By 2000 it was estimated that local
authorities could only treat 21% of the water to potable standards (bacteria
count/turbidity) despite the efforts of the Provincial Government to improve the
situation that had fallen well behind the planned investment goals. This was partly due
to inadequate budgetary provision and partly because of the administrative
fragmentation of water supply as sewerage disposal, wastewater disposal and water
supply and treatment are often handled by different authorities. Similar problems exist
with respect to air pollution and waste disposal in the politically fragmented areas
outside the country cities.
In the period since the late 1990s these problems have continued and
become exacerbated by climatic events such as droughts and floods that occurred
before but a have a much greater impact because of the greater demand for water and
intensity of land-use particularly in the particularly in the peri-urban and extended
2 0
Keynote Speech

urban fringes. Other problems have emerged as well. The most important has been
the SARs epidemic which seems to have begun in November 2002 was traced to in an
illegal food market in the Foshan one of the county centres in the PRD (the heart of
the desakota) only 50 kilometres from Guangzhou. Most people who have any
interest in this topic do not need to have a lengthy account of how rapidly the
epidemic spread both within China and globally eventually affecting 8400 people in
29 countries, killing 10 per cent of the victims and 50 per cent over 60 years of age.
But far more important from the point of view of the earlier arguments concerning the
need to develop policies for local eco-systems was the impact it had particularly on
the economy of the surrounding regions. It is estimated that SARs crisis had a
significant impact on the Asian regional economy resulting in major losses to the
travel industry, tourism and the retail sector. One authority estimates which as a
consequence of the crisis there was a 0.6 per cent drop in real GDP and 15-30 billion
US loss in 2003. While this may seem insignificant in the current fiscal crisis at the
time it was a major problem.
The Chinese Government is not unaware of the environmental, public health
and eco-systems problems that are emerging from the growth of extended urban
spaces in their country. One of their major responses has been to engage in an
administrative process of incorporating the surrounding hinterlands of mixed
economic activity and ecological threat under the administrative control of the central
cities. This has occurred in the case of Guangzhou. Foshan and Donguan the three
largest cities of the PRD that have more than doubled their populations in the period
since 1998.The growth of the special economic zones of Zhuhai and particularly
Shenzhen have also contributed to an overall increase in the level of urbanization in
Guangdong to almost 50 per cent by 2007; the highest in China. In theory this should
lead to a more centralized approach to the problems of uncontrolled development,
public health, infrastructure provision and environmental problems such as water
and air pollution. But in fact much of the investment that is occurring in the new
phase of urban administration and planning is being focused on infrastructure
development of transportation systems, new middle and upper income housing
developments and industrial infrastructure that are designed to make the region more
nationally and globally connected. There is thus a severe disjuncture between this
latter form of investment and investment directed to the eco-system that proved the
basis for such a highly productive system for centuries.

A Note on References.
This is very brief summary of an extensive literature that has been consulted.
Major sources are:
1) Lin. C.S. (2007) Chapters 5 and 6 on Guangdong and Dongguan in Mc Gee T.G.
et.al Chinas Urban Space. Development Under Market Socialism. London and New
York. Routledge: pp.74-120.
2) Sit, Victor S. (2001) Increasing globalization and the growth of the Hong Kong
Metropoilitan Region in F.C. Lo and P.J. Marcotullio (Eds.) Globalization and the
Sustainability of Cities in the Asia Pacific Region. Tokyo. United Nations University
Press; pp 199-238
3) Wishnik, E. (2005) China as a Risk Society Honolulu, Working Papers. No 12
Politics, Governance and Security Series. East-West Center.
4) Yeh, Gar-on, Anthony et.al. (eds.)(2002) Building a Competitive Pearl River Delta
Region. Cooperation, Coordination and Planning. Hong Kong. Centre of Urban
Planning and Environmental Management
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Keynote Speech

5) Zhao Shidong,et.al. (2001) Population, Consumption and Land-Use in the Pearl
River Delta, Guangdong Province in National Academy of Sciences. Growing
populations, Changing Landscapes: Studies from India, China and the United States.
Washington. D.C. National Academies Press, pp.179-204
2 2
Keynote Speech

Establishing Sustainable Community through Urban and Rural
Fusion

Takeuchi K
1)
, Harashina K
2)
and Hara Y
3)

1) Vice-Rector, United Nations University
Professor, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
e-mail: atake@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2) Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University
Ueda 3-18-8, Morioka, Iwate Pref. 020-8550, Japan
email: hkoji@iwate-u.ac.jp
3) Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8654, Japan
e-mail: antares@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

The urban and rural fusion has been a main subject of urban planning discussed for
over 100 years. Recently it is drawing attention from the viewpoint of "sustainable
cities" in particular. In Japan, along with consolidation of municipalities, local
administrations including broad rural areas are emerging one after another. This
should be regarded as a good opportunity to reestablish bio-resource circulating
spheres through creating preferable landscapes and ecological networks as well as
promoting the movement toward local production for local consumption. This concept
of the urban and rural fusion might contribute to establishing sustainable urban
communities in Asia.

Keywords: Urban Rural Fusion, Bio-Resources, Recycling Oriented Society, Asian
Cities

1. Introduction

The Laboratory of Landscape Ecology and Planning of the Graduate School of
Agricultural and Life Sciences at The University of Tokyo, with which the first author
is currently affiliated, was created about 80 years ago in 1929 with a contribution by
Marquis Nabeshima as the Second Course in Horticulture. The Second Course in
Horticulture is responsible for flowering plants and garden studies, and for many
years the main research has been 1) floriculture science and planting theory and
methods, and 2) landscape planning and design and urban and regional planning. The
latter field has an especially close relationship to urban planning.

Teizo Niwa, who was for many years an assistant and full professor in the pre- and
postwar years, and Tokutaro Kitamura, who came here to be a professor after serving
as a technical official with the former Home Ministry, then the Postwar
Reconstruction Authority, participated in the Tokyo Green Space Planning Council
and were involved in Tokyo Green Space Planning, a blueprint for radial ring green
2 3
Keynote Speech

spaces. It was in this plan that the term ryokuchi (green space) was first defined,
and as a result of discussions it was formally decided to recognize farmland near cities
as one kind of green space called productive green zones.

In the prewar years, people who had studied in the Second Horticultural Laboratory
were deeply involved in urban planning for new city construction in Manchukuo
(Koshizawa, 1988). The term used at that time was city and village planning
(Figure 1), which is seen as being in character like what is now called urban and rural
planning (Ishida, 2004). Standing in the giant footsteps of our predecessors, we have
been conducting studies and research in the Laboratory of Landscape Ecology and
Planning on the possibility of attaining urbanrural fusion from the viewpoint of
conserving and creating green spaces, and we intend to propose this to society.

Figure 1. City and village planning for Andong City and Dadong City.
(From materials published in 1933 in the collection of the Laboratory of Landscape Ecology and
Planning)

2. Strategy for an Environmental Nation in the 21st Century, and creating
sustainable cities

In recent years it is said worldwide that urban sustainability is important for
considering global sustainability. The urban portion of world population has already
surpassed the rural population, and it is predicted that megacity populations will
further increase, especially in the developing countries. It is said that in Asia too,
2 4
Keynote Speech

megacities in China, India, and Southeast Asia will further continue to grow, bringing
about heavy energy consumption and environmental deterioration, and thereby further
worsening global environmental problems.

Accordingly, how to make cities sustainable has a decisive significance to global
sustainability. The first author was involved in the process of formulating the
Strategy for an Environmental Nation in the 21st Century, which was approved by
the Cabinet in June 2007, and in that process the first author arrived at the idea that
we should conceive of sustainable cities as a combination of three images of
society: the low-carbon society, the resource circulating society, and the
nature-coexistence society.

The low-carbon society is an important goal for climate change mitigation in terms
of international politics as well. With the resource circulating society the aim is to
create a society with few wastes by using resources effectively and cyclically. With
the nature-coexistence society the aim is to shape a society in which humans and
nature are in harmony. Of crucial importance is how we integrate these three society
images and construct a sustainable society.

Conceived on the city level, a sustainable city is impossible in the urbanized portion
alone. To develop low-carbon, cyclical, and nature-coexistence cities, it is necessary
to first conceive of cities in the broader sense of urbanized areas plus their rural
hinterlands in an integrated manner. Needless to say, one should give full
consideration to the elements of local character, naturalness, and natural features. This
is important also when applying the idea of sustainable cities to cities in monsoon
Asia such as in China and Southeast Asia.

3. Wide-area municipality mergers and urbanrural fusion

Under the municipality mergers in recent years, integration is proceeding toward an
approximate one-third reduction in the number of cities, towns, and villages. Among
the advantages of such mergers are the streamlining of administrative organizations
that will contribute to sounder public finance, the effective use of wide-area public
facilities such as schools and hospitals, and facilitating community development in a
wide-area, integrated manner. On the other hand, many people express concerns that
for example local characteristics and cultures that have been traditionally maintained
will be lost, and that administrative services will deteriorate in rural areas. Amid
widening disparities between cities and rural areas, a major problem is how
municipalities should be run after mergers.

It is our position that the process by which cities consisting mainly of urbanized areas
take in their vast rural hinterlands should actually be positively seen as an occasion
for the birth of a new city through urbanrural fusion. That is to say, we think that a
city that now covers a large area due to a merger should be redefined as a new city
that fuses the urban and the rural. In fact, after wide-area mergers there are now many
municipalities that could be conceived as cities integrating everything from upstream
forests to mid-stream farmland and villages to downstream urbanized areas, even
down to the coast.

2 5
Keynote Speech

In the years of rapid economic growth, making a sharp distinction between urban and
rural areas was planned, with the thinking that cities are cities, rural areas are rural
areas. That thinking is apparent in the land use coordination pursuant to Japans
Urban Planning Law and the Act Concerning Establishment of Agricultural
Promotion Areas. However, we submit that under conditions in which society matures
and urban growth slows, it is important to fuse the urban and the rural, promote new
regional development based on reinforcing partnerships between the two, and create
frameworks enabling the maintenance of distinctive regions even after merging.

The thinking behind urbanrural fusion was set forth in Ebenezer Howards Garden
Cities of To-Morrow over 100 years ago (Howard, 1902). He tried to create the ideal
city through the marriage of town and country. Since then, town and country
planning, which plans urban and rural areas in an integrated manner, has established
itself in Britain and other countries influenced by Howard. It would seem important in
Japan as well to legislate town and country planning to deal with the new situation
arising from the rapid wide-area municipal mergers.

4. Conserving landscapes and ecosystem networks

In the coming years as population declines, we face the extremely serious problem of
how to maintain regional vitality in places such as rural areas, where population
decline and population aging are already marked. In such areas, we must foster a
sense of value and pride in living there, not just deal with economic problems. In
other words, a major challenge is how to create gratifying livelihoods based on the
local natural environment and culture.

To contribute to that effort, the National Spatial Strategies, which was newly
formulated after a fundamental review of the National Comprehensive Development
Plan, advocates the shaping of sound and fulfilling landscapes (National Land
Development Council, Planning Committee, 2007). Recently the word keikan
(landscape) has been frequently used since enactment of the Three Laws on Scenery
and Greenery; however, the English loanword landscape embraces the concepts of
view and scenery and shows a total image of a region formed by the relationship
between humans and nature.

In Europe, the European Landscape Convention has a framework that provides for
the integrated implementation of each countrys urban plans and landscape plans.
Most important here is respecting local natural environments and cultures and
pursuing distinctive regional development. New national development plans can
incorporate the landscape concept, and although insufficient, this may be considered a
measure of progress.

An important element supporting such landscapes is the ecosystem network. If we
systematically conserve and maintain the natural environments of ridgelines in
mountainous and hilly regions and along rivers and coastlines, they will serve as the
framework of a regions natural environment. They are also places for recreation and
rest, and they help improve the quality of urban areas landscapes and scenery.
Therefore, reviving such ecosystem networks is important for regional development.

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Keynote Speech

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of the Greater Tokyo ecosystem network.
(Council on Overall Examination of the Natural Environment, 2004)

[legend]
Existing urbanized area
Suburban green preservation zone
Water and greenery priority formation axis
Natural environment to be conserved (zone)
Natural environment to be conserved (river)
Basic water and greenery axis
Basic water and greenery area
Areas where people have little contact with nature (for reference)

In the years when urbanized areas were expanding owing to rapid population growth,
reviving city ecosystem networks was nothing but a dream. But now, as Japan heads
toward population decline and the shrinking of urbanized areas, it is easy to discuss
which urbanized areas to keep and where the natural environment should be revived.
We would say it is a good idea for those involved in urban planning to consider
obtaining the participation of various actors to regain the natural environment as
ecosystem networks.

In addition, in the Japanese archipelago we must keep natural disasters in mind.
Nature in Japan is a blessing, but also a threat. As the Chuetsu earthquake showed,
proper maintenance and management of farmland and forests helps reduce disaster
damage. It is also important to build local communities (disaster subcultures) that can
quickly respond to natural disasters. Additionally, the building of ecosystem networks
2 7
Keynote Speech

must be linked to the building of regional structures that are resistant to natural
disasters.

Also important are upstreamdownstream links between urban and rural areas through
watersheds. As noted previously, municipality mergers should be able to integrate
regions and unify them from the perspective of community development. That offers
the additional promise of conferring greater resistance to natural disasters, and of
building good landscapes and ecosystem networks. It is necessary to structure
watershed environmental conservation plans with attention to the environmental
conservation functions of farmland and forests.

5. Local production for local consumption and urbanrural interaction

One major problem when considering the sustainability of Japans land and cities is
the reality that Japan is too reliant on agriculture and forestry products from abroad.
On a calorie basis, Japans food self-sufficiency rate is a mere 39%, which is the
lowest among developed countries. At the same time, there are questions about this
from the perspective of the burdens imposed on citizens health and the environment
by large imports of agricultural products from abroad. Regarding lumber as well,
Japans self-sufficiency rate is only 20% even though two-thirds of Japan is forested.

It is evident from the food self-sufficiency rates of individual prefectures (Figure 3)
that Hokkaido is the highest with a rate of 200%. Niigata is also very high at 94%.
Oita is about 50%; Okayama, Kagawa, and Gunma are around 35%; and Gifu is about
25%. However, Osaka and Tokyo have rates of just 2% and 1%.

To improve this situation, it is desirable to conceive urban and rural areas as an
integrated whole, promote local production and local consumption of agriculture and
forestry products, form biomass-based regional cycling zones, and use those zones to
achieve urbanrural interaction. It is also desirable to build systems for a resource
circulating society based on biomass, in which biological waste produced in cities is
returned to farmland and used for energy. Additionally, it is important to secure new
people for continuing management of farmland and forests, and that will necessitate
businesses promoting farming and forestry.

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Keynote Speech

Figure 3. Most recent food self-sufficiency rate data for selected prefectures.
Figures are %
16 2004 (finalized)
2005 (estimated)

National
Hokkaido
Akita
Yamagata
Niigata
Oita
Okayama
Kagawa
Gunma
Gifu
Kanagawa
Osaka
Tokyo

In big cities, it is important to be aware of the significance of the environmental
conservation function of farmland and have an awareness of how farmland can serve
as a venue for childrens environmental education. It is also important to put effort
into the production of fresh vegetables and other produce grown by people whom
consumers actually know. In Tokyo also, with its 1% food self-sufficiency rate, there
is an awareness of the need to preserve Tokyo farmland that supplies Tokyo residents
with a fair portion of their farm and livestock products (Figure 4). It is highly
desirable to conserve urban agriculture by such motivated farmers in a planned
manner (Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2008).

Keynote Speech

Figure 4. Supply capacity of Tokyos main farm and livestock products, in terms of population and
self-sufficiency rate.
(According to Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Bureau of Industrial and Labor Affairs, 2005)

Population in thousands
Vegetables
Milk
Eggs
Meat
Population that can be supplied
Self-sufficiency rate

For achieving a resource circulating society, the revised Basic Plan for Establishing a
Recycling-Based Society proposes a new concept called spheres of resource
circulation. The idea is that resources confined within a certain locality are used
cyclically to the greatest possible extent. Food and wood are resources which are easy
to confine locally, while resources such as metals that cannot be confined require
different thinking that sees them cycled more widely, which is more appropriate.

Of course, with resources such as rare metals, which are recovered in small quantities
from large amounts of wastes with advanced technology, it may sometimes be
desirable to have wide-area cycling throughout Japan, or international cycling on
large scales such as East Asia. In that sense, it will be necessary to consider widening
spheres of resource circulation depending on the nature of the resource (Figure 5).
People will have to analyze in detail the resource flows in cities and make decisions
on where to set the boundaries of their local zones, and what they will leave to
resource cycling zones outside their own.

Keynote Speech

Figure 5. Conceptual diagram of the East Asia hierarchical regional resource cycling zone.

East Asia spheres of resource circulation
National spheres of resource circulation
Wide-area spheres of resource circulation
Local spheres of resource circulation

6. Possibilities of building cyclical societies through urbanrural fusion in West
Java, Indonesia

The traditional land use system of rural areas in West Java, Indonesia, which is said to
be sustainable, now faces collapse owing to factors such as rapid population growth,
permeation of the commodity economy in conjunction with economic development of
recent years, and the impacts of urbanization. Such changes also symbolize the
transformation of traditional rural societies that were the basis for self-sufficiency.
From the perspective of material flow, it is thought that closed systems within
comparatively small localities in traditional farming villages are changing into open
systems that actively exchange material with the outside.

We therefore conducted a study of the artificial material flows arising in the course of
agricultural activities and livelihoods in three West Java farming villages. The study
found that all three villages have open-system material flows dependent on the outside
(Figure 6), thereby making it difficult, in view of both the supply and consumption
amounts of local resources, to form material cycling systems closed on the village
level. Recent years have brought changes in economic development and spatially
expanded human activities and the development of shipping and transportation. In
consideration of these, rebuilding cyclical societies based on biological resources
without lowering agricultural production or living standards would seem to
necessitate examining the problem on a spatial scale larger than that of traditional
rural society. There are many possible arguments about the matter of how far to
expand the spatial scale for consideration, but here we chose the watershed, which
enables one to consider the problem using, as the base unit, the cycling of material in
natural ecosystems via water flows. We used the following calculations to examine
the possibility of building cyclical societies based on biological resource cycling that
is closed on the watershed level.

Keynote Speech

Figure 6. Nitrogen flows in West Java farming villages.
(Harashina et al., 2003)

Our investigation covered 63 cities, towns, and villages in the CianjurCisokan
watershed, an area with a population of about 460,000 and total size of about 25,000
ha. This area has not only farming villages, but also the mid-sized city of Cianjur,
which has a population of about 140,000. Biological resources treated were food,
fertilizer, and livestock feed. To examine each, we used statistical data and land-use
maps to calculate the balances between potential supply amount and consumption
amount. With respect to food, we investigated rice and found that it is possible to
produce enough rice for 490,000 people within the area, thereby allowing
self-sufficiency. We calculated fertilizer on a nitrogen basis and determined that even
3 2
Keynote Speech

if all livestock waste in the area is used as organic fertilizer, it can supply only up to
18% of the nitrogen currently applied to farmland there. However, we estimated that
up to 46% could be supplied if kitchen waste and human waste were also used. In this
case, including urban areas was very effective. For livestock feed, calculations on rice
bran, which is the feed most generally available for purchase, found that it would be
sufficient for village chickens, but we estimated that bran could supply only up to
57% of consumption when the broilers and laying hens of poultry farms are included.

The study therefore found that it would be hard to establish an independent closed
system with the material flow on the village level, but that if the spatial scale is
expanded to the watershed level, the area could be self-sufficient to a certain extent if
one excludes such facilities as poultry farms. Although calculations on the watershed
level just compare the balance between potential supply amount and consumption
amount, this does offer suggestions for establishing a resource circulating society in
that it showed the possibility of building an independent system on the watershed
level. The future challenge will be how to optimize allocation and distribution of
biological resources and build sustainable regional ecosystems, including social
systems and other components, based on biological resource cycles.

7. Asian commonality and sustainable regional development

East Asia and Southeast Asia share the irrigated rice paddy culture. Rice paddies
are an intensive use of land, and the preparation of dry fields and land development in
conjunction with the construction of roads and water channels are progressing. Thus,
paddy fields can be easily converted to urban land just by filling them with soil, and
in the megacities that have grown on the deltas in East and Southeast Asia, urban
sprawl advances readily.

It is necessary to take advantage of the circumstances of having such shared
characteristics, and the mixed presence of cities and farming areas on a micro scale, to
consider measures for urbanrural coexistence. In January 2008, China enacted the
Urban and Rural Planning Law. It is desirable to reinforce JapanChina academic
collaboration while closely watching the trend under this law.

From now on Asia, including Japan, should replace the planning doctrine followed so
far, which distinguishes sharply between urban and rural areas, and reassess planning
systems in an effort to build desirable relationships by means of urbanrural
partnerships. Cities that are a fusion of the urban and the rural are not homogeneous,
but instead are inherently diverse. For the additional purpose of creating distinctive
cities with diversity that can be held up to the world with pride, sustainable regional
development that fuses the urban and the rural should be promoted.

8. References

Harashina K., Takeuchi K. and Arifin H.S. (2003). Toward restructuring for
sustainable regional ecosystems in the humid tropics. In: Hayashi Y., Manuwoto S.
and Hartono S. (eds.), Sustainable Agriculture in Rural Indonesia, Gadjah Mada
University Press, Jogjakarta, 369-390.
3 3
Keynote Speech

Howard E. (1902). Garden Cities of To-Morrow.

Ishida Y. (2004). 1868-2003Development of
Japanese Modern and Present Urban Planning. .

2007. Report
on National Comprehensive Development Plan.

Koshizawa A. (1988). Urban Planning in Manchukuo.
.

Takeuchi K. (2004). Scheme for
rehabilitating natural environment in urban region. , 21, 8-11.

Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Industrial and Labor
Affairs(2008). Guideline for
town planning integrating agriculture and farmland.

Keynote Speech

Supporting Urban Innovation

Rauch S
1
, Morrison GM
2

Water Environment Technology, Dept of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Chalmers University of Technology
41296 Gteborg, Sweden
1. sebastien.rauch@chalmers.se;
2. greg.morrison@chalmers.se

Abstract

Todays urban population of over 3 billion is projected to increase to nearly 6 billion
by2050.
Developing nations will account for 90% of this growth with an alarming increase in
urban poverty and slum population. Behind this unprecedented growth lies one of
humanitys greatest challenges and yet our best hope of achieving global
sustainability.

How do we create sustainable urban futures for 6 billion? Current urban conditions
and projected trends in both developing and developed regions indicate that we cannot
only rely on contemporary practices. Innovative urban practices must be developed to
provide local solutions and universities have an opportunity to contribute the
development of such practices. In this presentation we will describe efforts by AGS
universities to develop new thinking around urban futures. In 2008-09, the AGS is
organising a series of seminars and meetings aimed at enganging researchers at
partner and associated universities in the area of urban futures. All the seminar will be
made available online on the AGS website (currently at www.agschalmers.se). This
initiative points to 3 priorities for sustainable urban futures:
- the improvement of existing urban systems and infrastructures;
- the integration of sustainability into new cities and buildings;
- the eradication of poverty through good governance.
It is clear that all 3 priorities require an integrated understanding of urban systems and
universities can contribute to this understanding through transdisciplinary research
integrating all relevant disciplines and performed in collaboration with societies and
governments. The scale of trandisciplarinity and the need to develop new interactions
with societies remain however a major challenges that may be overcome by the
creation of participatory platforms and multi-dimension capacity building.

Keywords: Urban Futures, AGS seminars,. challenges, innovations.

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Session 1: Urban Rural Systems
Openness of private green and vacant spaces within exclusive subdivisions
in the urban fringe of Asian large cities:
Some cases of Bangkok and Metro Manila

Hara Y
1)

1) Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo
e-mail: antares@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

Large-scale exclusive subdivisions in the form of gated communities have been emerging as a
dominant housing development pattern in the urban-rural fringe areas of Asian city regions.
The expansion of these subdivisions seems to be driven by regional unique factors such as
availability of large plots for development, landholding concentrations deeply rooted in land
tenure history, fear of crime, and so on. Controlling such a development pattern is almost out
of the current urban planning systems. Despite the fact that it is dominant pattern of housing
development, few previous studies have been conducted on spatial and social structures of
exclusive subdivisions; in particular, from the viewpoint of urban greenery. Each subdivision
has resident-access only green spaces and plenty amount of vacant lots with tree and grass
covers, whereas rural origin agricultural fields exist outside of the wall as just neglected by
subdivision residents. In this preliminary study, I focused on subdivision-dominant districts in
the suburbs of Bangkok and Metro Manila, and investigated spatial characteristics as well as
residents uses of in-subdivision green spaces. Bangkok case study showed that in-subdivision
green spaces are recently well prepared by a developer, however not well utilized by residents.
Metro Manila case study revealed that there are many vacant lots inside subdivisions utilized
agriculturally by caretakers. Further case studies are needed to categorize in-subdivision green
spaces according to openness and to define a concept of private urban green spaces over
urban parks. Development of such a concept might contribute to elaborating proper greenery
management schemes for Asian city region.

Keywords: Urban green space, Subdivision, Gated community, Urban agriculture, Openness

1. Introduction

In numerous Asian large cities, urbanization has been proceeding rapidly toward suburban
agricultural areas, and broad urban-rural mixed land use is emerging. An area facing land-use
mixture tends to have several environmental and social problems such as urban land use
expansion without basic infrastructures, deterioration of fragmented farmlands, social conflict
between urban and rural residents, and so on. To tackle with these problems, improvement of
living environments through preservation and creation of urban green spaces is needed
(Yokohari et al. 2000). Urban green spaces in suburban residential districts in Japan consist of
3 6
various greeneries including forest around shrine and temple, pocket parks, street trees, plant
hedges, etc.. These greeneries have their unique histories in holding and use. Some of them
are originated from rural landscape components in pre-urbanization period; others are created
through public projects or efforts of local residents themselves. In order to improve residential
environment, we need to develop not only measure for promoting individual green component,
but also comprehensive green management scheme (Koshizawa 1996).

In Southeast Asian cities, however, development processes and land-use patterns in suburban
residential districts are quite different from Japanese cases. Prevailing housing development is
large-scale exclusive subdivision (Nishioka 1997) that is turned from large parcel farmlands
formed in the process of landholding concentration (Fig. 1). In these subdivisions,
surrounding high wall is constructed to clearly separate in-subdivision space from outer world
(Fig. 1). There is a gate with security guards at the entrance point from main road, restricting
non-residents outsiders to come in. Previous studies mainly focused on socio-cultural changes
in subdivision-dominant districts from sociological viewpoint (Tanate and Omura 2004;
Kawahara et al. 2008), whereas few studies have been conducted on detailed spatial structures
of in-subdivision lots and open spaces, and its residents uses. It is also vague that what kinds
of the functions residents expect to urban green spaces in Southeast Asian cities under tropical
monsoon climate, which might be different from those in temperate cities where modern
urban planning concept has been developed. Hence we first need to accumulate case studies
on detailed spatial and social structures of exclusive subdivisions in Southeast Asian cities. In
this preliminary study, I focused on subdivision-dominant districts in the suburbs of Bangkok
and Metro Manila, and investigated spatial characteristics as well as residents uses of in-
subdivision green spaces.

Figure 1. Examples of exclusive subdivisions showing strict ID check at the gate.

2. Materials and methods

Case studies for both Bangkok and Metro Manila were carried out based upon field surveys.
First I visited several governmental and institutional agencies related to land development to
acquire basic data for investigating open spaces inside subdivisions such as aerial photographs
with a scale of approximately 1:6000, digital vector base maps with a scale of approximately
1:4000, zoning maps, law and ordinance articles, and so on. Semi-structural interviews were
conducted with government officials who were responsible to permit housing developments.
Then I selected one sample subdivision-dominant district in the suburban area of each city,
and visited subdivision offices to get permission for survey inside. In subdivisions, per-lot
3 7
land-use investigations using the vector base map were conducted as focusing on open spaces;
private green spaces and vacant lots. I also made qualitative interviews with permanent and
temporal inhabitants (explained in detail in the next chapter) who were living near to surveyed
open space lots. Questions addressed were; how and why do you utilize such open spaces
inside subdivisions? who do maintain such spaces? and who are main users? Interviews were
also conducted with developers on the following points; are there any standards, guidelines,
or legal frameworks for preparing in-subdivision open spaces? How did you decide design of
open spaces? Finally on the basis of the both results of per-lot spatial survey and interviews
conducted, discussion would be addressed to the relationships between spatial patterns of in-
subdivision open spaces and users social characteristics in consideration of openness of
private property spaces.

3. Results and discussion

Figure 2 shows spatial distribution of subdivisions in khet (ward) SaiMai, sample district for
the Bangkok case study. Figure 3 shows ratio in area of green spaces within each subdivision.
According to Figure 2, it is supposed that subdivisions are major land development style in
SaiMai district. Such developments are carried out based on Land Appropriation Act by the
Department of Lands in the Ministry of the Interior. In 1972 when this Act was first enforced,
there was a section for promoting to prepare green spaces inside a subdivision without any
numerical settings in area and facilities needed. In 1987, the supplementary provisions were
added. This said that an in-subdivision green space must be prepared with an area of more
than 1600 m
2
as well as 5% of a total subdivision area. It also stated that design of a green
space should be matched to the purposes of uses by residents, such as outdoor exercises.
Under the Act, developers have to submit the project proposal of subdivision developments to
the Department of Lands in the Ministry of the Interior and the office of the district that their
projects in. Then after getting permission, they can start their developments. According to the
interviews with officials at the Department of Lands, actual procedures to give development
permission are entrusted to each district office without careful watching. It might cause weak
implementation in numerical targets of the Act (Fig. 3).

Figure 2 (left). Spatial distribution of subdivisions in SaiMai (Hoshikoshi et al. 2009).
Figure 3 (right). In-subdivision green space ratio (Hoshikoshi et al. 2009).

5%
0
10
5
1600
1600
Standard green space ratio to total area
of each subdivision = 5%
Subdivision with an area > 1600 m
2
Subdivision with an area < 1600 m
2

Active use of in-subdivision green space by residents was not well observed, while abandoned
playground equipments (Fig. 4) were well observed. Several residents said that it is because
of too hot climate to play outside. On the other hand it is also reported that the city parks
situated in the center of Bangkok are actively used in exercises during nighttime (BMA 2001),
showing relatively high demand for open spaces. There was no in-subdivision green space in
the study area utilized by non- resident outsiders. However, squatter shacks were sometimes
found in abandoned in-subdivision green spaces (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Abandoned playground equipments (left) and squatters in abandoned in-subdivision
green spaces (right).

In the Metro Manila case study, barangay (smallest administrative district) Holy Spirit in
Quezon City was selected as sample district for investigation. Holy Spirit consists of seven
exclusive subdivisions that keep outsiders out. Inside these subdivisions, a lot of undeveloped
vacant lots were observed (Fig. 5). The standard for subdivision development is defined by
Presidential Decree 957, requesting a developer to prepare some of the common facilities for
residents including the club house for homeowners association and green spaces. Nevertheless
vacant lots occupy the majority of open spaces inside subdivision (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Plenty of vacant lots as open
spaces in Holy Spirit (Furutani et al. 2009).

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Agricultural utilization by caretaker is prevailing in such vacant lots. Caretakers are the
ones who are allowed with minimum wage or free by absentee landowners to temporarily live
in these speculative vacant lots on the condition that they manage the lot in order to avoid
illegal dumping and vegetation overgrowth. They look like squatters (Fig. 6) at first glance.
However, they can be accepted by homeowners association because they were guaranteed by
the landowners. According to interviews, caretakers mostly used to be housekeepers, drivers
or their relatives of the landowners, thereby ID clarified. Nevertheless their wage and working
conditions are similar to those of squatters who surely cannot be permitted by homeowners
association in terms of security. Regarding the fact that vegetables produced from these plenty
temporal agricultural plots are actually consumed by neighboring residents, it is possible to
integrate agricultural lot use into planning system. For instance, installation of new ID-clarify
systems by public agencies can be discussed.
Figure 6. Temporal agricultural lot use (right) by a caretaker (left).

4. Conclusions

Although this study is still in the process of data collection and analyses, it is supposed that
exclusive subdivisions are significant land development patterns, bringing indefinable type of
green spaces that are out of the current planning system. Further case studies are needed to
categorize in-subdivision green spaces according to openness and to define a concept of
private urban green spaces over urban parks. Development of such a concept might contribute
to elaborating proper greenery management schemes for Asian city region.

6. References

Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) (2001). Park & Tree in the fiscal year 2001.
Bangkok, Thailand.

Furutani T., Hara Y., Murakami A., Palijon A.M. and Yokohari M. (2009). Organic waste
management and the potential of its local recycle use in the suburbs of Metro Manila. JILA
(forthcoming).

Hoshikoshi A., Hara Y., Kano Y., Okayasu T. and Takeuchi K. (2009). Distribution, amount
and institutional backgrounds of green spaces prepared within subdivisions in the urban fringe
of Bangkok. JILA (forthcoming).

4 0
Kawahara M., Dohi M. and Sugita S. (2008). A study on the actual conditions of gated
communities in Metro Manila. Journal of the City Planning Institute of Japan, 43(3), 139-144
(In Japanese with English abstract).

Koshizawa A. (1996). From Green Masterplan to Green Fundamental Plan. Parks and
Open Spaces, 57, 13-19 (In Japanese).

Nishioka S. (1997). A study on the establishment of the exclusive habitation system in the
Philippines. Journal of the City Planning Institute of Japan, 32, 517-522 (In Japanese with
English abstract).

Tanate K. and Omura K. (2004). Perceived living condition in the gated communities in
Metro Manila. Journal of the City Planning Institute of Japan, 39(3), 379-384.

Yokohari M., Takeuchi, K., Watanabe, T. and Yokota, S. (2000). Beyond greenbelts and
zoning: a new planning concept for the environment of Asian mega-cities. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 47, 159-171.

4 1
Farmland Conversion and Sustainable City:
A Case of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Irham
1)
and Senthot Sudirman
2)

1) Master Program in Agribusiness, Gadjah Mada University
Jl. Flora, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
e-mail: irhamsec2000@yahoo.com
2) College of National Land Affairs
Jl. Tata Bumi No.5, Gamping, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55293, Indonesia
e-mail: sentot.sudirman@yahoo.com

Abstract

The objectives of the study are (1) to understand farmland use changes in the fringe
area of Yogyakarta, (2) to describe the farmland conversion and its conversion rate, (3) to
analyse factors affecting the farmland conversion, and (4) to find implications related to
sustainable city development in Yogyakarta.
The study shows that farmland has been intensively converted to other functions. The
most noticable change of farmland to non residential uses has been occurred in kota while the
agricultural land use change in the fringe areas mostly goes to residential purposes.
The result of regression analysis shows that population density, regional GDP and
number of housing developed have positive relation with land conversion. However, only
housing development has a significant effect on land conversion, hence, housing development
becomes the key factor of massive farmland conversion in Yogyakarta. The study suggests:
(a) housing development should be controlled strictly, (b) strict regulation and sanction
towards developers and district official including the decision makers sould be implemented,
and (c) incentives for the farmland owners needs to be provided, and (d) the need for
imposing a certain fixed farmland area in every subdistrict or village in order to secure food
sufficiency supported by strict government regulation.

Keywords: sustainable city, landuse changes, farmland conversion

1. Introduction
Sustainable city can not be apart from rural development as a necessary condition.
Harmonious relation between urban and rural becomes a sufficient condition towards a
sustainable city region. Therefore, protection of agricultural system as part of rural activities
should be of concern.
Although the growth and expansion of the city is inevitable, but effective land use
planning and policy is necessary to control the continuing conversion of farmland to other
uses. In the case of Yogyakarta, a number of reasons are supporting: (1) most of new
development of urban uses take place in areas of agricultural land; (2) farmland is a precious
resource where most of people activities are engaged; (3) the farmland is very fertile since
it comprises volcanic soils; (4) self-sufficiency in food production depends on sufficient
availability of farmland; and (5) loss of farmland is usually irreversible.
4 2
The most serious impact of farmland conversion is the loss of fertile land, threatening
the national food security. Intensive farmland conversion in Yogyakarta is resulted from the
ignorance of spatial ordinance and spatial development guidance that prohibits the use of
productive agricultural land especially irrigated land. Thus, the issue of preservation of
agricultural land should become a major focus of sustainable city development as urban
people highly dependant on the availability of farm production.
The importance of such initiative is essentially based on two considerations. First, the
need to protect the nation's long term food producing capabilities because without an
adequate protection of agricultural land resources, the country will find difficulty to meet
the food needs for growing population especially in the city regions. Second, the growing
recognition of farmland's important aesthetic and "open space" attribute.
It goes without saying that the expansion of the city implies the encroachment on
farmland. Hence, the percentage of land under rural activities has been decreasing overtime.
The growth in population numbers, per capita incomes, new household establishment, and
construction activities are considered as the factors causing such a change. Consequently,
disharmonious relation between urban and rural starts to exist, then sustainable city will be
disturbed.
For these reasons, government authorities have to be concerned about the supply of
agricultural lands in the future. The search of methods to ensure adequate land has led to
mounting pressures on various levels of government to become involved in
preservation. Implementation of agricultural land preservation strategies, however, should not
only rely on the government initiative, but also from the community as a whole.
This paper aims at (1) understanding the farmland use changes in the fringe area of
Yogyakarta, (2) describing the farmland conversion and its conversion rate, (3) analysing
factors affecting the farmland conversion, and (4) finding implications related to sustainable
city development in Yogyakarta.


Study Area
This study is conducted in Yogyakarta city and its fringe areas. The study area covers
municipality called Kota Yogyakarta (the city center); and two adjacent districts (as the urban
fringe area) namely Sleman district and Bantul district. For Kota Yogyakarta, only five out of
fourteen subdistricts that have agricultural land area are selected, namely Mantrijeron,
Mergangsan, Umbulharjo, Kotagede, and Tegalrejo subdistricts. There are also five out of
seventeen subdistricts for Sleman (Gamping, Mlati, Depok, Ngemplak, and Ngaglik) and
three out of eleven subdistricts in Bantul district (Banguntapan, Sewon, and Kasihan) are
selected as study areas.

Data use and method of analysis
Agricultural land data of different year are used to analyse the landuse changes.
Farmland converted to other uses data are used to analyse the conversion area and rate of
conversion. Agricultural land data were collected from Statistical Office, while farmland
converted to other uses were collected from District Land Board of Yogyakarta city, Sleman,
and Bantul.
To analyse any factors influencing land conversion, panel data combining time series
and cross section data are used in this study. The time series data comprise 5 years (2002-
4 3
2006) covering 5 subdistrits (kecamatans) in District of Sleman, namely Gamping, Mlati,
Depok, Kalasan, and Ngaglik. Those data were collected from different sources such as
Statistical Office and Housing and Infrastructure Office of Sleman District.
To test the factors influencing farmland conversion, regression analysis model is
employed. By using panel data, logarithmic regression equation model is constructed as
follow:
log Yit = 0 + 1 log X1it + 2 logX2it + 3 logX3it + it
i = 1,2,3,4,5
t = 1,2,3,4,5
Y = farmland conversion
X1 = population density
X2 = gross regional product
X3 = number of houses developed by developers

a. Selection model test
Three possible estimations approaches is tested, namely common fffect, fixed effect
dan random effect models. Common Effect Model (CEM) is used to estimate the data without
distinguishing individual and intertemporal differences. It is assumed that intercept and slope
are the same. It is considered that the characteristics of data is similar among subdistricts as
well as for different years. Fixed Effect Model (FEM) assumes that the intercept is the
different, but the slope is the same among subdistricts. Whereas Rondom Effect Model
(REM) assumes that each subdistrict has different intercept and the intercept is regarded as
random or stochastic variable. To determine the appropriate model between CEM and FEM,
significance F-test is used by using F-statistic as follow:

(RSSR-RSSUR)/ m
F-stat =
RSS UR / (n-k)

where RSSR = Residual Sum of Squares of Common Effect
RSSUR = Residual Sum of Squares of Fixed Effect
m = number of restriction in the model
n = number of observations
k = number of independent variables
Hausman test (h-test) is used to select the suitable model between FEM and REM. If
the value of h greater than its critical value (h > df = k, k = number of independent
variables), FEM is suggested, and vise versa.
b. Statistical tests
Statistical significance of coefficient test (t-test), goodness of fit test (R), and overall
explanatory variables test (F-test) are performed in order to get statistical interpretation of the
regression analysis results. Normality test (Jarque-Bera test), multicollenearity test
(correlation between independent variables), autocorrelation test (Durbin-Watson test), and
heteroskedasticity test (White Heteroskedasticity test) are also conducted in order to fulfill
classic assumptions of regression model.


The density of population is a fairly good index for the measurement of the influence
of the city. Table 1 reveals a high variation in the density of population in different

subdistricts but shows a consistent increase from 1990 to 2007. Subdistricts situated outside
the city center having more open space and undeveloped land, show a relatively lower density.
From Table 1 it can be observed also that five subdistrits in Sleman and 3 subdistritcs in
Bantul have a low density of less than 33 persons per hectare in 2007 except Depok
subdistrict.
All subdistricts both within the city center (Kota Yogyakarta) and two districts
(Sleman and Bantul) exhibit a high density compared to the average density of each district.
Among five subdistricts, Umbulharjo and Kotagede by its nature are relatively
sparsely settled part of the city. For Sleman districts, two subdistricts show a relatively low
density compared to other subdistricts where depok has the highest density. This is consistent
with the fact that depok district is the most pervasive development of residential area in the
Sleman district. Kasihan subdistrict in Bantul is the least intensive development area
compared to other two subdistricts (Banguntapan and Sewon) where both are the most
intensive development of housing area in Bantul district.

Table 1, Population density of Yogyakarta fringe area 1990-2007
District/subdistrict Population density (person/km2)
Area
(km2)
1990 2000 2007
Kota Yogyakrta 13392
Mantrijeron 2,61 13331 14844 15949
Mergangsan 2,31 15319 17819 18594
Umbulharjo 8,12 5936 8039 9339
Kotagede 3,07 7089 9034 10458
Tegalrejo 2,91 10803 13195 14844
Kabupaten Sleman 1810
Gamping 29,25 1491 2249 3014
Mlati 28,52 1637 2351 3207
Depok 35,55 2495 3069 5124
Ngemplak 35,71 367 1243 1506
Ngaglik 38,52 1073 1712 2232
Kabupaten Bantul 1619
Banguntapan 28,48 2235 2597 3098
Sewon 27,16 1255 2717 2921
Kasihan 32,38 1460 2324 2513
Source : Statistical Office of Yogyakarta Province

Changes in farmland use pattern are seen in the fringe areas between 2000 and 2007
(Table 2). The table shows that during that period agricultural land has been intensively
converted to other functions mostly to residential uses within this period. The most noticable
change of agricultural land to urban uses has been occurred in kota where agricultural land
mainly goes to non residential uses. This is not particularly surprising because the city center
needs more investment on commercial, manufacturing, and infrastrucures compare to the
fringe areas.
In contrast to the city center (kota), the agricultural land use change in the fringe areas
mostly goes to residential purposes. This is in line with the fact that as the increasing
development of housing complex in the fringe area has been taking place the need for
farmland is inevitably increasing. In this case, Kabupaten Sleman has experienced the higher
loss of agricultural land than that of Kabupaten Bantul especially Mlati and Ngaglik.
The farmland use changes and conversion in five subdistricts in the city center and
other two districts is resulted from several interrelated forces emerging from spatial and
socio-economic structures. For further analysis, it is hypothesed that population density,
4 5
economic growth and housing development have stimulated the conversion of
farmland into urban uses. For this purpose, linear regression analysis is employed to analyse
those influensing factors on farmland conversion.

Table 3, Farmland area converted and conversion rate 2000-2007
District/subdistrict Area (ha) Conversion rate
2000 2007 ha %
Kota Yogyakrta
Mantrijeron 4 2 2 50,00
Mergangsan 5 5 0 0,00
Umbulharjo 74 61 13 17,57
Kotagede 26 12 14 53,85
Tegalrejo 29 18 11 37,93
Kabupaten Sleman
Gamping 1214,7 1177 37,66 3,10
Mlati 1132,6 998 134,61 11,88
Depok 591,23 591 0,23 0,04
Ngemplak 2034,8 1976 58,81 2,89
Ngaglik 1915,5 1805 110,54 5,77
Kabupaten Bantul
Banguntapan 1466 1372 94 6,41
Sewon 1373 1296 77 5,61
Kasihan 707 627 80 11,32
Source : Provincial Land Board ( BPN ), 2008

To ensure the linearity of the relationshop, data distribution of independent variabels
(population density, regional GDP, number of developed housing) is presented in scattered
diagram (Figure1 to 3).
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
3.15 3.20 3.25 3.30 3.35 3.40 3.45 3.50 3.55
X2
Y
Y vs. X2

Figure 1. Scatter diagram population density
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0
X3
Y
Y vs. X3

Figure 2. Scatter diagram of regional GDP

4 6
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
X4
Y
Y vs. X4

Figure 3. Scatter diagram of number of developed housing

The regression analysis results show that the value of R is 0,873 showing that
population density, regional GDP and number of housing developed in the fringe area explain
87% the variation of land conversion in study region. The rest of variation is explained by
other factors not including in the model. The result of F-test shows that all independent
variables (population density, regional GDP and number of housing developed in the fringe
area) has an F-statistic 8.013, meaning that statistically significant at 1% level of significance.
The result of the analysis show that population density, regional GDP and number of
housing developed in the fringe area of Yogyakarta city within the Sleman district have
positive relation with land conversion (Table 4). However, holding other factors constant,
only number of housing developed in that fringe areas has a significant effect on farmland
conversion. This result supports the fact that deveopment of housing complex in Yogyakarta
fringe area is highly intensive. Many reasons for this massive conversion, one of which is the
lack of consistent implementation by the local government of Sleman District in protecting
fertile and irrigated farmland converted for housing.
Population density does not show a significant effect on farmland conversion in the
fringe area within Sleman District. This may be because the population density does not
change as fast as in the city center. Regional GDP, representing the condition of economic
growth in the city region also has no significant effect of farmland conversion. This implies
that regional GDP may affect only for the conversion in the city center that is not tested in
theis study.

Table 4. Regression results of Random Effect Model
Variables Coeffisient Standar Error t-statistic Prob
C -36,153 16,009 -2,258 0,0347
LOG(X1?) 0,687 2,624 0,261 0,7960
LOG(X2?) 2,480 1,514 1,637 0,1164
LOG(X3?) 0,372 0,079 4,680 0,0001
Random Effects
GPG-C 1,2132
MLT-C -0,1533
DEP-C -1,5692
KAL-C -0,1325
NGA-C 0,6419

Intercept (C) -36,153 is the average value of random error component for all subdistricts. The
value of random effect shows the level of difference of random error component of a certain
subdistrict towards intercept of the whole district (average). The regreesion equations for each
subdistrict are as follow:
4 7
Gamping subdistrict :
log Y = -34,940 + 0,687 logX1 + 2,480 logX2 + 0,372 logX3
Mlati subdistrict:
Depok subdistrict :
Kalasan subdistrict :
Ngaglik subdistrict :
t-statistic (-2,258) (0,261) (1,637) (4,680)***
R = 0,873496
Durbin-Watson stat = 1,6378
*** = significant at 1% t-table= 2,807

Having that housing development becomes the key factor of massive farmland
conversion in Yogyakarta, the protection of farmland should be part of the developmet of the
city in order to be sustainable. A number of approaches can be implemented. First, is through
the control of the city development itself, more specifically housing development. Strict
regulation and sanction towards developers and district official including the decision makers
sould be implemented. This is due to the fact that district government (district
headman/bupati) play a significant role in contributing towards farmland conversion process.
Second, is through provision of incentives for the farmland owners such as tax relief and
subsidies for the farmers to keep farming operation feasible. Third is by imposing a certain
fixed farmland area in every subdistrict or village in order to secure food sufficiency
supported by strict government regulation.

4. Conclusions

1. The density of population is a fairly good index of the measurement of the influence of the
city. All subdistricts within the study area exhibit a high density compared to the average
density of each district.
2. The study shows that farmland has been intensively converted to other functions. The most
noticable change of farmland to non residential uses has been occurred in kota while the
farmland use change in the fringe areas mostly goes to residential purposes.
3. The result of regression analysis shows that population density, regional GDP and number
of housing developed in the fringe area of Yogyakarta city within the Sleman district have
positive relation with land conversion. However, only housing development in that fringe
areas has a significant effect on farmland conversion. This result supports the fact that
deveopment of housing complex in Yogyakarta fringe area is highly intensive.
4. Having that housing development becomes the key factor of massive farmland conversion
in Yogyakarta, the protection of farmland should be part of the developmet of the city in
order to be sustainable.
5. The study suggests: (a) housing development should be controlled strictly, (b) strict
regulation and sanction towards developers and district official including the decision
makers should be implemented, and (c) incentives for the farmland owners needs to be
provided, and (d) the need for imposing a certain fixed farmland area in every subdistrict
or village in order to secure food sufficiency supported by strict government regulation.


5. References

Gujarati D.N. (2003). Basic Econometric Fourth Edition, Mc. Graw Hill, New York.

Mariyono J., Harini R. and Agustin N.K. (2007), Impact of Economic Development and
Population Growth on Agricultural land Conversion in Jogjakarta : A Dynamic Analysis,
Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangunan Vol. 8, No. 1, Juni, Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Ekonomi Fak. Ekonomi UMS, Surakarta.

Ruswandi A., Rustiadi E. and Kooswardhono M. (2007). Dampak Konversi Lahan Pertanian
Terhadap Kesejahteraan Petani dan Perkembangan Wilayah : Studi Kasus di daerah
Bandung Utara (Impact of Agricultural Land Conversion on Farmers Welfare and Area
Development: A Case Study in Northern Bandung), Jurnal Agro Ekonomi Vol. 25, No 2,
Oktober.

Clawson M. (1971). Suburban Land Conversion in the United States: An Economic and
Governmental Process. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore and London, p.406.

Conklin H.E. and Bryant W.R. (1974). Agricultural Districts: A Compromise Approach to
Farmland Preservation. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.56, No.3, pp. 607-
613

Furuseth O.J. (1982). Agricultural Land Conversion: Background and Issues. Journal of
Geography, Vol 81, No.3, pp. 89-93.

Isberg G. (1975). Controlling Growth in Urban Fringe. In: Management and Control of
Growth: Issues, Techniques, Problems, Trends Scott, .W. (ed.), The Urban Land Institute,
Washington D.C., pp. 29-39.

Lapping M.B. (1975). Preserving Agricultural Lands: The New York Experience, Town and
Country Planning, pp. 394-397.

Pacino M. (1990). Development Pressure in the Metropolitan Fringe, Land Development
Studies, Vol.7, No.2, pp.69-82.

Widodo (1990). Faktor-faktor Geografi Yang Mempengaruhi Pemekaran Kota Yogyakarta
(Geographical Facors Affecting City Development of Yogyakarta), Thesis, Fakultas Pasca
Sarjana, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, p.98.

Yunus H.S. (1984). The Application of Anglo-American Land Use Management Techniques
to the Problem of Urban Sprawl in Java. A Paper Presented at 1984 Spring Seminar, Dept. of
Geography, University of Denver, Colorado, p.58.

4 9

Spatial Planning and Urban-Rural Relations in European Union

Kensuke KATAYAMA
1)

1) Assistant Professor, Department of Urban Engineering, the University of Tokyo
Address: 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, JAPAN
e-mail: kenkata@urban.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

In Japan, the importance of urban-rural relations is growing as . Through the merging of
municipalities, many municipalities include urban areas and rural areas in the same
administrative boundary, and are looking for its vision. The barely viable community problem
is growing into a serious under the depopulation and aging society as well. Urban-rural
linkage is one of the main themes of Wide Area Regional Plan of National Land
Sustainability Plan, however, we, officials, researchers and citizens are worried about what
kind of urban-rural policy and planning should be effective for sustainable development.
In this paper, I introduce the urban-rural relations and spatial policies in European Union to
understand its experiences. The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) was
agreed among 15 Member States and European Commission in 1999 and urban-rural linkage
is located as one of the important issues of European spatial planning. Through the review of
the report on urban-rural relations conducted by European Spatial Planning Observation
Network (ESPON), the situations of urban-rural relations and discussion points, including
urban sprawl, urban containment and the role of land use planning, are summarized.
Then, I focus on the land use planning and try to compare the growth management systems
among European and Asian countries. Through this work, the difference of planning
strategies between mature cities and developing cities should be characterized.

Keywords: urban-rural relations, European Union, spatial planning, land use planning, growth
management
5 0
Food and energy production from agriculture
in urban rural systems of Japan

Morita S
1)

1) Field Production Science Center, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences,
The University of Tokyo, Midori-cho 1-1-1, Nishitokyo-shi, Tokyo, 188-0002, Japan
anatomy@fm.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

In several decades abandoned agricultural land, especially paddy field has been increased in
urban and rural area of Japan, partly because of rice overproduction, and partly because of
labor shortage, though self-sufficiency of food has been decreased less than 40 %. Such
abandoned paddy field should be used not for production of wheat or soybean, but for
growing rice plants for food, feed and energy production, which will be effective for food
security as well. Production and utilization of bioethanol made from rice plants including rice
straw and hull will be good for not only a countermeasure for global warming and
development of possible alternative energy, but also conservation of landscape, encouraging
economical and social activities in urban and rural systems. Urban and rural complex system
will be necessary for sustainable development through food and energy production from
agriculture in the complex systems where traceability of food and energy will be an important
key point.

Keywords: Bioethanol, Rice, Paddy field, Food security, Energy security, Traceability in
energy.

5 1
Governing Urbanization for Sustainability:
An institutional analysis of government behavior in China.

Zhilin LIU
1)
, Ye QI
2)

1) School of Public Policy & Management, Tsinghua University
Hai-Dian District, Beijing 100084, P.R.China
e-mail: zhilinliu@tsinghua.edu.cn
2) School of Public Policy & Management, Tsinghua University
Hai-Dian District, Beijing 100084, P.R.China
e-mail: qi@tsinghua.edu.cn

Abstract

Chinas industrialization and urbanization are facing increasing challenges in terms of
their long-term viability and sustainability. Planners and policy makers have advocated ideas
such as sustainable cities, green cities, eco-cities, and alike to be incorporated in the planning
of Chinese cities. However, not much has been done to evaluate the extent to which current
governance practice in urban China is capable of supporting such pursuit of more sustainable
urbanization. Yet as pointed out by some studies, city governments in China have strong
fiscal interests in promoting local economic growth (e.g. Zhu, 1999, 2004). Others further
notice the coalition building process in which city governments collaborate with business
interests in promoting land development and economic growth rather than equity (e.g. Zhang,
2002). In addition, studies from an institutional perspective have argued that such dynamics
of urban governance in China was deeply rooted in the multi-facet institutional transition
beyond the local level (e.g. Liu, 2007). Therefore, it is critical to evaluate urban governance
structure from an institutional perspective.
In the proposed paper, we present an evaluation of urban governance in China, focusing
on the strategic behavior of city governments when it comes to the choice between economic
growth and sustainability. Inspired by new institutionalism theories, we develop an MPC-IC
model to describe city government behavior that is, we examine the motivation, discretion
power, and capacity (MPC) of Chinese city governments as well as incentives and constraints
they face. Combining the game-theoretical framework and the analytic narrative method, we
examine the incentive-constraint mechanisms in which recent institutional reforms have
affected motivations and capacities of city governments in promoting sustainable urban
development. We particularly emphasize the effects of current property right regime over
land, the unitary governmental system, and local public finance system. Preliminary findings
show that: 1) decentralization of authorities is coupled with weak check-and-balance
mechanisms in urban governance, leading to unconstrained discretion power of city
governments in administrating and allocating public resources such as land, and 2) city
governments face continuous challenges from development, increased responsibility in public
service delivery, and yet growing fiscal constraints.
We base our analysis on in-depth interviews with central and local officials, field notes,
and extensive review of policy documents, mass media reports, and other secondary data
sources. Our empirical analysis contributes to the understanding of urban policy dynamics in
the era of marketization from a comparative perspective.

5 2
Contribution:
This paper points to governance and institutions that are vital to the success of sustainable
urbanization in China, and develops an institutional approach to explaining city government
behavior in urban governance.

Keywords: Sustainable Urbanization, City Government, Urban Governance, Instituional
Analysis, China

5 3

Alpine Landscapes - From a Common to a Scarce Resource
Lessons learnt from the Swiss National Research Programme
- Landscapes and habitats of the Alps -

Bernard Lehmann
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland. President of the Steering Committee of
the National Research Programme Landscapes and Habitats of the Alps.
lehmann@ethz.ch

Abstract: The aim of the Swiss National Research Programmes is to carry out scientific re-
search to identify, analyse and find solutions to problems that are perceived by the scien-
tific and political communities as a national challenge. This article, which deals with land-
scape resources in the Swiss Alpine arc, shows the stages and measures taken in managing
such programmes. The article focuses on the objectives and questions underlying the research,
the integration of knowledge acquired and the ways results are used in the political sphere.

Keywords: landscape, habitat, research orientations, interdisciplinarity, scientific synthesis,
political implications.

Identifying the problem and orienting research
In recent years, the landscape has become an important topic of discussion, negotiation and
research in Alpine countries. The landscape is a concern that is just as great as, if not greater
than, questions of environmental and natural resource management. The landscape has be-
come an area of projection on which we are able to recognise our preoccupation with envi-
ronmental matters. The need to preserve valuable landscapes and habitats is one of the
prerogatives of landscape concepts at both the national and regional level.
The scientific community with research interests in the landscape has considerably expanded
over recent years. The field of study that was traditionally the reserve of geographers and
landscape ecologists has become equally familiar to biologists (for whom the landscape pro-
vides the habitat for biological diversity) as well as environmental economists.
Landscape research also covers the question of sustainability in a more comprehensive man-
ner than the ecological approach, in the narrow sense of the term. The crucial question Who
does the landscape belong to? , for example, underlines the fact that the social and economic
dimensions deal with new aspects, such as developing its full potential, the search for identity
and recreation. Landscape management thus covers more aspects than simply biodiversity.
Special challenges for landscape development will also result from a greater need for differ-
entiation than before. This is expressed in a stronger tendency towards polarization between
urban centres and the periphery of the periphery.
To take into account the double dimension of the landscape notion the material, physical
dimension and the symbolic, mental dimension the National Research Programme Land-
scapes and habitats of the Alps was designed to bring together all the relevant disciplines in
5 4

this field. The aim of this was to create the best possible base for the future management of
Alpine landscapes.
The research programme was launched in 2000. Several scientific establishments and non-
government organisations suggested to the authorities concerned in the Department (Minis-
try) of Education and Research that they launch a research programme on landscape and
habitat change in the Alps, the needs of society, the causes of changes and the means avail-
able to better control the latter.

Objectives of the National Research Programme
The five objectives of the research programme were as follows:
1. Define and analyse the changes that have occurred in recent decades and identify the main
factors responsible for these changes.
2. Analyse the perception of these landscape changes, its determinants and the differences in
perception according to peoples function and socio-economic and cultural background.
3. Identify the different forms of institutional framework capable of formulating collective
objectives, determining the need for action and implementing adequate measures.
4. Analyse the potential for creating value from the natural resources in the Alpine arc. This
analysis should take into account conflicting interests as well as synergies in the use of re-
sources and landscapes for both commercial and non-commercial needs.
5. Evaluate the possibilities for modelling landscapes and their components with a view to
forecasting future changes with appropriate decision-aid tools.
We clearly identified five research modules, each of these being responsible for a particular
objective in the programme (see above). These five modules are situated exactly at the points
of friction that correspond to areas of conflicting interests in landscape management. This
approach enabled us to target research questions in relation to practical needs with regard to
landscape management.

Management of research programme
Landscapes are a collective good, resulting from both natural resources and resources trans-
formed by man. From the start, the main use of these natural elements has always been
achieved through primary sector production, namely by agriculture and forestry. Use of these
resources has led to a modification of their natural state. Cultural landscapes thus appeared
virtually as a by-product of this primary production. Rural towns and villages were and still
are closely linked with the cultural landscape. It is mainly since the second half of the 20th
century that the modern habitat, together with the economic activities of craftwork, industry
(secondary sector) and services (tertiary sector), has modified the landscapes of the Alpine
arc. These activities will also have a strong impact on the Alpine landscapes of the future.
The Alpine landscape may thus be divided into three categories: the virtually natural or unal-
tered areas, forming the natural landscape; the cultural landscape, used by forestry and agri-
culture; the built landscape, with residential zones, zones of craft industries, tourism infra-
structures and means of communication. The success of tourism is based in large part on the
existence of natural and cultural landscapes or on their development. The properties of the
landscape and habitat, as perceived and appreciated by visitors, constitute the economic
foundation of this sector that is so important for the Alpine arc. The by-product, the culti-
5 5

vated and cultural landscape thus becomes a tourism resource in its own right. The cultural
landscapes and the modern residential zones often maintain a close and reciprocal link. Thus
the perceived landscape cannot generally be classified in a single category. Cultural land-
scapes and modern habitats can nevertheless be qualified as by-products resulting from hu-
man activities. The different users of alpine landscapes must consequently be aware of the
decisive impact of their activities on the collective good, the alpine landscape . The trans-
formations that result are not always welcomed by the residents of the valley areas. These
subsidize the Alpine arc by financial transfers and increasingly demand services in return.
The urban population thus makes specific demands regarding the quality of alpine land-
scapes ; in particular, it would appreciate a recreation area close to its natural state. Research
conducted within the framework of National Research Programme 48 underlined the need to
act with regard to the financial transfers and the expected services in return. This involves
first and foremost identifying the different interests and balancing them in the best way pos-
sible.

Illustration 1. The spectrum of research activities in National Research Programme 48 from a
systems viewpoint.

The systematic representation above juxtaposes and integrates the different sub-systems that
constitute the subjects of analysis and research in National Research Programme 48. In par-
ticular, the three ways of exploiting the potential of local resources and their interactions with
the natural environment may be observed along with the system of collective governance that
overlies this.

Implementation of research conclusions: a major objective of the National Research
Programme
The results of 35 research projects have been published in scientific reviews according to the
disciplinary or interdisciplinary character of the various projects. In the second phase of the
5 6

programme we concentrated our efforts on making research results available to a wider pub-
lic.

Illustration 2: Research results must be made available to a wider professional public.

Research results were condensed into five thematic syntheses. These are not directly intended
for the scientific community but for a professional public of decision-makers:

1. Landscapes of the Alps. From representation to action
This thematic group examines the research results with regard to landscape perception by
man. The analysis demonstrates how important it is to be aware of the context in which peo-
ple live to understand expectations in relation to the alpine landscapes.

2. Land use and biological diversity in the Alps: Facts, perspectives, recommendations
This thematic synthesis brings together the research projects that focused on the interactions
between exploitation of the land through primary production and the natural habitat, and in
particular diversity.

3. Shaping the landscape together Potential and limits of the participative process
This summary deals with questions of landscape management beginning with the linking of
objectives by a public authority through to the proposal of a procedure for collective deci-
sion-making taking into account the different levels and types of individual interests.

5 7

4. Using the value of alpine landscapes
The wealth of the alpine landscape and its resources that provide numerous possibilities for
creating value is the main point of this synthesis. However, there may be conflicts or syner-
gies in the way a resource is used. The economic character (commercial good or collective
good) plays a special role and must be taken into consideration.

5. Virtual worlds real decisions ? The Alps in the simulated world (English and Ger-
man) The aim of this synthesis was to evaluate the possibilities of modelling landscapes and
their components so as to be able to make forecasts of future changes using decision-aid tools.
Climatic change and the need to model it have reinforced this point in the course of our re-
search programme.

In the autumn of 2007, the management committee published a Final Report on National Re-
search Plan 48 under the title : Landscapes and habitats of the Alpine arc Between added
value and appreciated value. Reflections at the conclusion of National Research Programme
48 Landscapes and habitats of the Alpine arc .

The salient feature of this Final Report is the special emphasis given to recommendations for
political and economic actors. Alpine landscapes constitute not only a large part of the na-
tional (Swiss) territory, they are also a major element of Swiss identity. This explains in part
the value attributed to them, as well as to the inhabitants of the Alpine arc. The changes that
have affected the economic and social conditions in this area have had an impact on the foun-
dations of alpine added value: Initially based on the direct use of natural resources by agricul-
ture and forestry, added value has little by little shifted towards more indirect forms of ex-
ploiting the potential of the alpine landscape. In the past, exploitation of natural resources by
the primary sector had strongly contributed to shaping and preserving the wealth of the cul-
tural landscape and the exceptional biodiversity of the alpine arc.
A clearer duality may still be observed, however, with regard to use. On the one hand, there
has been an over-exploitation of natural resources due to economic pressures, while on the
other a decline, even abandonment, of farming has occurred. These two processes may result
in the loss of precious elements of the landscape such as the diversity of species or the tradi-
tional cultural landscape. Consequently, it is crucial for sustainable development in the alpine
arc to reach a balance between added value and appreciated value coming from the different
forms of use. This is the objective of the following recommendations.

1. The importance of the landscape as a collective good must be reinforced
The landscapes and habitats of the alpine arc represent a central element of the Swiss
brand name. The exceptional proximity of Swiss metropolitan areas and mountain regions
already provides an initial location advantage. Apart from the supply of natural resources,
exploited mainly by agriculture, and then forestry and hydraulic power, the alpine landscapes
fulfil numerous societal functions such as a protection against natural hazards, a reserve for
species diversity, and an area for training and education, relaxation, contemplation and the
search for identity. Change in the global economy as well as an increase in the demand for
landscapes has meant that there is no longer a need to consider alpine landscapes as simply a
welcome by-product of primary production. Instead, they should be perceived and managed
5 8

as a major product of alpine space. A new relationship with the landscape is henceforth nec-
essary, a relationship that takes into account their multifunctionality and is based on the com-
plex links between added value and appreciated value.

2. Landscape development must be approached and carried out in a determined man-
ner
Just as development takes place over time, or in a temporal context, landscapes exist in space.
The key question is to know whether landscapes and habitats in the future will still corre-
spond to the expectations of society. Landscapes are subject to numerous requirements re-
garding use and protection imposed by different sectors of activity and without sufficient
coordination. It is no longer automatic that the development of landscapes will necessarily
meet societys requirements sufficiently well. Action must be taken now so as to deal with
the diversity of landscape uses with the help of a common strategy. To do this it is important
to give greater consideration to the different landscape characteristics and in a more explicit
manner in the different use and protection policies. At the same time, this requires better in-
tegrating societys expectations of landscape as a collective good in all decisions that
concern it. With this aim in mind, government departments, particularly at the cantonal level,
should coordinate, organise and, if necessary, strengthen personnel resources.

3. When dealing with questions relating to the landscape, and when taking decisions
affecting spatial development, the different points of view of all those participating and
concerned must be taken into account. Such persons must be involved in the decision-
making process in an appropriate manner
The ideal landscape only exists in our imagination. Landscapes are perceived in a subjective
and selective manner, depending on the context, the way the observer is affected by them,
and past experience. Consequently, there are qualitative differences in the way landscape
values are perceived, resulting also results in different perspectives and expectations. Such
perceptions, perspectives and expectations must be quickly identified and integrated in an
appropriate manner in planning and decision procedures. Dialogue, moderation and media-
tion are tools that enable a successful outcome to be reached. It is a question of paying special
attention to the way in which the different opinions and ideas of specialists are integrated in
the process. Dialogue on the subject of landscape development is important not only with
regard to particular projects but also in the regional context. At the national level, a platform
for dialogue on alpine matters must be created so as to clarify the requirements, expectations
and roles of the different actors involved, as well as the associated financial commitments. It
is normal that basic conflicts surface between the different points of view. It is therefore nec-
essary to look for negotiated solutions at every level.

4. At the national and cantonal levels, new instruments must be created or existing
instruments must be improved with a view to facilitating coordination between uses
and protective measures at the regional level
Landscapes and habitats in the alpine arc can only be shaped and developed in a sustainable
manner in the future if different uses and requirements are coordinated. This is not the case at
the moment. Current policies impacting on the landscape have different objectives and the
ways in which the different elements of the landscape are dealt with vary considerably in
both precision and detail. While good quality instruments exist for developing and structuring
5 9

the landscape, efficiency is often lacking when it comes to implementing concrete measures.
Very precise, and in some ways restrictive, provisions govern use of the space for habitat
purposes, forestry and different protected areas (biotopes, heritage sites, etc.). This is only
partially the case for landscape. The currently available integrated concepts (natural parks,
landscapes of national importance, concepts of landscape development) were only devised for
certain specific landscapes, or they have only had a limited impact since the instruments for
their implementation are lacking. The aim of a landscape policy should be to promote these
instruments and to coordinate them at the regional level, for example within the framework of
an agreement for services related to the landscape .
This agreement should then provide the link between the services to be provided and public
subsidies. In line with this type of thinking, the policy of agglomerations may be cited as a
model that has managed to link infrastructure subsidies to programmes reconciling transport
policy and environmental policy.

5. To ensure optimal use of the Alps, spatial development must focus more on regional
potential and be structured in a differentiated way
Diversity is the most important characteristic of alpine landscapes and habitats. Local and
regional differences in terms of cultural and natural areas constitute the essence of their value.
The main aim of political measures introduced up to the present has been to reach an eco-
nomic balance between centres and peripheral regions. This balance has in fact been attained
in part thanks to considerable funding. The policy of everything everywhere has led,
however, to a certain monoculture of use while at the same neglecting regional potentials.
On the other hand, a strategy that generates added value based on regional potential requires a
more pronounced qualitative differentiation of areas. This differentiation is expressed mainly
through a combination of offers of marketable goods and collective goods. In the short term,
some of the most peripheral regions will not have a sufficient working population to sustain
or even re-launch development. In these regions, the disappearance of a human presence
could consequently result in a new but modest potential taking the form of natural and wild
landscapes. This involves creating legal guarantee mechanisms or systems for compensating
between those regions with a potential for economic growth and those that have deliberately
renounced growth.

6. The provision of landscape services should be compensated by an efficient incentive
system
Public authorities support development of the alpine arc by means of considerable subsidies,
coming from a variety of sources. Financial support, however, is poorly coordinated and in
some ways remains a little like an income supplement? There are also conflicting objectives
when the different funding is allotted. The amount of the subsidies made to the alpine arc
reflects the substantial solidarity that exists with the alpine regions. This solidarity is begin-
ning to change however. One the one hand, the amount of funding is being questioned and,
on the other, an ever-increasing number of demands for services in return are being formu-
lated and requested. First there are demands related to the collective goods that the alpine arc
provides for the urban agglomerations, particularly the landscape services such as space for
recreation and relaxation, biodiversity, aesthetic qualities, protection against natural dangers,
the cultural landscape and heritage sites. These services at the moment are only marginally
6 0

provided for when compared with the overall subsidies. Consequently, more effort should be
focused on financial means that encourage the provision of more clearly defined landscape
services. In this way, societys expectations will be better satisfied and funding more effi-
ciently allotted. The New regional policy is in line with this objective. It is a question of ex-
tending measures beyond strictly economic aspects and, in particular, of reinforcing the ori-
entation of direct agricultural payments towards ecological services.

7. It is through ongoing training and education that the conditions for exploiting the full
potential of alpine landscapes and habitats can be improved
Economic change within the alpine arc calls for considerable capacity for adaptation and sub-
stantial innovation on the part of the local population. If this is lacking, the full potential of
the alpine arc cannot be exploited and the changing expectations of visitors, hosts and society
cannot be satisfied. The abandonment by the State of generalised structural financial aid im-
plies that the regions must assume greater responsibility for their own development.
Lower population densities in peripheral regions mean that the exchange of ideas is less in-
tense there than in the more densely populated urban areas. This constitutes a considerable
handicap. Consequently, means must be provided in the form of training and perfection pro-
grammes to stimulate and reinforce personal initiative in these regions. In addition to conven-
tional training courses, possibilities for Internet access must be provided along with the crea-
tion of places for learning that encourage exchanges on experiences and the transmission of
promising strategies and projects. Those people responsible for innovative projects in the
villages or valley areas can be supported by coaching and insertion in a network. Discussion
groups such as think tanks within the alpine arc could also take on a more important catalytic
function and contribute to greater general awareness.

8. In the future, alpine research should focus more on current development trends in
the living space and the landscapes of the Alps
A key result of National Research Programme 48 was to identify the way in which the con-
scious development of alpine cultural landscapes can be achieved through different strategies.
It requires taking a step back from the homogenous representation of development and envis-
aging the challenges and possibilities in a manner that distinguishes between regions. The
regional cultural and socio-economic context is also crucial. This regional differentiation
which would have been necessary for a realistic implementation of the strategies analysed
could not be used, however, in a systematic manner within the framework of the NRP 48. In
the future, alpine research will have to focus more on the heterogeneous development trends:
concentration of capital in the tourism sector, the Alps as a residential and commuting area,
the rural exodus and alpine fallow lands. Alpine research will also have to be directed to-
wards the impact of the New regional policy. The recommendations resulting from the five
thematic syntheses and the final report have been presented on numerous occasions within
the framework of the implementation of the research programme.

6 1

References
Thierstein A., Abegg C., Pfister Giauque B., Rey M., Natrup W., Thomas M. (2005).
Liberalisierung ffentlicher Dienstleistungen. Auswirkungen auf die Wettbewerbsfhigkeit
der Unternehmen im Schweizer Berggebiet. Verlag Haupt, Bern, ISBN 3-258-06816-X.
Backhaus N., Reichler C., Stremlow M. (2006). Alpenlandschaften Von der Vorstellung zur
Handlung. Thematische Synthese zum Forschungsschwerpunkt I Prozesse der
Wahrnehmung. vdf Zrich, ISBN: 9783728131195.
Conzett S., Lenz A.. (2006). Bergdorf Hinterrhein. Erlebt, erinnert, erzhlt. (Das Buch zum
Film). Verlag Hier+Jetzt, Baden, ISBN 3-03919-001-6.
Lehmann B., Steiger U., Weber M. (2007). Landschaften und Lebensrume der Alpen
Zwischen Wertschpfung und Wertschtzung. Reflexionen zum Abschluss des Nationalen
Forschungsprogramms 48. vdf Zrich, ISBN 9783728131423.
Lehmann B., Messerli P. (2007). Le Programme National de Recherche Suisse Paysages et
habitats de lArc Alpin . Revue de Gographie Alpine. 2007-4. p 7-17. Grenoble.
Rodewald R., Knoepfel P. (Hrsg.). (2006). Institutionelle Regime fr nachhaltige
Landschaftsentwicklung
(Rgimes institutionnels pour le dveloppement durable du paysage). Teilweise in
Franzsisch. Verlag Regger Zrich, ISBN-Nr.: 3-7253-0813-6.
Reichler C., Vaj D., Lthi D., Guignard A., Piccand M., Matos-Wasem R. (2006).
Le bon air des Alpes The Good Alpine Air. In: La rvue de gographie alpine, Journal of
alpine research, Grenoble, ISBN 2200-92058-X.
Rsli L. (2006). Hinterrhein Umbruch im Bergdorf. (Der Film als DVD).
Verlag Hier+Jetzt, Baden, ISBN 3-03919-002-4.
Simmen H., Walter F. (2006). Landschaft gemeinsam gestalten Mglichkeiten und Grenzen
der Partizipation
Thematische Synthese zum Forschungsschwerpunkt III Zielfindung und Gestaltung. vdf
Zrich, ISBN: 9783728131133.
Simmen H., Walter F., Marti M. (2006). Den Wert der Alpenlandschaften nutzen
Thematische Synthese zum Forschungsschwerpunkt IV Raumnutzung und Wertschpfung .
vdf Zrich, ISBN10: 372813080x
ISBN13: 9783728130808
Stcklin J., Bosshard A., Klaus G., Rudmann-Maurer K., Fischer M. (2006). Landnutzung
und biologische Vielfalt in den Alpen Fakten, Perspektiven, Empfehlungen. Thematische
Synthese zum Forschungsschwerpunkt II Prozesse der Vernderung. vdf Zrich, ISBN
9783728131287.
Simmen H., Marti M., Osterwald S., Walter F. (2005). Die Alpen und der Rest der Schweiz:
Wer zahlt wer profitiert? vdf Zrich, ISBN 3-7281-3013-3.
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Staehelin-Witt E., Saner R, Wagner Pfeifer B. (2005. Verhandlungen bei Umweltkonflikten.
konomische, soziologische und rechtliche Aspekte des Verhandlungsansatzes im alpinen
Raum. vdf Zrich, ISBN 3-7281-3016-8.

6 3
Session 2: City Regional Forms

Emerging Urban Governance in Southeast Asian Countries:
How can we control these rapidly expanding cities?

Norihisa Shima
1)

1) Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
e-mail: shima@civil.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

From rural to urban, people are moving all over the world. Urbanization is a worldwide
phenomena. Among them, Southeast Asia is being urbanized at much faster speed than the
world has experienced, with little control for these rapidly expanding cities. The biggest
challenges for these Southeast Asian cities are reconstruction of the city center, including
improving the informal settlements, and control of the peri-urban area.
These challenges are not new ones, but very few effective policies have been implemented.
Dont we have any hope for this urbanization? The answer is no. We can find the strong step
for these challenges in emerging urban governance.
This paper aims to review the urbanization trend in the world and in Southeast Asian
countries and their emerging urban governance with reference to the case of Indonesia and to
discuss how the rapid urbanization can be controlled.

Keywords: urbanization, growth management, urban governance, Southeast Asia, Indonesia

6 4

Strategic Analysis of Urban/Peri-urban Agriculture in Asia:
Issues, Potential and Challenges

Peeyush Soni and Vilas M. Salokhe

Agricultural Systems and Engineering
School of Environment, Resources and Development
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok (Thailand)
soni@ait.ac.th

Abstract

About 41% (2.3 billion) of Asians lived in urban areas in 2007 and with an accelerated
urbanization rate, Asia is expected to become 50% urbanized around 2020-2025. By mid-
century, Asia is projected to see its urban population increase by another 1.8 billion. This
urban population explosion in Asia, mainly developing countries, has posed severe challenges
for the town planners as well as researchers. Growing urban food requirements, increased city
waste and effluent production, and environmental degradation are some of those challenges.
The size of a city should closely match to the supply of food it is able to procure. In Asian
metros where most of the urban growth has concentrated, procurement of food, especially
fresh perishable products, is becoming more acute.

Urban/Peri-urban agriculture helps addressing such food and ecological challenges. This type
of agriculture, according to FAO, provided 25% (700 million) of the worlds urban population
in 2005. It supplies urban markets with a wide range of products, creates jobs and makes
towns greener by virtue of fruit orchards and market gardens. Rising transportation cost per
food-mile, traffic jams, insufficient storage space, environmental pollution, health risks and
decline in quality life of urban tenants, etc. have been the driving force behind this urban
agricultural system for in-house production of food products. Nonethenless, contributing as
high as 50-70% of middle class families income in developing Asian countries, food claims
its economic significance also.

To strategically analyze the urban/peri-urban agriculture in Asian cities, this paper highlights
some key issues, potential and challenges in this regard.

Issues favoring this agri-urban tie up mainly include: Growth of agricultural markets in cities;
Increased urban awareness of organic products and functional food; Growing importance of
intensive urban agriculture for self-provisioning of poor families living in cities who are
struggling for adequate nutrition and are victim of double-health risks; Off-season
vegetable/fruit production; Potential to use renewable energy sources including solar, wind,
biogas; Potential to run on recirculating/recycling resource systems; Agricultural or non-
agricultural use of urban biological wastes; Enhanced urban sustainability; and Addition of
social and economic values to urban natural and physical resources.

Issues that are yet to be emphasized to popularize urban/peri-urban agriculture mainly
include: Urban resources recognition and use; Dependency on skilled workforce; Policy,
infrastructure design and city planning issues; Insufficient production capacity to meet year-
long needs of building residents; Complicated setup and expensive maintenance; Energy
6 5

intensive farming; Receiving little or no research attention and frequently ignorance by
municipal authorities; and Lack of knowledge on different types of technological support
systems that exist, their contribution to livelihood and the environmental and health risks and
benefits they bring.

Trends in Urbanization

Magnetic attraction to cities is a global phenomenon. Urbanization has now reached a stage
worldwide, where it is expected that it will rise to 70% in the next 40 years. Asia and Africa
are currently rural with 39% and 41% urban population, as compared to already 70%
urbanization in Europe and Americas UN-HABITAT (2008).

Cities grow around economic activities. They are encouraged by the accumulation of skilled
labor. Large numbers of people are migrating to cities in search for work as the agricultural
mechanization reduces the demand for labor in the countryside.

On an average there have been 3 million people per week added to the cities of the developing
world, since the past two decades. United Nations predicts, for the next 40 years, that 95% of
global urban population growth will be absorbed by cities in developing countries UN-
HABITAT (2008). There will be about 5.3 billion people in cities of developing countries by
the mid of the 21
st
century, becoming double from 2.3 billion urban people currently (UN,
2008).

Asian Cities: At a Glance

Asia is changing from predominantly rural to an increasingly urban continent. By 2020, more
than half of the world urban population will live in Asia and 17 of the worlds 27 mega cities
(>10 million population) will be located in Asia (PUDSEA, 2001). By 2050, Asia will be
accommodating nearly 63% (3.3 billion) of the global urban population. Owing to Chinas
faster urbanization rate, which is projected to be 70% urbanized by 2050 (UN-HABITAT,
2008), Asia will observe urban transition relatively earlier than Africa. Urban growth rates in
India, however, will be slower by 2050, 55% (900 million) of its people will live in cities.

Major Chinese cities are growing at 10% annual growth rate. Dhaka - the capital of
Bangladesh is growing at 4.4% growth rate. According to a study on 245 fastest growing
cities of developing countries, UN-HABITAT (2008) found that 40% of those cities have
benefitted from diversification and improvement of regional transport systems, in terms of
infrastructure and technology. In developing regions of Asia, transport connectivity is
considered to be the most important driver of city growth.

Asia is the region where the greatest income variations exist. The income and consumption
indices reveal the inequalities in Asian countries are generally higher in urban than that in
rural areas (UN-HABITAT, 2008). Several Asian countries are facing large income
disparities between rural and urban areas, probably due to the concentration of economic
activities in urban areas or city regions. This disparity has increased dramatically in the last
two decades primarily as a result of economic liberalization. China remains at the top of the
list with the widest income gap between rural and urban areas in the world.

6 6

Cities represent, for many, the good life. On average, urban dwellers have higher incomes and
live healthier, enjoy easier lives than their rural counterparts. But the benefits are not
universal. One out of every three people living in cities of the developing world lives in a
slum. They are characterized by five shelter deprivations issues including lack of access to
improved water, lack of access to sanitation, non-durable housing, insufficient living area, and
security of tenure. There are 43% slums in South Asia, 37% in East Asia, 28% in Southeast
Asia and 24% in West Asia.

Cities and Sustainability

The urban population explosion in developing countries has set major challenges for the
towns involved, such as growing food requirements and increased waste and effluent
production. Moreover, as a result of migration, urban poverty is growing. The most
underprivileged have great difficulty finding the food they need.

Cities have a large ecological footprint. They call on resources over a wide area stretching
from the need to provide food to acquisition of raw materials. Locally, cities put huge strains
on natural ecosystems, pollute rivers and coastal waters, consume forests and water, degrade
soils, disrupt drainage and stunting crops. Today, humanitys ecological footprint is 2.2 global
ha per person, which is over 21% greater than the earths biocapacity (1.8 ha), or its capability
to regenerate the resources used. It now takes more than one year and two months for planet
Earth to regenerate what we, its inhabitants, use in a single year.

It is now required to know whether wealthy cities can generate and justify large ecological
footprint and whether development policies can reduce that footprint. The challenge today the
world is facing is whether cities can transform themselves into self regulating, sustainable
systems - not only in their internal function, but also in their relationship to the outside world
or become a source for ecological disasters.

The challenge today is to understand what it takes to sustain a city? It is a well-realized fact
that the ecological footprint of a city is significantly larger than the city boundaries (Grazi et
al., 2007). Peri-urban areas are a transition belt with characteristics of both urban and rural.
They are having following major characteristics (PUDSEA, 2001):

a) A mosaic type of agriculture, housing areas and industry
b) Strong development dynamics
c) Ongoing urbanization and increasing land prices
d) Direct access by residents to goods and services
e) More than 50% of households receiving their major income from industrial and urban
employment
f) Semi-commercial and commercial agriculture
g) Opportunities for sustainable development and mutual benefits

Rather than measuring sustainability of a given area, the footprint of a region or nation in fact
measures inequality of resources. For instance, the difference in the per capita footprint of two
nations could be due to the difference of per capita consumption, which is due to the
6 7

difference in per capita income between the two nations. But within a country one can also
see similar large differences.

Cross-country comparisons of the ecological footprint rely on boundaries that are arbitrary,
and thus potentially meaningless (Fiala, 2008). This criticism is of course possible for any
definition that relies on national boundaries, though it poses an especially important problem
for the issue of relative biocapacity, where average consumption within a nation is multiplied
by world population and then compared to the capacity of the Earth. For example, Moran et al.
(2008) use data on consumption that suggests that if everyone on the planet were to live in the
same manner as the average American, it would have required 3 Earths in 1975 and 5 Earths
in 2003 to sustain this consumption. Multiplying by the average footprint though misses the
variance within a nation and so makes a strong assumption about which consumption level to
generalize upon.

Cities and Agriculture

Traditionally, the size of a city is closely related to the food it is able to procure in its outskirts.
With efficient and less expensive transportation becoming available, cities have increasingly
drawn on food sources from outlying areas, with the ability to pay being a determining factor.
Thus, many large cities have become vulnerable; as more countries are unable to feed
themselves and fewer countries produce exportable surpluses (Newland, 1980). In Asia,
where most of the urban growth has concentrated in metropolitan areas, the problem of food
availability and access is becoming more acute. In these urban centers, uneven distribution of
incomes, the prevalence of poverty, diminishing farmlands, inefficient distribution systems,
and rising expectations have all contributed to increasingly critical problems of food supply
and distribution, particularly as they affect the urban poor (Pernia, 1983).
Cropland represents approximately 25% of the total world ecological footprint (Global Foot-
print Network 2006), and so is very important for measures of sustainability. Total world
production has been increasing at an average rate of 2.17% yearly, with yield rates increasing
at 2.06% yearly. Thus, the total world land area dedicated to all cereal production has only
increased on average by 0.09% each year. From 1961 to 2006, the world market of cereal
producers has focused most of their efforts to increase production intensively. In all regions
except Europe and Africa, the yield of cereals has more than doubled in the last 45 years
(FAO, 2008).
Food insecurity is drawing more and more people in growing cities of developing countries to
the practice of urban agriculture - the production of food and non-food crops and animal
husbandry in built-up areas.
The challenge is to design more closed nutrient and energy cycles than currently prevalent,
that take the economic and social demands of people into consideration. The question is how
can we develop economically and environmentally sustainable spatial settlements that link the
peri-urban agricultural production (e.g. raw material for small scale industries) with the
development of small scale industries (e.g. food processing units) and that offer employment
opportunities for local people in the periphery while the organic household waste is used as a
source for nutrients in agricultural production (PUDSEA, 2001). And how can we ensure food
hygiene if irrigation water from sewers is contaminated with heavy metal or pathogens from
untreated night soils from the city.

6 8

Urban and peri-urban agriculture can help solve major food and ecological problems. Such
type of agriculture provided food for around 25% of the worlds urban population (700
million urban inhabitants) in 2005 (Moustier and Danso, 2006). It supplies urban markets
with a wide range of products, creates jobs and makes towns greener by virtue of fruit
orchards and market gardens. However, urban agriculture is under many threats, such as
competition for land between agricultural and residential or industrial uses, or the use of
imports by food distribution groups and supermarkets.
For the urban majority of poor people in the developing countries, food is turning into a very
expensive commodity. Households in nearly half of the developing countries' largest cities
spend 50-80% of their average income on food. Surveys in Kenya, Egypt, India, Bolivia,
Bangkok, La Paz, Bamako and Dar es Salaam, show that poor urban households spent around
60% - and in some cases as much as 89% - of their income on food (Mougeot, 1993).
Poor people in cities have fewer options than rural inhabitants. Price surveys of five
developing countries showed that city dwellers had to pay 10-30% more for their food than
rural dwellers (Mougeot, 1993).
Furthermore, as many as 360 million urban inhabitants in developing countries suffer from
chronic calorie deficits. Five of every six urban families in India typically spend 70% of their
income on food (Newland, 1980). In Kuala Lumpur, 45-50% of total household expenditure
goes to food. Consequently, the lower-income groups in cities of Asia are often worse off
nutritionally than their rural counterparts (Yeung, 1987).
Potential
The role of urban/pert-urban agriculture has been reevaluated for several reasons: it requires
little energy for transportation and conservation; it provides urban employment opportunities;
it permits richer and more varied interaction between natural and urban spaces; and it can be
used as a means to control urban growth.

Urban/peri-urban agriculture often makes a significant contribution to many major cities' food
self-reliance. In some large Latin American centers about 33% of vegetable demand is met by
urban production. Cities such as Kathmandu, Karachi, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai and
others in China produce between 25 and 85% of their supply in vegetables and fruits, while
Hong Kong, Kampala and Singapore meet between 70 and 100% of their poultry demand
(Newland, 1980). Some cities even manage to export products to other countries.

Urban agriculture gives us good reasons for recognizing the comparative advantages of rural
and urban areas in meeting large cities' growing needs for reliable, cheap supplies of
sufficient and nutritious food.

Apart from nutrition and health, farming in cities contributes to producers' well-being in a
number of ways, including cash-saving and income generation. Among the lower-income
groups, self-produced food can cover a considerable share of a household's total food intake
and can save cash income that otherwise would be spent on food. Depending on the income
group, self-produced food is found to account for between 18 and 60% of household food
consumption in East Jakarta, Dar-es-Salaam, and Kampala. Home-produced food enabled
families in Addis Ababa cooperatives and Dar es Salaam's poor families to save 10-20% and
37% of their income, respectively. In Bolivia, urban food projects supply women producers
with a quarter of their total income (Newland, 1980).
6 9

This type of agriculture is visualized on land unsuited to building, undeveloped land, idle
public land and bodies of water, and household spaces. Urban farming thus does not obstruct
more appropriate land development; rather it puts to use small, inaccessible, unserviced,
hazardous, and vacant areas.
The adaptability of this agriculture is due to a range of farming systems and crop selection
that make the best of site and locational constraints and resources in the urban setup. There
could be identified several appropriate farming systems, including aquaculture, horticulture,
livestock, agroforestry, silkworms, and medicinal and culinary herbs.
Urban agriculture is clearly far more than a means of subsistence, an informal activity, or an
illegal business. There can be several urban farmer categories, ranging from low-income
survival to middle-income home gardeners to agribusiness. In Bangkok, a single large firm
contracts some 10,000 outgrowers of chickens (Newlands, 1980).
Urban agriculture could further reduce its use of high-quality water if sewage systems were
designed to recycle sewage locally. Irrigation with untreated wastewater is a problem that
requires the adaptation of low-cost pathogen and vector elimination processes and
assessments of crop susceptibility to contamination. Research results could guide crop
selection accordingly; for instance, whether to plant food crops or non-food crops.
Solid waste is already used in a variety of ways but the practice should be further encouraged.
Current centralized management systems may hinder solid waste reuse for city farming, as
solids are dumped at sites with restricted access and wastes are unsorted. Pollution of the
water table and soil from agrochemicals could be curbed by the use of biological insecticides,
multicropping, compost and treated sewage.
Training and technological considerations

The increasing urbanization of agriculture means that the agricultural sector needs to be more
professional and to look more closely at the requirements of urban inhabitants. It is
increasingly necessary to raise awareness among urban authorities, for social, sanitary and
land management reasons.

It is also necessary to improve the skills of the private- and public-sector staff involved in this
type of agriculture, so as to ensure sustainable food supplies. A network must be established
to respond better to local demand for vegetables and make the switch to commercial
production. Technical solutions have been found in order to be able to respond to market
opportunities and boost farmers' incomes (out-of-season production, etc). New sanitary
quality certification systems should tested, and an economical daily price information
gathering and dissemination system could be developed to facilitate communication between
producers and traders.

It is vital that the local and national public authorities, private urban development players and
the agricultural sector realize the issues involved in this type of farming. In order to ensure the
sustainability of agricultural activity in and around urban areas, various stakeholders,
primarily the town councils and urban inhabitants, need to realize the functions of this type of
agriculture. It is also vital that urban agricultural producers, and their organization in the form
of groups, be recognized by the authorities.

7 0

In Vietnam, CIRAD (2006) evaluated of the impact of supermarket development on poor
populations, considering them as both consumers and traders. Supermarkets accounted for
only a small share of food distribution (< 5%). However, they were expanding at a rate of
more than 15% per year. This is having many adverse consequences for poor consumers, who
have limited access due to the higher prices practiced in supermarkets than on traditional
markets, transport constraints and the number of jobs created, which is small compared to
traditional markets and street sellers. Moreover, poor producers cannot supply supermarkets
due to the demands they make in terms of consistency and quality and of the time they take to
pay. However, certain producers' organizations allow small-scale producers to develop the
taste and sanitary quality of their products and reward that quality with a seal of approval.
This enables such producers to gain a foothold in the sector, ensuring higher, more stable
incomes than traditional supply chains.

Urban agriculture requires higher technological and organizational precision than rural
agriculture because it needs to be more intensive, more tolerant of environmental stress,
responsive to market behavior, and carefully monitored to protect public health. Many highly
valued systems must be adapted to smaller-scale operations, such as hydroponics and stall
feeding. Where poorer urban households have little land, technologies must be adapted to
make more efficient use of tiny household spaces.

Conclusions

Based on the aforementioned discussion, following can be concluded as issues, potential and
challenges pertaining to the urban/peri-urban agriculture in Asian countries:

Issues:

a) The challenge of rapid urbanization
b) Migration of poverty to urban areas
c) The aging world
d) Environmental pollution, health risks and decline in quality life of urban tenants

Potential:

a) Growth of agricultural markets in cities: growing urban demand for crop and animal
products
b) Increased urban awareness of organic products and functional food
c) Growing importance of intensive urban agriculture for self-provisioning of poor
families living in cities who are struggling for adequate nutrition and are victim of
double-health risks
d) Off-season vegetable/fruit production
e) Potential to use renewable energy sources including solar, wind, biogas
f) Potential to run on recirculating/recycling resource systems
g) Agricultural or non-agricultural use of urban biological wastes
h) Enhance urban sustainability
7 1

i) Addition of social and economic values to urban natural and physical resources

Challenges:

a) Urban resources recognition and use
b) Needs skilled workforce
c) Policy, infrastructure design and city planning issues
d) Insufficient production capacity to meet year-long needs of building residents
e) Complicated setup and expensive maintenance
f) Energy intensive farming
g) UA receives little or no research attention and is frequently ignored by municipal
authorities
h) Widespreading different types of UA systems that exist, their contribution to
livelihood and the environmental and health risks and benefits they bring

References

CIRAD (2006). Growing Crops in Towns: A Response to the Challenges of
Urbanization. http://www.cirad.fr/en/actualite/communique.php?id=587
FAO (2008). http://faostat.fao.org/site/570/default.aspx
Fiala, N. (2008). Measuring Sustainability: Why the Ecological Footprint is Bad Economics and
Bad Environmental Science? Ecological Economics, 67(4): 519-525.
Global Footprint Network (2008). http://www.footprintnetwork.org/
Grazi, Fabio, Jeroen van den Bergh, and P. Rietveld (2007). Spatial welfare economics versus
ecological footprint: modeling agglomeration, externalities and trade. Environmental and
Resource Economics, 38(1): 135-153.
IHT (2008). UN says half the world's population will live in urban areas by end of 2008. International
Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/02/26/news/UN-GEN-UN-Growing-
Cities.php
Moran, Daniel D., Wackernagel, M., Justin, A. K., Steven H., Goldfinger, and A. Boutaud
(2008). Measuring sustainable development - Nation by nation. Ecological Economics,
64:470-474.
Mougeot , L. J. A. (1993). Urban Food Self-Reliance: Significance and Prospects. IDRC
Report, 21(3). http://idrinfo.idrc.ca/Archive/ReportsINTRA/pdfs/v21n3e/109070.htm
Moustier, P., and G. Danso (2006). Local economic development and marketing of urban
produced food. In: Cities farming for the future: urban agriculture for green and
productive cities, R. van Veenhuizen. RUAF Foundation, IDRC, IIRR, 7, p. 173-208.
7 2

Newland, K. (1980). City Limits: Emerging Constraints on Urban Growth. Worldwatch
Paper no. 38, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C.
Pernia, E.M. (1983). Implications of Urbanization for Food Policy Analysis in Asian
Countries. Resource Systems Institute, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
PUDSEA (2001). Introduction PUDSEA-Network. Peri Urban Development in South East
Asia Newsletter. http://www.pudsea.ugm.ac.id/newsletter.php
UN (2008). United Nations Population Division. Cited in: Urban & rural population of the
world, 1950-2030. http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=1489
UN-HABITAT (2008). State of the Worlds Cities- 2008/2009. http://www.unhabitat.org
Yeung, Y. (1987). Examples of urban agriculture in Asia. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 9(2)

7 3

Strategic Planning from Regional Aspect
----Experience of the Research work on Development Plan of Guangxi
Beibu Gulf Economic Zone

Tan, Zong Bo
1)

1) Department of Urban Planning, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University
Haidian District, Beijing, 100084, CHINA
e-mail: tan_zb@tsinghua.edu.cn

Abstract
The selection of spatial structure and the determination of function zones are the most
important issues in realizing the social and economical development goals as well as
environmental protection purpose. In China, the regional planning is transforming its theories,
contents, and technical methods to meet the requirement of social and economical
development in market oriented economic system. Emphasizing on spatial aspects, the theory
and methodology of Strategic planning which established in long term practice of urban and
rural planning could also be applied to regional level. Development Plan of Guangxi Beibu
Gulf Economic Zone is an application example applying this kind of theory and
methodology to a regional level. This paper discusses the frame, methodology and the key
issues in research work on Development Plan of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone based
no the authors experience. The paper argued that, the fundamental task of the research work
on the plan is finding the motivity of social and economical development in the region, and
the balance between economical development and environmental conservation. Finally the
paper leads to a conclusion that the strategic planning in China could extend its territory to
regional level and form a new style of regional planning.

Keywords: strategic planning, Regional planning, Spatial planning, Guanxi Beibu Gulf
Ecnomic Zone, Social and ecnomical development, China

1. Introduction: Strategic Planning and Regional Planning
With the rapid progress of urbanization in China as well as the release of economic
development potentials and the transformation of administrative functions, as a service
agency, governemnts at different levels emphasize their efforts on the exploration of effective
methods and policies that can utilize the natural resources, promote economic growth, expand
development space, and change the landscape in both urban and rural areas. Thus, strategic
planning focusing on spatial development issues becomes increasingly important. The country
witnesses a wave of drafting this kind of plans.
( 1

(
1
) Refer to: Tan Zongbo. (2007). An Exploration of the Drafting of Strategic Planning on City Development: Thoughts from
Latest Practices, workshop on Urbanization and Urban Planning of Macau 2007, Center for Macau Studies, University of
Macau, and Reference (4).

)
On the other hand, plans related to
economic and social growth are also tending to including and increasing spatial contents. The
spatial factors in planning have been attached great importance than ever. Beside the
7 4

traditional urban and rural planning and the general land use planning conducted by land
management agencies, development plans for social and economic growth drafted by
development and reform administrations are also searching for the new approach toward
spatial allocation and solution of planning contents and indicators. At the same time, regional
planning also transform from the traditions of focusing on the allocation of productivity and
population to the new prospects focusing on regional integrity and balanced development
between urban and rural areas. The contents of regional planning have more
comprehsneiveness than ever.
Under this background, strategic planning which emphasizing spatial factors and
comprehensive considerations just meets the fundamental requirements of regional
development. The theories and methods of strategic planning obtained an opportunity to apply
themselves to regional scale.
The author of this paper had the chance to take part in the research work related to the
compilation of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone Development Plan 2006-2020
(hereinafter refered to as Beibu Gulf Development Plan, BGDP), recognizing that the research
work is actually an practice of applying theories and methods of strategic planning to a
regional scale and is a strategic planning with regional perspective. This article is a
summarization of authors understandings and thoughts about the research work.

2. An Outline of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone Development Plan 2006-2020
The state authority approved for implementation of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic
Zone Development Plan 2006-2020 (BGDP) in January 16, 2008 and Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region government held a meeting in Beijing on February 28 to introduce
BGDP to the public. It was indicating that the planning project starting in 2006 concluded
successfully.

(1) General Information of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone
Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone (hereinafter referred to as Beibu Gulf Economic
Zone, BGEZ) is located at southwest end along the coastal line in China, in the south of
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, with Southwest China at back, adjacent to Guangdong
Province, Hong Kong and Macau, facing Southeast Asia. The region consists of four
administrative cities of Nanning, Beihai, Qinzhou, and Fangchenggang (hereinafter referred
to as the Four Cities), with a total land area of 42,500 square kilometers, a total population of
12.3 million at the end of 2005, an urbanization rate of 39.23%. The gross regional product is
120.26 billion RMB. GDP per capita is 9,816 RMB, and the total financial revenue is14.2
billion RMB.

(2) Background of BGDP Making
BGDP compiling is a new attempt of regional planning in China, which meets the dual
demand of the state regional development strategy and regional economic growth.
First of all, the economic development in China has obtained achievements in phase and
the focus has changed from speed to quality, from efficiency to both efficiency and equality.
The orderly and balanced development of national land resources according to plans becomes
an important goal of regional development strategy. According to national 11th-Five-Year
plan, the newly proposed concept of main functional area is the embodiment of the theories.
In view of the inadequate development of BGEZ potentials, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region government take the opportunity and proposed to reform and to open the
coastal areas in Guangxi so as to speed up the development and construction of BGEZ. Beibu
Gulf (Guangxi) Economic Zone Planning and Construction Management Commission were
7 5

founded in March 2006, marking the official launching of Beibu Gulf development projects.
Then the planning work started.

(3) Process of the Planning Research on BGDP
In April 2006, with the authorization by Beibu Gulf (Guangxi) Economic Zone
Planning and Construction Management Commission Office (hereinafter referred to as BGOs,)
and Guangxi Development and Reform Commission, China Institute for Development
Planning at Tsinghua University undertook the research project of Regional Planning of
Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone (2006-2020 ) (hereinafter referred to as the Planning
Research), studying the important issues of social and economic growth in next 15 years in
BGEZ. The working team of the Planning Research made twice on-site investigations in May
and August 2006, proposing the initial report of Planning Research in October for advices and
suggestions, before producing the second and the third drafts of the reports of Planning
Research. In March 2007, National Development and Reform Commission provided specific
instructions on the content of the plan, and then the working team produced the fourth draft of
the report as well as planning text before inviting experts in Beijing for further discussions
and improvements. Then in April and May 2007, the fifth and the sixth drafts of the report as
well as corresponding planning text were proposed to the government of Guangxi Zhuang
autonomous region. The government submitted the Planning text to central authority and got
approval with the official title of Development Plan of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone
2006 -2020.

(4) Organization of the Planning Research
The Planning Research were organized jointly by National Development and Reform
Commission, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region government , and Tsinghua University,
with an advising team and a working team.(2
The Planning Research carried out basically within China Institute for Development
Planning at Tsinghua University and also gathered the scholars and researchers from other
departments, institutes and schools at Tsinghua University, as well as from Institute of
Geography and Resources at Chinese Academy of Sciences. A multi-disciplinary working
team was established with strong academic background.
(
)
3

(
2
) Advisors include: Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Chairman Lu Bing, Vice Chairman Chen Wu; National
Development and Reform Commission Executive Deputy Director Zhu Zhixin, Deputy Secretary-General Yang
Weimin, Vice President of Tsinghua University Xie Weihe, Tsinghua University Center for China Study Director Hu
Angang (titles are as of 2006).
(
3
) Participants of planning studies include: Professor Li Shantong, executive deputy director of China Institute for
Development Planning at Tsinghua University; Professor Wang Youqiang, executive vice president of School of Public
Policy and Management at Tsinghua University; Professor Tan Zongbo, deputy dean of Urban Planning Department of
School of Architecture at Tsinghua University; Professor Qi Qingwen, The Institute of Geographic Science and Natural
Resources at Chinese Academy of Sciences, Associate Professor Meng Yanchun and Professor Shi Zulin, School of
Public Policy and Management at Tsinghua University; Professor Lu Huapu, president of Institute of Transportation
Engineering at Tsinghua University; Associate Professor Shen Yuan, Professor Sun Liping, Professor Guo Yuhua,
Department of Sociology at Tsinghua University; Associate Professor Yu Xuewen, School of Architecture at Tsinghua
University; Associate Research Fellow Jiang Lili, The Institute of Geographic Science and Natural Resources at
Chinese Academy of Sciences; Lecturer Li Ruimin, Institute of Transportation Engineering at Tsinghua University;
Director Meng Qian, Information Service Office at Tsinghua University; Associate Research Fellow Yang Yongheng,
China Institute for Development Planning at Tsinghua University; as well as other planning and technological
professionals, post-doctors, PhD candidates, and candidates of master degrees, totaling at more than 50 persons (titles
are as of 2006).
)
The team members are divided into
different groups to submit and discuss proposals on planning at regular meetings. This
working style not only led to a large amount of constructive opinions and fruitful research
results, but also gave the team member an experience in cooperation among different disciples,
and exploring the truths with team work. As a byproduct, an experience on how to organize
7 6

large-scale research project with a network relationship pattern also obtained through the
Planning Research work.

(5) The Major Research Products
The planning work can be roughly divided into two parts: the one is the regional
planning studies represented by the Research Report on Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone
Development Planning 2006-2020; and the other is to concentrate on the revision,
examination and approval of the planning text. The former lays a solid foundation and
provides sufficient evidence for the later. In addition, as parts of the total research products,
there are 13 research reports on specific issues. The three of them form a pyramid-shape
supporting system in planning theories and content.

3. Fundamental Theories and Methods of Planning Research
At early stage of Planning Research, Schemes on Compilling Regional Planning for
Beibu Gulf (Guangxi) Economic Zone give out nine requirements on the Planning Research
(4
In its nature, the planning is a regional one; but what makes it different from others is its
emphasis on spatial integration of various functions and the dynamic balance between
development and conservation. Therefore, the working team referred to both domestic and
foreign planning cases, trying to identify a paradigm for this type of planning.
(
)
that can be summarized as follows: 1) to propose overall development pattern, strategy, goals,
and main indicators by carrying out a comprehensive investigation and analysis of economic
and social growth environment, resources, and development potentials; 2) to define the
function divisions in BGEZ geographically based on population, resources, environment, and
bearing capacity; 3) to define the development trend, dimensions, and allocations of urban
areas, industries, and regional infrastructure, and to propose the schedule, order, and strategy
on development and conservation; 4) to compare the Four Cities in terms of their respective
advantages, development directions, functions, and to define their relationships; 5) to propose
policies and measures of important construction projects so as to promote economic and
social growth.
In order to meet these requirements, the Planning Research must select clearly-defined
goals, research framework and methods of planning, and must make the priority in a large
number of issues. Accordingly, Planning Research focuses on following issues:

(1) The Characteristic of Planning and the Possible Paradigm
5

(
4
) The working Scheme was proposed by BGO in April 2006.
(5) Similar planning cases in China include: Report on the Studies of Basic Strategies on Wuxi Regional Development (1988)
jointly drafted by Society of Management Science of China, Wuxi Society of Management Science, United Nations
Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD); Studies on the Planning of Urban and Rural Spatial Development in
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region, Wu Liangyong et al, Tsinghua University Press, 2002; Studies on the Planning of Urban
and Rural Spatial Development in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region: Report on Phase 2 Studies, Wu Liangyong et al,
Tsinghua University Press, 2006; Planning on Harmonious Development of City Cluster in Pearl River Delta Area
2004-2020 composed by the mission team planning the harmonious development of city cluster in Pearl River Delta
Area, 2005. Similar foreign study cases include: ESDP, European Spatial Development Perspective, Towards Balanced
and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union, 1999. Joint Advisory Committee for Strategic
Planning, Joint Lancashire Structure Plan, 2005. Mayor of London, The London Plan, Spatial Development Strategy
for Great London, 2004. Tokyoto, Imaging Tokyo 2000, towards a opening world city, 2000.
)
but it turned
out that its hard, if not impossible, to find a paradigm that can be applied without any change;
because the local conditions and specific planning tasks play an important role during the
process. The working team has to make a series judgments in the research process, for
example: whats the focus of the planning, physical lay out or policies? Will it be a strategic
7 7

plan focusing on long-term goals or an action plan focusing on the arrangement of specific
development projects?

(2) The Position of BGDP in Planning System and Its Relation with other Plans
The traditional practice of drafting a development plan is to focus on qualitative
description and quantitative indicator of a macroscopic figure. In order to use strategic
planning to guide actual development, there are two other related plans which concerning
spatial arrangement and management also. Those are the urban and rural planning and the
comprehensive land use planning. In fact, there are eight other specific planning projects
including urban and rural system plan and land use plan conducted paralleled with the
development plan. We believe that, as a master plan containing the regional development
strategy and specific goals of local government, BGDP must be drafted on the basis of
comprehensive integration and coordination so as to achieve satisfactory work division and
connection with other plans.

(3) The Nature and Limitation of the Planning Research
BGDP is a comprehensive strategic plan. The Planning Research are a comprehensive
research work combining different subjects and its comprehensiveness is shown in three
aspects: 1) the comprehensive content of the Planning Research, covering extensive fields of
economy and industries, social issue and population, ecological environment, urban and rural
construction, and infrastructure, which should be integrated in one space; 2) the multi-
regional urban and rural integration means the planning should cover and coordinate among
different administrative districts as well as social and economic activities in both urban and
rural areas which having deferent properties; 3) the planning must maintain the balance
between development and conservation.
Since the Planning Research involve comprehensive fields such as relatively simple
engineering content as well as ecological and sociological contents involving judges of values,
it makes the project complicated. Therefore, its impractical to expect the Planning Research
for one and only best solutions to all problems. What the Planning Research do is to provide
clearly defined evidence and a solid foundation for regional authority to make decisions and
policies rationally.

(4) The Adoption of Research Framework and Methodology for Planning Research
The planning is an attempt of strategic planning in a regional scale. Therefore, the
Planning Research adopted two assumptions in strategic planning works: that is 1) the main
planning elements of economy, society, ecology, and space are correlated and interactive with
each other. among which economy serves as the primitive driving force (motivity) for urban
or regional development and is the leading element; 2) the planning regulates all activities in a
defined space and within the space, location and resources are objective conditions for
development, while original development status and policies are subjective factors.
( 6
On the basis of these theories and assumptions, the Planning Research established a
research framework and methodology for Planning Research with having a unified spatial
)
The
planning is in fact a process of making full use of objective conditions and bringing into full
play of subjectivity so as to maximize efficiency.

(6) Please refer to Reference (4) for more detailed explanations of the two assumptions.
7 8

platform as core, and combining multiple discipline research works, including techniques
such as general geographical unit (Figure -1).
(7)

Figure -1 the Spatial Analysis Framework

4. Key Issues in Planning Research
Although the Planning Research involve a large amount of issues concerning regional
development, yet instead of trying to solve all the problems the researchers focus on
following main issues. It shall be noted that the studies of these issues are based on academic
researches and not the explanation of BGDP. Therefore, the conclusions may vary from the
conclusive statements of the Plan.

(1) Positioning in Region
In terms of the regional position of BGEZ, BGDP defines as follows: (1) its an
important bridge and platform of exchanges and cooperation with multi-regions, serving
Southwest China, South China, and Central South China, communicating the west and the
east, facing Southeast Asia; 2) its a strategic highland leading and supporting the Great West
Development project; 3) its an open and cooperative physical distribution base, a business
and trade base, a manufacturing base, and an information exchange center between China and
ASEAN; 4) its an international regional economic cooperation zone.
The Planning Research analyzes the functions and the regional position of BGEZ in
future from three aspects.
Firstly, in international perspective, BGEZ enjoys favorable geographical position that
makes it a base of cooperation between China and ASEAN. But at the same time, its

(7) The concept of general geographical unit is proposed by Professor Qi Qingwen from Chinese Academy of Sciences
and used to solve the problems occurred by combining natural boundaries with administrative division lines and the
division of minimum geographical units during the process of establishing spatial database.
7 9

connection with other countries and regions, especially developed economies, is not close
enough; and ASEAN countries are its competitors in a sense especially in industries. At
present, the significance of its relationship with ASEAN is more political and diplomatic than
economic. Accordingly, the key issue is how to create an economic and industrial structure
complementary to that of ASEAN by taking the opportunity of domestic industrial transfer.
Secondly, in national perspective, BGEZ is a corridor, but not the only one in the region,
leading to the ocean for Southwest China areas. At present, the hardware facilities making the
place a channel to the ocean have basically accomplished, but cargo and people flows
required havent been achieved. This is why the Planning Research proposes to promote the
construction of modern physical distribution and production service sectors. Moreover, the
regional advantages enjoyed by BGEZ in China mainly lie in its favorable geological location.
With good sea transportation conditions, vast inland areas, and abundant fresh water resources,
this area is among the top choices for large-scale petrochemical and steel manufactures and
even for national strategic projects.
Thirdly, in regional perspective of pan Pearl River Delta Area, BGEZ faces the
competition from Pearl River Delta Area in physical distribution and petrochemical industry
in one hand, and has to rely on its advantages in capital and talent, in industrial transfer, and
in its merging with international economic system. Therefore, BGEZ should open to the Pearl
River Delta Area before opening up to the outside world.

(2) Economic Growth
BGDP state that: with ten to fifteen years of efforts, BGEZ will be developed into an
important coastal region with strong economic growth and will lead in realizing a moderately
prosperous society in West China. To be more specific, in 2020, its GDP per capita will be
higher than national average, its total economy will account for 45% in Guangxi, it will have
a more optimized economic structure, and its leading industries are petrochemical,
papermaking, metallurgy, light industries, food, hi-tech and marine industries. In agriculture,
plantation, livestock, and fishing industry are the main body. In services come physical
distribution, financing, information, conference and exhibition, real estate, and tourism.
The Planning Research focus on following key issues:
1) Current status and comparative advantages of regional economy
At present, BGEZ leads slightly ahead Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in terms
of economic growth; but it lags far behind the coastal areas in Southeast China and the
national average as well, even lower than similar development regions in the Central and
West China.
( 8

(
8
) In 2005, the GDP per capita in BGEZ was 9,816 RMB, higher than 1,054 RMB in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region,
but lower than national average of 14,040 RMB and is only one tenth of the average in Pearl River Delta Area.
)
Moreover, in terms of its industrial structure, the proportion of secondary
industries is extremely low. In other words, the foundation, especially industrial bases, in the
region is weak. But the optimistic side of the story is that it accordingly enjoys late-starting
advantages.
2) Primitive force driving regional economic growth
In terms of the rules of regional economic development in past three decades since
China adopted the policies of reform and opening door policy, there are three leading factors
contributing the most to regional growth: unique regional location or resources, technological
or talent advantages, traditions and culture which is extraordinary persistent for fortune. The
advantages enjoyed by BGEZ are its geographical location and resources, which also serve as
the primitive driving forces (known as motivity) for its economic growth.
3) Potentials for future development
8 0

To achieve a leap growth in BGEZ should depend on the deepening of opening up so as
to introduce capital, talent, and technologies from outside of region to boost local economic
development. Its unique resource of port provides conditions necessary for the development
of coastal industries with petrochemical and steel industry serving as a representative, and for
the physical distributions. Its good position in Southwest China makes it one of the top
choices for some large-scale enterprises. In near future, coastal industries and port physical
distribution will become leading industries and primitive driving forces promoting regional
development. But at the same time, it should also be noted that both coastal industries and
port physical distribution feature high GDP and taxation, but lower employment. Most
projects will be incoming enterprises; therefore the key of using incoming resources to
develop regional economy is to extend the industrial chain and to provide supporting services.
On the other hand, another equally important aspect of economic growth is to promote
traditional labor-intensive companies and to gradually upgrade to modern manufacturing
industries and hi-tech industries.
4) Features of Spatial Distribution of Industries
The characteristics of coastal industries and port physical distribution decide that the
industries in Beibu Gulf will gather in coastal areas before finally creating an industrial belt
there. Furthermore, as the center of the region, Nanning plays an important role in promote
headquarter economy and high-end service sector. Therefore, the future industrial pattern of
BGEZ in space is an inverted T in shape with one axis from Nanning to Qinzhou and two
wings of coastal industrial development belt extending to the west and the east based on
Qinzhou.
5) Regional Industrial Integration:
Since three coastal cities of Qinzhou, Fangchenggang, and Beihai share similar port,
land, and transport conditions, the interior competitions become an unavoidable problem.
With effective work division, on the basis of win-win cooperation, except for the
administrative functions of government, moderate market oriented competition is considered
as a positive phenomenon.

(3) Social Development
According to the goals stated in BGDP, the total population in the region will increase
from 12.3 million in 2005 to 19 million in 2020, the urbanization rate grows from 39.23% to
60%, with education, culture, healthcare, urban and rural employment, and social security
being greatly improved in 2020.
The Planning Research focus on following aspects:
1) People Flow and Moving during the Process of Urbanization:
The analysis on environmental capacity and current status of ecological conditions
shows that, with self-balance capacity, the ceiling population in the region is 30 million.
Currently, BGEZ has net labor output and, along with the development and opening of the
region, apart from absorbing farmers transformed into urban population during urbanization,
it should also receive incoming population so as to take the responsibilities as a key national
development region with designated functions.
(9
To promote the transformation of farmers working in cities into urban population and to
pursue a road of healthy urbanization is an effective way to realize integrated urban and rural
growth and to solve the conflicts caused by the dual social structure separating countryside
from cities. The previous U-shape urbanization with farmers rushing into the city for
)

(
9
) The natural population growth in Beibu Gulf area has been about 7 for years; and on the basis of this growth rate, in
2020, the natural growing population is 13.66 million; and when total population reaches 19 million, the mechanical
growth of population is 5.34 million.
8 1

construction projects and then returning to rural home village after the construction is
accomplished is a result of specific historical conditions at early stage of reform and opening.
The urbanization in BGEZ should not follow the old road.
With the rising of coastal industrial economy in BGEZ, the centers of population
distribution and main human settlements will gradually move toward the coastal areas and the
main development axis.
2) The Equalization of Basic Public Services:
For all citizen enjoying equal basic public services is an important goal proposed in
national 11th Five-Year Plan. Apart from Four Cities, in BGEZ also has a large amount of
small cities and towns, which form a complete urban system. These small cities and towns
have different functions. While Four Cities serving as the leading development areas in BGEZ
and being responsible for promoting regional economic growth, the small cities and towns
should undertake some of the economic functions and, more importantly, serve as public
service centers and bases.

(4) Ecological and Environmental Protection
BGDP states to reinforce ecological and environmental protection so as to promote the
strength for sustainable growth and to give priority to the construction of an energy-saving
and environment-friendly society in the entire strategy of industrialization and urbanization. It
also proposes specific measures in protecting and preserving ecology, in preventing and
controlling pollution, and in cooperating in ecological projects.
In fact, to focus on sustainable growth and to achieve the balance between development
and conservation are two main contents of the Planning Research. The researchers make
comprehensive analysis on the bearing capacity and the current status of ecological
environment as well as the suitability of construction land by applying the concept of general
geographical unit and conclude with the comprehensive evaluation on regional land resources,
providing scientific evidence for future spatial layout of various functions (Figure - 2).
The Planning Research take ecological environment status as the boundary conditions
for regional development, that is, different development intensities and spatial distribution
will have different impacts on surrounding ecological environment. In terms of ecological
protection, the planning is actually a choice made on ecological environment, which clarifies
the difference between objective evaluation on ecological environment and subjective
decisions and policy-making. It makes it clear that the nature of planning and policy-making
is actually a choice between price and return, that is, a carefully weighted choice between
ecological and environmental conservation and economic and social growth.
The Planning Research also propose specific suggestions on the measures protecting
ecological environment, such as to form a ecological oriented regional development by a
regulation of use of resources (land resources, water and natural resources, etc.), to regulate
on the discharge of pollutants, and to establish ecological restoring areas.
8 2

Figure -2 the Diagram of Land Use Suitability Analysis

(5) Spatial Layout
One of the features of the Planning Research is to take BGEZ as a united spatial
platform integrating all economic and social activities based on both competition and
cooperation
BGDP divided BGEZ into three types of areas according to their different functions,
ecological bearing capacity, development intensity and potentials. That is urban, rural, and
ecological area. BGDP also state the corresponding planning policies for each area.
(10
In view of current development in BGEZ, its development pattern is the typical core and
axis type. The Four Cities create a lambdoid spatial structure, which is inadequate in
expressing the planning intention of promoting ties between three coastal cities of Haining,
)

According to the Planning Research, the key issue in spatial layout of BGEZ is to form
a structure for reasonable and sustainable spatial development and to rationally define
functions zones.
1) Forming the Regional Spatial Pattern:

(10) Urban area accounts for 9% of total planned area and is an area centering on industrialization and urbanization and
focusing on the development of industries and the construction of human settlements and infrastructure. Rural area
accounts for 56% of total planned area, dedicating mainly to the development of agriculture, the protection of farming
land, the construction of rural settlements and infrastructure. The ecological area accounts for 35%, covering existing
natural reserve land, water source protection area, ecological restoration area, serving as an important space protecting
ecological security.
8 3

Beihai, Qinzhou with Guangdong Province in the east and Vietnam in the west. Therefore,
Planning Research proposed a spatial structure of two-core finger shape at early stage,
centering on Nanning and Qinzhou so as to strengthen the leading function of these two
central cities as well as to promote coastal areas relations with out region areas. But the
weakness of this structure is that it hasnt emphasized the important status and functions of
coastal areas in the entire region. Finally, the Planning Research made a revision to it and
propose a spatial structure in the shape of an inverted T by allocating the comprehensive
service center to Nanning and the industrial service center to Qinzhou, and joining the
Nanning-Qinzhou axis with the coastal industrial belt starting from Tieshan District within
Beihai in the east to Dongxing at Fangchenggang in the west (Figure - 3).
On the other hand, in terms of development schedule and order, with the regional
development and the progress of urbanization, BGEZ will also experience the process of
concentration and decentralization. The regional development will experience a process
from centralizing to the Four Cities to spreading to cities and towns in whole region and
forming a systemic network. Along with this process the urban and rural integration will also
gradually be achieved, together with the formation of a new urban and rural relationship
featuring equal basic public services.

Figure -3 Evolution of Spatial Structure in Planning

2) Defining Functional Zones
The division of functional zone in BGDP is actually a function-oriented one. In fact,
Planning Research tend to promote a policy-oriented division, that is, to define the function
zones with policies on whether to focus on development or on conservation. We propose to
divide the entire region into four types of areas: the areas where development shall be
promoted and encouraged (development promotion area), the areas where construction is
allowed (development suitable area), the areas where development shall be regulated and
8 4

restricted (regulated development area), and the areas where no development project is
allowed (reserved area) (Figure - 4). No matter what kind of method is adopted, the purpose is
to implement the balance between development and conservation chosen by decision makers
(Figure - 5).
3) Distribution of Coastal Line
In addition, BGEZ has a long coastal line of 1,595km. In future development process,
the authorities must take into comprehensive consideration of industrial development, port
construction, aquaculture and fishing industries, the development of tourist resorts, waterfront
areas for local people, and the protection of ecology by clearly defining the property of and
the requirements on the use of coastal line resources.

Figure - 4 the Concept and Breakdown of Function Zone

8 5

Figure - 5 the Key Diagram of Beibu Gulf Economic Zone Development Plan

(6) Infrastructure
BGDP takes the construction of regional infrastructure as a powerful support for
opening and for cooperation. The fundamental purpose of regional infrastructure construction
is to support and promote regional economic and social growth. Thus, the construction of
regional infrastructure must lead the development activities. BGDP elaborates in details the
goals in building infrastructure facilities in four fields of transport, energy, water conservancy,
and information, and lists specific construction tasks as well.
In view of the features of coastal industries in BGEZ, the fundamental transport
facilities construction such as port, railway lines, roads and highways are of vital importance
8 6

to regional development. Furthermore, the construction of information network will also have
direct impact on the development of physical distribution.
Moreover, the construction and continuous improvement of general transport systems
including regional inter-city high-speed transit, and the water supply, sewage, waste treatment,
electricity power, gas, and information network at the same time also serve as necessary
conditions for the realization of regional economic development, urban and rural prosperity,
and social civilization.

5. Conclusion: New Approach of Strategic Planning
As an attempt in regional planning and an experiment in exploring new approach of
making strategic planning in regional scale, whats the influence of the Planning Research on
actual development in BGEZ? And what are the expectations that BGEZ would hold in terms
of its economic and social growth on the Planning Research? We believe that the main
functions of the Planning Research are as follows:
1) The Planning Research analyzes the motivities which promoting regional growth in
BGEZ as well as the conditions, features, and future trend of these factors;
2) The Planning Research proposes the concept of looking for the balance point
between development benefits and ecological expense, and trying to give a practical solution.
In other words, the Planning Research actually point out a development road of focusing on
exploring primitive forces driving regional growth and achieving regional prosperity and
harmonious development at an affordable price of changing ecological environment.
BGDP drafted on the basis of the Planning Research is a regional manifesto of
government policies. In near future, it might serve as the foundation for arranging important
projects, for local government to make decisions on development and for compiling specific
plans with different topics and themes. Moreover, the Planning Research and the process of
drafting BGDP also built a platform facilitating regional coordination and cooperation.
On the other hand, in actual situation, BGDP also has its limitations:
1) At present, neither regional plan nor strategic plan has legislation backup in China
and therefore lacks legal restriction during the process of implementation;
2) Theres no clearly defined unit in charge of carrying out the plans, the interface with
existing administrative system is not clear;
3) It overlaps with other spatial plans in terms of both spatial coverage and contents.
The character of the issues that a regional plan concerns decides its strategic nature. At
the same time, the tasks of promoting regional economic and social growth and of protecting
ecological environment also require that the plan content must be projected to physical space.
In this sense, the theories and methodology of strategic planning which established in terms
practice of urban and rural planning could also be applied to regional level. Furthermore, the
focus of regional planning on policies also helps strategic planning gradually get rid of the
property of pure spatial planning and develop into comprehensive planning with actual
influence. Thus, regional planning is a possible new approach of strategic planning.
(11

(
11
) The author of this paper predicted on the future trend of strategic planning as: from urban and rural planning to the
urban and rural integrated regional planning, and from spatial planning to comprehensive planning. Please refer to
Reference (4).
)


6. References
(1) (2008). Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone Development Plan. Guangxi Beibu Gulf
Economic Zone Planning and Construction Management Commission Office.
(2) (2006-2008). Report on Studies of Guangxi Beibu Gulf Economic Zone Development
Planning 2006-2020 (Edition 1-5 & final report). China Institute for Development
Planning at Tsinghua University. Beibu Gulf (Guangxi) Economic Zone Planning and
Construction Management Commission Office. Guangxi Development and Reform
Commission.
(3) Peter Hall. (2002). Urban and Regional Planning, fourth edition. Routledge.
(4) Tan Zongbo. (2007). Thoughts on the Functions of Strategic Planning in Urban Spatial
Development. Collected Papers of 2007 Annual Conference of Urban Planning Society of
China.
(5) Lu Dadao. (1995). On Regional Development and Its Spatial Structure. Science Press.
(6) Lu Dadao et al. (2007). Report on 2006 Regional Development in China: Urbanization
Progress and Spatial Expansion. Commercial Press.
(7) Gu Chaolin Ed. (2005). Conceptual Planning: Theories. Approaches. and Cases. 2nd
Edition. China Construction Industry Press.
(8) Wu Tinghai. (2006). Regional Planning in Contemporary and Modern China. Tsinghua
University Press.
(9) Peng Zhenwei Ed. (1998). Regional Studies and Regional Planning. Tongji University
Press.

8 8

Tokyo: Transportation Network and City Form

Hitoshi Ieda
1)

1) Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo
e-mail: ieda@civil.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

What is the sustainable city form like?
Every city is seeking for its sustainable city form. In this sense, Tokyo can give us a hint.
Indeed, in its development history, Tokyo has been developed with expansion of
transportation network.
This paper aims to review the development history of Tokyo with reference to the
transportation network and to discuss the sustainable city form.

Keywords: Transportation network, city form, development history, Tokyo

8 9

Controlling the Composition of population for suburban housing
developments in Japan by selecting building types
- A Case Study of Yukarigaoka New-Town in Chiba, Japan -

Toshio OTSUKI
1)

1) Department of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo
7-3-1Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
e-mail: bigmoon@arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

This paper aims to examine the way to regenerate old new-towns in suburban area around big
cities in Japan.
First, 18 large New-Towns developed by private sectors with the area of more than 5ha were
selected and investigated. Through the analysis of the census, the compositions of those
towns population have a trend toward being getting aged with little inflow of young
generation. This trend would cause many social problems in a few decades.
Second, a famous New-Town was selected to be investigated. Through the analysis of the
census and interviews with the developer, the limitation of the number of new-built houses in
a year are very important to controlling the structure of the population of the area. And what
is more, selecting building types is an important method to controlling the composition of the
population in the town.

Keywords: Housing Development, composition structure,aging of population, building types,
Yukarigaoka New-Town

1. Introduction

In Japan, aging population of old new-towns which was built during the high growth period is
thought as a big cause of social problems. The aim of this paper is to find a way to control the
composition of population for new-towns.
In this study, through surveys and census analysis, the way of controlling the composition of
new-towns is investigated.
For the first step, data of private sectors development permissions more than 5ha collected.
Some findings about trends of suburban housing projects have been drawn with this data.
For the second step, to understand the characteristics of population structure of suburban new
towns, Ibaraki Prefecture was selected as a sample area. Ibaraki is the area which has many
large housing development projects. 18 housing estates were selected to investigate the
characteristics of transformations of the population structure trends.
For the third step, Yukarigaoka Project was selected to be investigated. The project is famous
for its concept as not getting aged town. Through analysis of the census and interviews
with developers, the importance of some method for controlling the population will be drawn.

9 0

2. Trends of Private Housing Development in Tokyo Metropolitan Area

In Japan, large development projects have to be permitted from the relevant local
governments. But, there is no integrated data of these permissions. So, anybody cannot tell
how many large scale housing projects in a certain area in Japan.
For this reason, to perceive the trends of housing developments in Tokyo Metropolitan Area,
the data of development permissions with area more than 5ha in 6 prefectures was collected
and integrated (fig.1).
According to fig.1, the distribution of large housing projects will be understood. In the early
times like 1970s, many projects were developed within a circle of 50km from the Tokyo
Central Station and the capital cities of each prefecture.
But because of the increasing of land price caused by the asset-inflated bubble economy
around 1985-90, the location of housing developments have shifted to far distance from the
center of Tokyo. And soon after the burst of the bubble economy, the land price has
decreased and the location of housing developments shifted from far suburban area to inner
city.
Nowadays, consequently we can see many vacant housing lots in suburban housing estates,
especially in far distance developments. The ratio of vacant lots shown in fig.1 was
calculated for each development by counting the whole vacant lots in house maps. And it is
calculated that the average of vacant lot in one housing development is around 20%.
With this fig.1, we can say that the housing project especially developed in the bubble
economy has many vacant housing lots and those developments are mainly located in far
distance from the center.

FIG.1: DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE HOUSING PROJECTS IN TOKYO METROPOLITAN AREA

3. A Case Study of a general suburban housing development
From the permission data of large private housing developments, Ibaraki prefecture was
selected to investigate the aging trends of suburban housing estates.
In Ibaraki prefecture, 18 housing estates were selected for the comparison of the data between
the permission papers and the census.
9 1

In Fig.2, each population structure divided in every 5 year-old persons of 18 selected housing
estates in Ibaraki prefecture. From this figure, we can see that almost all the compositions of
those housing estates have a shape of camelback. This figure implies that in every housing
estate, the beginning shape of population structure is mainly composed of parents of around
the age of 35, and their babies. This makes the figure of each housing estates population
structure like camelback.
And the characteristics of this shape have not changed much. That is why many housing
estates consist of different time shows the same population structure.

FIG.2: MONPOSITION OF POPULATION OF 18 SELECTED HOUSING ESTATES IN IBARAKI PREFECTURE

To understand the mechanism of transformation of the camelback figure of population
structure in a certain housing estate, one typical development was selected.
The development of this selected housing estate was started from 1973. From 1973 the
population in this estate has increased gradually every year until around 1985. Since 1985,
almost all the housing lots were occupied with houses, the ratio of increasing population has
been declined.
In fig.3, we can see the transformation of every 5-year population structure of the housing
estates. From 1980 to 1985, a small camelback has grown into a big camelback. After 1985
until 1990, the camelback has shifted to right-side.
But in 1995, the shape of the camelback has changed. The left-side peak has declined. This
means the decrease of the number of young generation. The young people, who have started
to go to universities and colleges, or finish their schoolings, might have gone out from their
parents house to have their own rooms outside the housing estates.
This trend of declining of the secondary peak of the camelback is still continuing until the
year of 2000. From the limitation of the census, we can see the change of the shape of
camelback until 2000.
But this analysis implying that in near future, this new-town would be an old new-town
consist of aged people without any measure of controlling the composition of the population
structure.
9 2

1980 1985 1990
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FIG.3: TRANSFORMATION OF POPULATION STRUCTURE IN A HOUSING ESTATE

4. A Case Study of a challenging suburban housing development

There is a famous new town for its unique concept as a not getting aged town in Chiba
prefecture which is located between Metropolitan Tokyo and Ibaraki prefecture. For this
concept, this project has received a prize from City Planning Institute of Japan in 1999.

FIG.3: LOCATION OF YUKARIGAOKA PROJECT FIG.4: AERIAL PHOTO OF YUKARIGAOKA
NEW-TOWN; THE DIFFERENCE OF THE
COLOR SHOWS THE DEFERENCE OF
DEVELOPMENT METHOD

This new town has started to be developed in 1977. According to the interviews with the
developers, from the beginning of the development, this town has been developed within a
limitation of the number of the newly-built houses. The maximum number of new houses in a
year is 200. It means that this new-town has been grown gradually or very slowly.
Though more than 30 years have passed since 1977, the development of his new-town has not
finished yet. The targeted number of this projects population is 30000, but the population is
only 13,000 now. And also the targeted number of this projects area is 245ha, but the
developed area is only 158ha now. This new-town is now under the process of development.
The fig.5 shows the transformation of the composition of the population in this town.
9 3

FIG.5:TRANSFORMATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION IN YUKARIGAOKA NEW-
TOWM

We can understand that there is a figure of a camelback. But as the time has passed, the part
between two peaks has getting increased. This is implying that this new-town would not
become a aged new-town as the examples shown above.
According to the interviews, every year the developer has an annual meeting about the
strategy about the development type for the year. In this meeting they discuss about the types
of housing as shown in fig.6. If they use detached housing for a development, many parents
in the age of around 35 tend to be the buyers. On the other hand, if they select the collective
housing type for a development, comparatively younger families tend to be the residents.

FIG.6: SOME BUIDING TYPES ADAPTED TO CONTROLE THE POPULATION STRUCTURE

5. Conclusions

To realize the concept of not getting aged town, the limitation of the number of newly-built
houses in a year, and the selection of the building types of the houses for the year are the two
major method of controlling the composition of the new-town.
These two methods could be adapted to other existing suburban new-towns with many vacant
lots to avoid to become an aged new-towns.

9 4
Session 3: Water Management
Infectious Risk Assessment with Exposure to Pathogens in the Flood Water
assessment of vulnerability of urban area to climate change
(Case Study of Manila)

Tran Thi Viet Nga
1)
and Kensuke Fukushi
2)

1) TGIS, IR3S, the University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654 Japan
e-mail: nga@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2) TGIS, IR3S, the University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654 Japan
e-mail: fukushi@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

1. Introduction

Metro Manila is the social, economic and political core of the Philippines. One of the most
serious problems it encounters is the perennial flooding. Metro Manila area is in a tropical
monsoon climatic zone, and the combination of typhoons and other climatic conditions with
geographical factor of situating 0 meters above sea level causes frequent flooding. Further,
rapid urbanization, poor capacity of river channels and drainage facilities, poor maintenance,
growing informal settlers, institutional problems and financial restraints exacerbate the flood
situation (JICA, 2001).

9 5
Figure 1. Map of Manila Metropolitan Administration and the study area. This map was
created by displaying polygons of district boundaries in ArcMap 9.2.

Many studies before presented evidences from a prospective epidemiologic microbiologic
study that there are measurable health effects associated with swimming activities in
contaminated surface waters. Cabelli (1982) reported that the swimming-associated illness
was an acute, relatively benign gastroenteritis which had a short incubation period and
duration. In the flood season, people may pose to a higher risk of infection with waterborne
pathogenic than usual because of more frequent and intense contact with water that may have
been severely polluted.

This study aims to characterize and quantify the human health risks associated with exposures
to pathogen present in the flood water. In this analysis, exposure scenarios according to
inundation levels were developed in which direct and indirect contact with water was
assumed to occur. Probabilities of gastrointestinal infection were estimated based on
established dose-response relationships for indicator pathogen (E. coli) to be present in the
flood water. The study area was City of Manila (or simply Manila), with population of
1,158,117 persons, as of May 2000.

A key factor in determining health risks involved in exposure of pathogens in surface water is
the volume of water that is being swallowed. To date, no studies have estimated volumes of
accidental digestion of a person living in the flood zone. We therefore have taken the
recommendation of US-EPA for the exposure during swimming/wading for different group of
ages. And we assumed that residents do not evacuate or move to other place when flooding
occurs. Since we dont have any field data to prove our assumptions, the estimated results
might be over- or underestimated.


2.1 Data
In this study, we used the data provided by JBIC to create maps of population density, status-
quo of inundation and calculate risk assessment. These data include barangay boundaries of
Metro Manila as of 2003 with the barangays in City of Manila grouped together by District;
statistics of population based on the census conducted by the National Statistics Office in
2000; and the GRID data of inundation scenarios

2.2 GIS
The Software ArcGIS 9.2 of Environment Research Institute US (ERSI) was used to match
population with boundaries districts. The newly created shapefile contains the district
boundaries of City of Manila as of 2000 and matched population in 2000. Based on this
shapefile, the population density (people/hectare) map was created. The GRID data of
inundation was used to create the inundation map. We used the minimum level (in meters) of
status-quo 2003 to present the map. The risk assessment was calculated to different exposure
scenarios according to inundation levels. Then, these results were matched with the
inundation map to create a new map of potential risks at relevant locations.

2.3 Exposure Scenarios
9 6
A human health risk assessment was conducted to evaluate the risk associate with pathogen
(E.coli) exposure in the flooding areas for the following scenarios: (1) Inundation depth of 0-
50 cm; (2) Inundation depth of 50-100 cm; and (3) Inundation depth of 100-200 cm, and (4)
Inundation depth of above 200cm. These scenarios are chosen based on human behavior
(Flood Fighting Act, Japan, 2001):

Table 1: Classification of inundation depth
Level Inundation depth Human behavior
I 0-50 cm most houses will stay dry and it is still possible to
walk through the water
II 50-100 cm there will be at least 50 cm of water on the ground
floor
III 100-200 cm the ground floor of the houses will be flooded
IV > 200 cm both the first floor and often also the roof will be
covered by water.
Note: Classification based on Flood Fighting Act, Japan, 2001

There are different vulnerabilities, experiences, coping behavior and responses to flooding
among various groups of people due to gender, aging, job, lifestyle and standard. Because of
the limitation of data, here the analysis focuses on the age factor. The population of Manila
was divided in to four groups, namely a) less than 4 year-old, b) from 5 -14 year-old, c) from
15-59 year-old and d) above 60 year-old, based on the census conducted by the National
Statistics Office in 2000 (NSO, 2000). Daily activities and behaviors of each groups of age
then were examined and studied through literature to determine the amount of time people
would spend in water if a flood event happens.

Figure 1. Distribution of age in Metro Manila
Sourse: NSO, 2000 Census of Population and Housing

In this study, E. coli concentration in flood water was use to evaluate the risk and the
exposure route was assumed to be ingestion. Default ingestion intake values were derived
from US-EPA Risk Assessment Guidance of Superfund (RAGS). For each exposure scenario,
risk was first calculated for a single exposure event.

This scenario presents direct contact with flood water during walking on the road. For the
purposes of this assessment, it was assumed that in one day the total amount of time spent
outdoors for the age group of less than 4, from 5-14, from 15-59 and over 60 year old are 2, 4,
(1) Inundation depth of 0-50 cm
11 %
19 %
64 %
6 %
0-4 year-old
5-14 year-old
15-59 year-old
over 60 year-old
9 7
4, and 1 hour, respectively, with the assumption that 50% of the total outdoor time would
spent in water. Since the inundation depth is less than 50 cm, it is likely that water-contact
activities would only occur during walking in the flooded streets.

Potential routes of pathogen exposure is indirect ingestion of flood water as result of hand-to
mouth activities. Hand to mouth transfer maybe significant for baby group (< 4-year old) who
spend time playing with water. In this analysis, the mean incidental ingestion rate was
assumed to be 50 mL/hour for baby (less than 4 year old) and 10 mL/hours for kid (5-14), and
adult ( 15-59, and over 60 year old). These values are derived from US-EPS risk Assessment
Guidance for Individuals Exposed to Surface Water during Wading.

At this inundation depth, it is likely that people would be in water whenever they go out . It
therefore was assumed that 100% of total time spend outdoor would be spent in the water.
The potential route of exposure is the same as above, e.g. indirect ingestion through
moving/walking in flood water. Other than that, the flood water would have been used for
bathing or washing personal belongings.

In this scenario, the water contact time was assumed to be the same as the scenario (2) since
waters were everywhere. However, at this inundation depth, it is likely that people would
have to swim or do swim-like activities during commuting. Because the kids would have
opportunity to play/swim in water and repeat exposure events in one day, it was assumed that
incidental ingestion of flood water could be considerable higher than that experienced by
other group of age. Some papers indicated that non-adults ingest about twice as much water as
adults during swimming activities (Dufour, 2006). In this assessment, the incidental ingestion
rate as assumed to be 100mL/hours for childs, and 50mL/hour for adults.

At this depth, both the first floor and often also the roof will be covered by water.. With high
frequency of contact with water by people living in flooded house, it was assumed that
incidental ingestion of flood water could be considerably higher compared to usual swimming.
For the purpose of this assessment, it was assumed the ingestion rate was 200 and 100
mL/hour for kid and adult group respectively.
(4) Inundation depth of above 200cm

2.4 Dose-response Relationship
The following equation was used to calculate the single-exposure illness rate (Hass, 1989) for
E.coli
Risk = 1 [1+ (D/ N
50
)(2
1/
-1)]
-
With Risk= probability of infection
N
50
=medium infectious dose
: slope parameter



Table 2: Assumption uses in risk calculation

Parameter Symbo
l
Unit Distribution/notes
Concentration
E.Coli

C
E

MPN/100
ml
A mean value of 30,000
MPN/100mL (18,000-50000) was
taken for E.Coli concentration in
flood water (Nga, Master thesis,
1999)
Water Ingestion Rate during
walking
Age <4
Age 5-14
Age 15-59
Age >60

ml/hour

50 ml/h
10 ml/h
10 ml/h
10 ml/h
Water Ingestion Rate during
swimming
Age 5-14
Age 15-59

ml/hour

100 ml/h
50 ml/h
Time spent outdoor
Age <4
Age 5-14
Age 15-59
Age >60
T hours/day
Assumed 1 hour
Assumed 4 hours
Assumed 4 hours
Assumed 1 hours
Fraction of outdoor time spent in
water
F %
Dose-response model (Hass
equation)
N
50

8.6x10^7
0.1778




3.1. Flood Identification
Figure 3 shows that among 14 districts (named from 1 to 14) of Manila, the district 1 in the
northeast has highest population density, more than 500 person per ha. The area along the sea
have lowest population density of les than 110 person per ha.

Table 3: Population densities on City of Manila
District
Area
(ha)
Population
density
(persons/ha)
District
Area
(ha)
Population density
(persons/ha)
1 865.13 682 8 158.91 38
2 66.11 176 9 67.26 111
3 84.69 291 10 259.58 298
4 163.85 253 11 278.69 230
5 309.01 347 12 166.00 476
6 774.71 455 13 315.28 80
7 91.37 184 14 337.45 526

1 0 0

Figure 3. Population densities map of City of Manila. Map was created by overlaying
polygons of 14 districts (named from 1 to 14 by author) on classified population densities in
ArcMap 9.2

The GRID data of inundation was then used to create the inundation map. We used the
minimum level (in meters) of status-quo 2003 to present the map (Figure 4). The serious
flood area where have high inundation level and high population density are District 1, 6, 12,
and 14.

1 0 1

Figure 4. Inundation map of City of Manila (data of 2003). Map was created in ArcMap 9.2
by overlaying polygons of districts boundaries on the following classified inundation levels:
(1) 0-50 cm; (2) 50-100 cm and (3) 100-200 cm, and (4) above 200 cm. This classification is
based on human behavior (Flood Fighting Act, Japan, 2001)

1 0 2
Table 4: Flooded area by districts, Manila City

District Area (m
2
)
Flooded-area (m
2
) according to inundation depth of
0-50cm 50-100cm 100-200cm >200cm
1 8,651,257 3,133,920 2,418,052 97,081
2 661,052 97,532 433,096 107,356
3 846,864 221,356 331,086 283,055
4 1,638,521 374,456 224,576 40,318
5 3,090,140 1,436,061 621,836 57,987
6 7,747,139 2,694,595 1,716,456 469,742 13,187
7 913,711 20,703 204,298 535,774
8 1,589,072 666,652 230,610 14,628
9 672,642 87,122
10 2,595,763 1,394,040 31,988
11 2,786,865 664,108 1,326,063 172,772
12 1,660,035 354,012 304,645 723,402
13 3,152,817 923,386 14,442 9,459 4,634
14 3,374,456 1,184,077 508,537 702,738

1 0 3
3.2 Exposure Assessment and Estimated Infected Risk
3.2.1 Daily risk

Figure 5. Estimated daily risk of infection via incidental ingestion of flood water in Manila
City. (Infected risk was calculated using the mean E.coli exposure level of 30,000 MPN/100
ml from the contaminated surface water data (Nga, 1998) and daily risks of gastrointestinal
illness via incidental ingestion were 0.000674, 0.001345, 0.005631 and 0.010328 for the
inundation scenarios of 0-50 cm, 50-100 cm, 100-200 cm, and above 200 cm, respectively.
Map was created in ArcMap 9.2 by overlaying polygons of districts boundaries on the
classified risk levels)
1 0 4

Figure 6. Number of infected people due to gastrointestinal illness via incidental ingestion of
flood water in Manila City. Map was created in ArcMap 9.2 by overlaying classified risk map
on the population densities map)

1 0 5
Table 5: Number of infected people per day due to gastrointestinal illness via incidental
ingestion of flood water in City of Manila (based on inundation data of year 2003)

District Population
Infected people (person) according to
inundation depth of
Total
(person)
0-50cm 50-100cm 100-200cm >200cm
1 590,307 142 223 37 0 402
2 11,619 1 10 10 0 21
3 24,615 4 13 46 0 63
4 41,517 6 7 6 0 19
5 107,154 33 29 12 0 74
6 352,329 83 105 119 6 313
7 16,798 0 5 55 0 60
8 5,969 2 1 0 0 3
9 7,466 1 0 0 0 1
10 77,398 28 1 0 0 29
11 64,184 9 42 22 0 73
12 79,003 11 19 193 0 223
13 25,243 5 0 0 0 5
14 177,480 41 34 208 0 283

3.2.2 Estimation of Annual risk
According to Zoleta-Nantes (2000), there were 18 to 20 floods occurred in Metro Manila
every year. The JICA survey in 2000 also reported that the duration of flooding was ranging
from 10-20 hours. In this analysis, one flood will be considered as one exposure to inundation
water, and we assume that the time length for one exposure will be one day long. We
therefore can convert the annual risk based on a single exposure.

Table 6: Single risk and annual risk associated with pathogen exposure during flooding
period, for different group of people

Group of
Age
Risk
Inundation depth (cm)
< 50 50-100 100-200 >200
0-4
daily risk 0.001491 0.002968 0.005879 0.005879
total risk 0.029407 0.057715 0.111231 0.111231
5 to 14
daily risk 0.000598 0.001194 0.005879 0.011536
total risk 0.011898 0.023615 0.111231 0.207095
15 to 59
daily risk 0.000598 0.001194 0.005879 0.011536
total risk 0.011898 0.023615 0.111231 0.207095
>60
daily risk 0.000150 0.000299 0.001491 0.001491
total risk 0.002992 0.005972 0.029407 0.029407
Total
daily risk 0.000674 0.001345 0.005631 0.010328
total risk 0.013398 0.026556 0.106796 0.187491

1 0 6
4. References

Donovan E., Unice K., Robert J.D., Harris M., and Finley B. Risk of Gastrointestinal Disease
Associates with Exposure to Pathogens in the Water of the Lower Passaic River. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology, Feb. 2008, p. 994-1003

Dufour A.P, Evans O., Behymer T. D., and Cantu R. Water ingestion during swimming
activities in a pool: a pilot study. J. Water Health 4:425-430

Charles N. Haas, Joan B. Rose, Charles P. Gerba. Quantitative microbiological risk
assessment. John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1999

JICA, 2001. Metro Manila Flood Control Project

Nga T.T.V. Master thesis. Asian Institute of Technology, 1999.

US-EPA. Risk Assessment guidance for Superfund. Vol.1. Human health evaluation manual
(Part A). EPA/540/1-89/002. US-EPA, Washington DC.

Zoleta-Nantes, D. 2002. Differential Impacts of Flood Hazards among the Street children, the
Urban Poor and Residents of Wealthy Neighborhood in Metro Manila, Philippines. Journal of
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 7(3): 239-266. The Netherlands:
Kluwer Publishing.

1 0 7
Deconstructing the Rural and the Urban:
Lessons from Recent Desakota Research in South Asia, Latin America,
Sub-Saharan Africa and China

Dipak Gyawali
1)

1) Research Director, Institute for Social and Environmental Transition,
GPO Box 3971, Kathmandu, Nepal
e-mail: dipakgyawali@wlink.com.np

Abstract
What is the relationship between poverty and ecosystem services provided by water? In
answering this question, the research gap assessment (DST, 2008), on which this paper is
based, examined the phenomenon now known as desakota, the large swathes of geography in
primarily the global South that are neither rural nor urban, where water stress exhibits
peculiarities driven by global environmental change as well as global political economy. As
with much else, poverty too is socially constructed as are household strategies to overcome it,
which gets parcelled out to the four management styles of Cultural Theory. Since the
objective of desakota households is to be sustainable over generations, their reliance on the
four management styles hierarchism, individualism, egalitarianism and fatalism assures
flexibility in strategy switching between livelihoods within the context of uncertainty induced
by global changes. Water and the management of its ecosystem services have to be
understood in those solutions that are sought in the overall problemshed rather than in the
limited watershed. This forces us to conceptually re-examine the issue of water stress and
conflicts, as well as to replace static sustainability with a more dynamic variant.

Keywords: Desakota, water, poverty, migration, climate change, livelihood

1. Introduction
The apple can be sliced along many cross-sections, and each one may reveal something inside
that will not be visible in other slices. Human habitations, if sliced along the conventional
geography of density of settlements or activities that relate or do not relate to crop growing,
result in what we know as urban (highly dense) or rural (more sparse) categories. These
classifications have become the basis of governmental policy (ministry of rural development
or urban planning), voter registration (municipal and rural vote banks), and even academic
division (rural sociology). If, on the other hand, we do the slicing differently by taking not
physical geographies but households and their income baskets, this neat classification gets
significantly blurred long before we enter the municipal boundaries. It has important
implications for national development policies as well as international agendas of poverty
alleviation or climate impact mitigation.

In much of the South, the intensifying process of technological and economic globalization
has affected traditional dependencies on nearby resources, whether they relate to water
availability or livelihood supporting jobs. Fed by new technologies of transport and
communications, these processes of rapid change occur at all scales, from the individual
households to national and regional levels, and can have two-way impacts, i.e. international
1 0 8
financial crisis affecting food availability in Nepali hill hinterlands or conflicts in Iraq leading
to riots in Nepal. It is within this context that the poverty, the fight against which has been the
mission goal of development agencies, has to be re-examined for the role in it which is played
by its definition by the communities concerned as well as its link to water-based ecosystem
services.

This research therefore attempted to first understand the mixed economy region called
desakota. It then tried to understand how global political economy and global environmental
change related to the understanding of both poverty (through the vulnerabilities faced by
affected populations) and the stress being experienced by water-based ecosystem (through the
uncertainties of science, as for instance associated with climate change, and social institutions
that ostensibly manage these ecosystems). In terms of global political economy, the desakota
region is experiencing increasing wealth accompanying increased vulnerability. These
contradictory outcomes are brought about by lifestyle changes through consumerist
modernization, high intensity of information flow, the penetration of industrial activities as
well as labour outmigration of a member of the household seasonally or semi-permanantly to
the global metropolis within the region or across the seas. In terms of scientific uncertainty
induced by global environmental change, at the top of the list lies climate change, followed by
changes in water availability both spatially and temporally in quantity and quality, as well as
land degradation and patchiness of biodiversity.

The desakota phenomenon is the co-penetration of the urban and the rural institutional
systems. It is more than what can be covered with the term peri-urban as it also comes with
all the strengths and weaknesses of the peri-rural. Driven by improved communications,
both for goods and people as well as information, brought about by cheap technologies (dirt
roads and two-stroke engine transport or the mobile phone), desakota is the locale where
traditional rural resource management institutions, often informal but effective, have declined
or even broken down, but modern formal structures that originate from the municipalities or
central government do not have the effective reach to make a difference at the ground level.
The conventional approach of making clear demarcation between rural and urban is
becoming less and less relevant for policies related to resource management as greater and
greater areas in between these two ends of the spectrum fall in the institutionally fuzzy realm
of desakota.

A similar deconstruction needs to be attempted regarding water, which can now no longer be
treated as a subject (often dealt with exclusively by the discipline of civil engineering) but
needs to be seen as the focal point where almost every subject taught in a university intersect.
Water needs to be understood, not just for its hydrology, but also in its bio-geochemistry,
atmospheric physics, law, history, sociology as well as religious aesthetics, to name some.
Indeed, in informing some of the current water conflicts, whether between states or within a
state between contending claims of industry versus agriculture or capital city aesthetics versus
marginal livelihoods in the hinterlands, disciplines not involved in water issues in any
significant way in the past such as anthropology and religion have made significant
contributions.

Water has many properties that are valuable to different social groupings at different times
and in different places. To take a few examples, in modern sanitation followed by most cities
1 0 9
today, night soil disposal and recycling in surrounding agriculture land has been completely
displaced by the flush technology utilizing the flow properties of water. This transition has
also resulted in direct conflict with religious sentiments associated with the river and
traditions associated with temples along the river banks. The consequent river pollution, now
no longer only organic but also heavily chemical, is also a matter of contention with life
supporting properties of water, including those for agriculture. This conflict requires, first
certainly for its understanding and later for its resolution, understanding of the context and
processes that are better done by disciplines such as anthropology and law and only to a very
limited extent by the hard sciences.

Unfortunately, most existing water management institutions are dominated by a civil
engineering approach where soft disciplines are either absent or, if present at all, often
ignored. Such an interdisciplinary shift in approach is essential if out-of-the-box thinking
and innovative solutions are to be found to address the problems. This is what has been
described as finding the solutions in the problemshed rather than only in the watershed
(Gyawali, Allan et al 2006). It has also been borne out by research in South Asia on the
adaptive capacities of drought and flood prone populace (Moench and Dixit, 2004). When
asked which household survived the best during floods or droughts, the response referred to
households that had either diversified their livelihood through migration (by having a member
of their family earning an income far away in a big city), or in architecture (such as houses on
stilts or with flat roof that allowed taking their bag of rice or sewing machine to the flood free
flat roof, which is not possible with a sloping roof). Such a diversity of solutions,
clumsiness is the word we prefer (Verweij and Thompson, 2006), if entertained early on in
the decision-making process, provides for better robustness in the policy terrain, whereas
neat solutions would probably have filtered out critical bits of information (including
probably being mired in a wrong definition of what the problem was), leading to rigidity and
the inevitable meeting with unpleasant surprises.

The most surprising result that eventually impacted on water and the worldview that guided
its use, misuse or disuse, but on the face of it had little or nothing to do with water was the
grassroots definition of poverty (as opposed to the international one of $1/day associated with
global programs such as the Millennium Development Goals (DG)). In the desakota research,
there was early realization that poverty is relative and that people can and do define poverty
differently. More importantly, if the definitions of poverty are different, one can be fairly sure
that the strategies employed to get out of it, the solutions to poverty as it were, are bound to
be different too. Also, if a group has a different definition of poverty, it is probably not going
to agree to the definition proposed by others that it does not agree to.

In one north-south transect study across Nepal from the High Himalaya on the Tibetan plateau
to the lowland Tarai plains next to India, villagers were asked their definition of poverty, or
more specifically what kind of poor family they would not want to give their daughter in
marriage to. The surprising response was that they would not want to give their daughter to a
family with lots of land, because, in the context of heavy rural outmigration and Maoist
insurgency, farm hands were impossible to find, agriculture was declining even in areas with
irrigation facilities, and the daughter-in-law of the family would have to do all the hard work!
Asked whom they would prefer to give their daughter to, in the middle hills, often people said
they would like to have someone with a pickup truck as a son-in-law. With declining
1 1 0
agriculture and increasing remittances, food was not going from the village to the city but was
coming from the city (and abroad) to the villages. And someone who had a pickup truck was
one who had a sustainable livelihood and thus worthy of giving a daughter to, rather than
someone with lots of land (i.e. the old category of wealth), much of it essentially lying fallow.

The other definitions of interest were: someone is poor if the family has a drunkard husband;
if they have university degree but dont have a job; if they are not located on a trekking route,
or even if they are, do not have a teashop; those who cannot engage in river bed sand mining
or construction aggregate breaking for sale to construction contractors; those who cannot
convert from subsistence grain growing to cash farming; those without non-farm skills such
as weaving etc. There are several points of interest to be taken into account in these varied
definitions of poverty. The first is that, at the desakota grassroots, the global aid industry
definition of the poor being someone not earning at least $1/day is meaningless and not even
an element of consideration. The other is that the various households who have these different
definitions consider very different courses of action to get out of their perceived state of
poverty, actions that may have little or nothing to do with national or international plans for
poverty alleviation. This would happen even though in some instances, villagers defined
poverty as the functionally illiterate state of not being able to take advantage of what
programs were on offer from governments and NGOs.

Improved agriculture irrigated or otherwise, is not seen as a way out of poverty in most cases
both in the hinterlands and even in areas near the urban centers where demand for agricultural
produce should, in theory, be attractive. Two incongruous sounding cases from Nepal, one in
the deep hinterlands and the other near Kathmandu valley, indicate why such an assumption is
no longer tenable, and hence holds enormous implications for policies and programs
regarding food security, poverty alleviation or water resources development.

In many hill villages, even while agriculture production has declined, the area under finger
millet (kodo, in Nepali) cultivation has increased. Just in Baglung district, where practically
every household has a long-term migrant member, the area under millet has strangely
increased from 4000 ha in 1990 to 20,000 ha in 2003. As a cereal, rice has long replaced
millet even among those who traditionally consumed millet as a staple. Why this increase?
This seems to have happened because of a synergy of two reasons, one climatic and the other
social, the latter already discussed above as the phenomenon of massive outmigration of able
bodied youth for jobs in cities leading to severe shortage of agriculture labour. Many hill
areas are beginning to see the impact of climate change in term of the erratic onset and
departure of the monsoon, high intensity cloudbursts, failure of winter rain etc. Such an
increase in uncertainty entails great risks for farmers of rice or wheat crop failure. There are
also cases of new diseases such as citrus wasting and weeds invading from lower altitudes,
weeds that have not only made agriculture more difficult but proving harmful to high altitude
livestock. Now finger millet is a hardy relay crop that relies on post-monsoon residual
moisture in the soil and does not require much weeding and tending care. The millet itself,
when harvested, is used to make the powerful local millet-alcohol (kodo ko rakshi, in Nepali),
which provides the essential cash to villagers to be able to buy their wards the air ticket to fly
to the Gulf or Malaysia as contributors to the remittance economy. It is a feedback loop that
leads to ever more decline in agriculture.

The other example is from Kathmandu valley, along the banks of the Kodku tributary of the
Bagmati river. The capital city, as is often the case, suffers from water shortage, primarily due
1 1 1
to bad management which is often hidden under the pretext of insufficient supply in the face
of growing demand. In the 1990s, the central government pushed a scheme which in the end
never really materialized to dam the Kodku river, create a massive storage reservoir and
supply the city with water. This reservoir would have permanently drowned out very fertile
irrigated agricultural land capable of producing high value vegetables. Even though the
project never materialized due to spiraling cost estimates and lack of financing, the villagers
seem to have internalized the developmental signal. Knowing that their ability to fight the big
city and the central government was next to hopeless, they seem to have taken the next best
rational decision: they sold the top soil of their land to brick kilns. In this process, one
ecosystem service farm soil was converted into what was (from the risk perspective of
threatened villagers) a more valuable economic product baked bricks for the voracious
construction industry of Kathmandu valley, even though it may not be to the liking of
environmental egalitarians.

What can clearly be seen from these examples is that water-based ecosystem services are
under non-traditional stress within the desakota. It is clear that informal traditional village
commons managing institutions have broken down but no new modern resource management
has penetrated to these areas, leaving a kind of institutional vacuum. In this fuzzy, no-mans-
land area, entrepreneurs of various shades of legality can ply their trade, using the water
resource base for whatever purpose they see fit. As in the Wild West, the rule of capture
seems to be the dominant mode. Such examples also abound in the declining karez water
systems of Baluchistan or the fisheries management system in Lake Victoria in Tanzania.

4. Conclusions
The desakota region is one where the institutional vacuum is occupied by the most
enterprising with the most efficient technology of capture. Often this is in the form of
irrigation pumps and deep boreholes that allow resource capture, followed by cheap
transportation devices such as the retrofitted irrigation pump that serves as a jugad, an illegal
truck during off-irrigation season. The same applies to surface water, which can be used for
production purposes by factories with little central supervision and for disposal purpose as
drains (i.e. carpet dying and washing factories which would not be able to treat water bodies
under urban or central supervision with such disdain for environmental concerns).

These examples demonstrate the social dynamism that is underway within the desakota
regions, a dynamism that is not yet properly understood and even less correctly theorized. As
Cultural Theory (or the Theory of Plural Rationalities) would indicate, it is not static
sustainability but dynamic change that is sustainable in this fuzzy environment. As has been
mapped from ecology to dynamics of change by this theory (Thompson, 2008), the climax
community of urban areas has run into a dead end of excessive regulation and routinization.
The dynamic transaction is then to the compost heap of dead and crumbling infrastructure,
where entrepreneurship revives in the form of renewed colonization of surrounding resources.
This exploitation will eventually run into limits that only routinization and legal
proceduralism can save. That type of hierarchism then again breaks down and the cycle of
creation-destruction repeats itself. This is where the concept of sustainability in urban and
peri-urban development, while laudable sounding, finds itself only on one part of the overall
dynamic cycle. The informality of the desakota, therefore, needs to be reassessed from a more
holistic framework.

1 1 2

5. Acknowledgement
This paper is based on the work done by the Desakota Study Team and published in its ESP
report (DST, 2008) for UKs NERC, DfID and ESRC. While acknowledging the
contributions to that study by the 36 members of the Desakota Study Team as well as their
institutions (Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal, Institute for Social and
Environmental Transition-International/Boulder, Kings College London, Center for Global
Change/Bangladesh, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Beijing, Institute of
Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning/Beijing, Institute for Social and Environmental
Transition/Pakistan, International Center for Tropical Agriculutre/Columbia, Rhodes
University/South Africa, University of Cape Town/South Africa, and Winrock
International/India), it must be stated that neither they nor the institutions they are associated
with, nor the three UK institutions or the that funded the research, are to be held accountable
for the views and interpretations made of that work in this paper, which is that of this author
alone.

6. References

DST (2008). Re-imagining the Rural-Urban Continuum: Understanding the role ecosystem
services play in the livelihoods of the poor in desakota regions undergoing rapid change.
Research Gap Analysis conducted by the Desakota Study Team (DST), for the ESPA
Program of NERC/DfID/ESRC of the UK. Published by Institute for Social and
Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-N), Kathmandu, Nepal.

Gyawali D., Allan, J. A. et al. (2006). EU-INCO water research from FP4 to FP6 (1994-2006)
a critical review. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
Luxembourg, downloadable from the EU website http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/water-
initiative .

Gyawali D., Schwank O., et al. (1993). Urban-Rural Interlinkages: A Case Study Based on
Nepalese-Swiss Development Experiences; INFRAS, Zurich and Interdisciplinary Analysts,
Kathmandu.

Moench M. and Dixit A. (eds) (2004). Adaptive Capacity and Livelihood Resilience: Adaptive
Capacities to Respond to Floods and Droughts in South Asia. Institute for Social and
Environmental Transition-International and Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-
Nepal, Boulder and Kathmandu.

Thompson M. (2008). Organising and Disorganising: A dynamic and non-linear theory of
institutional emergence and its implications. Triarchy Press, www.triarchypress.com UK.

Verweij M. and Thompson M. (eds) (2008). Clumsy Solutions for a Complex World.
Palgrave/Macmillan Press, Basingstoke, UK.

1 1 3
Long-term indirect impacts of land development on flood risk and
water quality -A case study for the watershed of Lake Tega-

Guangwei Huang

Frontier Sciences, The University of Toky
5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-shi, Chiba 277-8563 Japan
huanggw@k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

The direct impact of land-use change upon flood and water quality has been well documented.
The paper presents a case study on long-term indirect impacts of land development on flood
risk and water quality in the watershed of Lake Tega.
Tega Lake is located in the northwest part of Chiba prefecture, Japan. It has a surface area of
6.5km2, and 144km2 of watershed. It has had the current area since the reclamation in late
1940s. The land development has led to drastic expansion of residential and urban area and
the increase of population. As a result, the lake had been listed as the worst lake in Japan for
27 years from 1983 to 2000.
By combing various field data, previous findings and numerical simulations, this paper sheds
new light on flood risk and water quality deterioration mechanisms in the watershed and
inside the lake, respectively.
1 1 4

Waterborne health risks due to rapid urbanization in Asia

Kumiko Oguma
1)
and Satoshi Takizawa
2)

1) Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo
oguma@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
takizawa@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

The depletion of water resources in Asia may be mostly attributable to the uncontrolled
urbanization with rapid population growth and economic expansion without sufficient
investiment for infrastructures. Particularly in slum areas, poverty hinders people from
accessing to clean water. Moreover, poor knowledge of people with very limited information
on water-related issues appears worsening the situation.
This paper reports our survey on microbial contamination at a flood event in a slum area in
Jakarta, Indonesia. Microbial contamination was severe in the flooded area, indicating that
flood posed a high health risk to the residents. Based on the survey and paper review, it was
proposed that raising public awareness of water-related issues by educational programs as
well as promoting community participation in water supply systems may work to reduce
microbial health risks in practical, affordable and sustainable manners.

Keywords: community participation, educational program, flood,
microbial contamination, slum area, waterborne health risk

1. Introduction

The United Nations (2005) reported that about half of the world population was living in the
urban areas in 2005 and the ratio was estimated to be up to 60% in 2030. The accelerated
urbanization is particularly notable in Asia and therefore may threat the water environment.
Water is vulnerable to depletion, both in terms of the quality and quantity, when the
development goes beyond the carrying capacity of environment.
Many statistical analyses indicate the huge needs to improve water sapply and sanitation in
Asia. The Joint Monitoring Program of World Health Organization (WHO) and United
Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (2008) reported that more than half of the world
population using unimproved drinking water supply were living in Asia, and about 70% of
the world population without improved sanitation facilities were living in Asia in 2006.
The absolute volume of water resources in Asia is large, but the water availability per capita
is rather small (World Resources Institute, 2008) due to the worlds largest population as well
as the substantial regional and seasonal variations in the precipitation. The seasonal variation
of precipitation is one of the key factors at managing water particularly in monsoon Asia. The
frequency and severity of flood is supposed to be intensified by uncontrolled urbanization in
downtown areas in Asia, due to the high population density without proper drainage systems.
1 1 5
Moreover, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) pointed out that the global
climate change may exacerbate the frequency and severity of flood in Asia in the near future.
Waterborne diarrheal disease is one of the major concerns of public health problem associated
with flood.
Indonesia is known for the low coverage of water supply and sanitation systems, particularly
in the rural area. UNICEF reported in the Water, Environment and Sanitation Programe
(2005) that, in Indonesia, the coverage of water supply and sanitation in urban area was 89%
and 71%, respectively, while that in rural area was 60% and 38%, respectively. The report
further mentioned that, in Indonesia in 2002, diarrheal diseases and intestinal problems caused
19% of deaths of children under five years old and 18% of deaths among school-aged
children, which was mostrly attributable to the poor water supply and sanitation sytems. It
was blamed that the Indonesian government has consistently allocated larger budget for water
supply investment than for sanitation, based on the consideration that sanitation to be a
private responsibility (UNICEF, 2005).
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, has the population of about 8,960,000 in around 660 km
2

area. Jakarta is known to be frequently flooded with the heavy precipitation in the rainny
season, January and February, due to the low elevation and the absence of adequate drainage
systems. That is, most area in Jakarta has the elevation of 0-10m above the mean sea level,
and only less than 3% of population is connected to the sewer system (World Bank, 2002). In
2002, a severe flood hit Jakarta to pose one of the worst impacts in the recent history of the
city. Urban Poor Consortium (2004) stated that, in the flood in 2002, 365,435 people were
evacuated, 52 died because of drifting and dengue fever, 35,600 were sick especially due to
diarrhea and 12 died due to leptospirosis. The diarrhea-causing agents remained unknown at
the event. Generally, enteric viruses are the major source of waterborne diseases, which
transmit mainly by fecal-oral route via contaminated water. A high incidence of virus-related
infections was found among acute diarrheic patients even in non-flooded season in Jakarta
(Subekti et al., 2002), suggesting the high prevalence of the viruses in the area.
Slum areas are scattering around Jakarta where people frequently suffer from sever flood
mostly due to the extremely poor drainage system, which forces people to live with high risk
of waterborne diseases (Phanuwan et al., 2006). To make matters worse, povety hinders
people from accessing to clean water. It was reported that, in a slum area in North Jakarta,
poor households are forced to pay about 17% of total expenditure to get water (Prabaharyaka
et al., 2008), which was notably high compared to the ratio of 0.7% in Japan (Ministry of
Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan) and most developed countries. Accordingly, poor people
prefer to use water supply other than piped water, i.e., water from vendors, shallow
groundwater and refilled no-name bottled water, which are all supposed to have lower water
quality in general compared to the water from well-managed piped supply systems.
Particularly in the slum areas in North Jakarta, shallow and even deep groundwater are often
saline or brackish, which narrows the option of drinking water sources. When enforced to use
such low quality water as the drinking water source, people need to pay some additional
cost by taking actions such as household water treatment, i.e., boiling and sedimentation, or
hauling water from other locations far from the house, or pay the health care cost after
eventually getting sick. Interestingly, the Water and Sanitation Program by the World Bank
(2008) provided a trial calculation of the total cost for such additional actions due to the
contamination of drinking water sources, defined as drinking water access costs, indicating
that the cost was farely high in Indonesia compared to other tested countries including
Cambodia, Philippines and Vietnam. As noted by the WHO/UNIFEF Joint Monitoring
Program (2008), access to improved water supply is not only a fundamental need and human
right, it also has considerable health and economic benefits to households and individuals
1 1 6
Based on the background, this paper provides paper review on waterborne health risks in slum
areas in Jakarta, aiming to seek for practical, affordable and sustainable countermeasures for
the problem.

2. Survey Scheme

Phanuwan et al. (2006) reported the bacterial and viral contamination of water in Jakarta. The
survey was conducted in Kampung Melayu village, which is a city-centre slum located on the
bank of the Ciliwung River in Jatinegara District, East Jakarta (Figure 1). The village was
suffering from occasional flood every year. A severe flood occurred on January 19, 2005,
which inundated nearly half of the village. During January 23 to 27, 2005, 2 floodwater, 3
groundwater and 2 tap water were collected from the flooded area whereas 5 groundwater and
2 tap water were collected from the non-flooded area. Seven river samples were collected
from the Ciliwung River running through the village as a reference. It should be noted that
floodwater was not used for potable purposes but easy to have a direct contact with people
during and soon after the flood, while groundwater was used for potable purposes in the area.

As indicator bacteria of fecal contamination, total coliforms and E. coli were determined on
the same day of sampling by membrane filtration technique using m-ColiBlue24 Broth
(Millipore) following an incubated at 37
o
C for 24 hrs. As gastroenteritis viruses, Enterovirus,
Norovirus G1, G2, Hepatitis A virus and Adenovirus were quantified by the TaqMan PCR
using the ABI PRISM 7000 (Applied Biosystems, USA) as described previously (Haramoto
et al., 2005).

Figure 1 Map of Jakarta (left) and sampling points in Kampung Melayu village (right)
Floodwater
Groundwater
Tap water
0 80 m
117

Figure 2 People in floodwater
3. Results

The results are summarized in Table 1, indicating that all enteric viruses and indicator
bacteria tested in this study were detected in floodwater. Tap water was all negative with all
tested microorganism regardless of the flood, probably due to the very high concentration of
total chlorine at 1.5 mg/L. According to the Mann-Whitney U test, the floodwater presented
significantly higher mean concentration (P < 0.05) than river water in all tested microbes
except Adenovirus. It was therefore suggested that people in the area were exposed to the
higher risk of infection during flooding events than in normal seasons. This was especially
true with those having direct contact with floodwater when walking around and playing in the
flooded area as shown in Figure 2. Due to the lack of knowledge, many people used the
floodwater for domestic purposes, which no doubt increased the health risk of infection.
Informing the peole of the health risk associated with the floodwater may work to change
their mindset and behavior to reduce the microbial health risk.

Table 1 Concentration of enteric viruses and bacterial indicators in water samples
Parameters
Concentration
(min - max)
River Floodwater
Groundwater Tap
Flooded Non-flooded Flooded Non-flooded
(n = 7) (n = 2) (n = 3) (n = 5) (n = 2) (n = 2)
Enteric Viruses [PDU/mL]
1)

Enterovirus 0.2 - 2.2 12 - 72 ND
3)
- 0.02 ND ND ND
Hepatitis A virus 4.0 - 33 71 - 87 ND - 1.0 ND ND ND
Norovirus G1 0.01 - 0.04 0.18 - 0.19 ND - 0.01 ND ND ND
Norovirus G2 1.0 - 16 22 - 30 ND - 8.9 ND ND ND
Adenovirus 0.5 - 120 51 - 60 ND - 0.80 ND ND ND
Bacterial indicators [10
3
CFU/mL]
2)

Total coliforms 1.1 - 16 95 - 2000 0.007 - 4 ND - 0.014 ND ND
E. coli 0.2 - 1.1 9 - 65 ND - 1.7 ND ND ND
1) PDU/mL = PCR detection unit/mL, 2) CFU/mL = colonies forming unit/mL, 3) ND = not detected

1 1 8
Phanuwan et al. (2006) further showed that total coliforms were commonly detected in
groundwater regardless of the flood whereas E. coli was observed only in the flooded area.
The samples positive with E. coli were also contaminated with some of the enteric viruses
tested in the survey. This result is reasonable considering that E. coli strongly indicates the
fecal contamination of the water while coliforms are not necessarily derived from fecal
sources. More interestingly, E. coli and viruses were not detected in groundwater collected
from wells located at about 5 m distance from a septic tank in non-flooded area, whereas
these microbes were found in some groundwater samples in flooded area. This suggests that
flood water was more likely to be the source of microbial contamination in groundwater
rather than the overflow from septic tanks nearby. Informing this to residents in the area may
possibly result in the protection of wells against floodwater and/or the prohibition of drinking
groundwater without boiling for a certain period of time after flood.

4. Discussion

Microbial contamination of water was severe at flood. Considering that waterborne diseases
transmit mainly through the fecal-oral route of infection, securing drinking water must be the
right solution to reduce the risk. For example, providing clean bottled water for all the
residents as much as they want would drastically reduce the threat of waterborne diseases.
However, the solution is not that easy due to several factors including feasibility and
sustainability. Namely, who should pay for the water, who should be in charge of the supply
with its quality and quantity, and how long may the water be supplied?
One of the feasible approaches could be to educate local people to change their water-related
behavior, because the problem seems partly due to the limited knowledge of people on
waterborne health risk. The limitation may be caused by the improper and/or insufficient
work by the government, the low educational background of people, the low income to
enforce people to live on the edge, the insensibility of people to health risks due to the custom,
the historical resignation and despair of people to health risks, or probably the combination of
them. Therefore, a key to solve the problem would be to inform residents of the waterborne
health risk to change their mindset and behavior.
The process may be achieved by a step-by-step approach including; (1) People are informed
of the health risk. Major source of diseases, namely water, should be noted as well. The
information should be scientifically correct but easy to understand for the residents. (2)
Practical, affordable and simple countermeasures should be proposed. Such measures include
the notice to avoid contacting floodwater and drinking groundwater without boiling at flood.
These measires are rather easy to launch and definitely work to reduce a certain part of
waterborne health risk (Oguma et al., 2008). The United Nations Environment Programme
(2008) declares that public education and awareness raising can be an efficient tool to change
the habit of society. According to the case study database presented by the United Nations
(2009), several educational programs are currently ongoing all over the world. For example,
the Healthy School Initiatives in Afghanistan is offering hygiene educational campaigns for
schoolchildren and teachers, the Programe for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in
Mozambique is providing educational programs to create awareness of the national water
sector policy in the population, and the Project of Safe Sanitation, Health and Dignity in
Romania is offering educational programs on water and sanitation for school children and
local families. As another example, Takeda and Takizawa (2007) reported a case study to
reduce the health risk of fluoride intake from groundwater in Lamphun Province, Thailand, by
serving educational programe to local school children. Collectively considering these
1 1 9
examples, an educational program based on quantitative data seems one of the best
approaches to promote public awareness of water-related issues, as noted by the United
Nations Human Settlements Programme (2003).
Educational programs are occasionally intended to promote community participation in the
issue, not only by informing the residents but also building up a new water supply system in a
community-based manner. A non-governmental organization (NGO), Mercy Corps Indonesia,
is currently promoting a pilot project named Human Place Prosperous People (HP3) to install
a community-based water supply system in one of the biggest slum area in Jakarta, RW 12
Kelurahan Penjaringan (Prabaharyaka et al., 2008). The pilot project has been finishing its
infrastructure installation and is going to officially start running in March 2009.
Currently in the area, poor households are mostly served through public water supply system
managed by a small-scale provider and a middle man who both control the water price,
resulting in unduly high expenses for water. Poor households are forced to follow daily cash
and carry payment system and, in the survey in 2007, about 17% of total expenditure was
paid just to get water, based on the median total expenditure of 509,357 IDR/capita/month
(n=124) and median expenditure for water of 86,520 IDR/capita/month (n=124) (Center for
Health Research, University of Indonesia, 2007). As for the ownership status of houses in the
slum area, 41% of households were renting their houses and tended to move the place very
frequently, which was one of the reasons for the people not to connect the pipe to the main
water supply system with some initial cost. Furthermore, water supply pressure is low in some
part of the area due to the poor infrastractures, which discourages the people to build up the
connection.
The project is on-going in a participatory approach, where the community is fully involved in
the overall program implementation. The project proposes a master meter system, which is
a water supply system to provide bulk water to a reserver to be managed by the community-
based organization (CBO). Five stakeholders are involved in this project with their
responsibilities as follows.;
a) Water supply company pays for the master meter hardware and installation fees. The
meter works to record the water amount supplied to the point. The company supplies
water to the point of the master meter and provides one bill for the CBO based on the total
amount recorded by the meter.
b) CBO collects the individual connection fee and amount-based water charges from each
household. CBO manages the fund to construct a reservoir right after the master meter.
The cost for the construction of reservoir, connection pipes and all other components
necessary for the operation, such as electric pump, is shared by CBO and NGO at a certain
ratio. CBO devides the bill for each connected household, based either on flat monthly
rate of indivisual consumption recorded by the meter, and provides continuous
maintenance for the system beyond the point of the master meter. Water pressure is
supplemented at the reservoir on CBOs responsibility.
c) Households pay for the individual connection fee (200,000 IDR each), and for the
amount-based water charges either on daily, weekly or monthly bases. Those payments
are all collected and managed by the CBO.
d) NGO shares the installation cost with CBO. NGO offers occasional community meetings
to socialize the concept. NGO guides CBO to manage the connection and to sign up
contracts with water supplier. NGO provides continuous monitoring and evaluation of the
whole system including financial sustainability, community satisfaction, and quality of
water service.
e) North Jakarta government opens the access for private sector to develop services in slum
areas.
1 2 0
According to Mercy Corps Indonesia, 62 households (196 people) in the area have expressed
their interest or potential interest to the shared connection system in the census in 2007,
wishing for affordable clean water. The total number of household and population was 601
and 2755, respectively, in the project area with its neighbors, indicating that very limited
residents showed positive interest to the system. After the system infrastructure was installed
and pilot run was started successfully in Januray 2009, most residents in the area showed
positive interest (private communication, 2009). Similar communal water supply system has
been implemented in Medan and Surabaya in Indonesia by other international NGO,
suggesting that the system is expected worth trying in Indonesia.
It has been over 10 years since WHO launched pilot activities of community participation to
hygiene and sanitation program in Botswana, Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe (WHO 1996).
This program was fairly foresighted because it was provided in the tight collaboration with
the local government as well as regional and international NGOs. Moreover, the program
promoted the education of school children in classrooms and education of residents in
community meetings. These activities and concepts are not yet appreciated enough, and
probably retains huge potential to mitigate water-related issues in many countries and areas.
As declared by WHO and UNICEF (2006), small scale water supply systems with
community participation may play a key role to meet the water and sanitation targets of the
Millennium Development Goals. To conclude, promoting community participation with
educational program could be one of the most feasible solutions to achieve sustainable
water supply system in cities under rapid urbanization.

5. Conclusions

Severe microbial contamination of water was observed at a flood in a slum area in Jakarta,
Indonesia, indicating that flood posed high health risk to the residents. Based on the field
survey and paper review, it was proposed that raising public awareness of water-related issues
by educational programs as well as promoting community participation in water supply
systems may work to reduce microbial health risks in practical, affordable and sustainable
manners.

6. References

Center for Health Research, University of Indonesia (2007) Study on Livelihood Strategies:
Household Economics and Environmental Expenditures in Selected Group of
Neighborhoods in Kelurahan Penjaringan, North Jakarta. Preliminary Report, Version 2.
Haramoto E., Katayama H., Oguma K. and Ohgaki S. (2005) Application of cation-coated
filter method to detection of noroviruses, enteroviruses, adenoviruses and torque teno
viruses in Tamagawa River in Japan. Applied and Environmental Microbiol. 71: 2403-
2411.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) Climate Change 2007: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Chapter 10: Asia.
Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in Japan. (2000)
http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/kenkou/suido/1/siryou136.pdf (in Japanese)
Oguma K., Takizawa S. and Nguyen T. T. (2008) A perspective of communicating microbial
health risks based on surveys in Asian water environment. Proceeding of the 6th
International Symposium on Southeast Asian Water Environment. 253-260.
1 2 1
Phanuwan C., Takizawa S., Oguma K., Katayama H., Yunika A. and Ohgaki S. (2006)
Monitoring of human enteric viruses and coliform bacteria in waters after urban flood in
Jakarta, Indonesia. Water Science and Technology, 54 (3): 203210.
Prabaharyaka, I., Kooy M. and Pooroe V. (2008) Participatory Communal Water Supply
System Case Study : Penjaringan, North Jakarta. Proceeding of the 6th International
Symposium on Southeast Asian Water Environment. Poster Presentation 31-35.
Subekti D., Lesmana M., Tjaniadi P., Safari N., Frazier E., Simanjuntak C., Komalarini S.,
Taslim J., Campbell J.R., and Oyofo B.A. (2002) Incidence of Norwalk-like viruses,
rotavirus and adenovirus infection in patients with acute gastroenteristis in Jakarta,
Indonesia. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, 33: 27-33.
Takeda T. and Takizawa S. (2007) Reducing the impact of fluoride intake in Thailand. Asian
Water DECEMBER 2007, 22-26.
United Nations (2005) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision, Population
Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005wup.htm
United Nations (2009) Case studies, Division for Sustainable Development, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs. http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/resources/res_databases.shtml
United Nations Children's Fund (2005) Water, Environment and Sanitation Programme.
Indonesia. http://www.unicef.org/indonesia_wes.pdf.
United Nations Environment Programme (2008) Every Drop Counts. Environmentally Sound
Technologies for Urban and Domestic Water Use Efficiency. United Nations.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2003) Water and Sanitation in the worlds
cities. Earthscan Publication Ltd. pp. 200-206.
Urban Poor Consortium (2004) Article on 1 July 2004. http://www.urbanpoor.or.id
World Bank (2002) Indonesia: Overview of sanitation and sewerage experience and policy
options, 1-18.
World Bank (2008) Economic Impacts of Sanitation in Southeast Asia: A four-country study
conducted in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam under the Economics of
Sanitation Initiative. Water and Sanitation Program, The World Bank.
World Health Organization (1996) Participatory hygiene and sanitation transformation: A
new approach to working with communities.
World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund (2006) Meeting the MDG
drinking water and sanitation target: the urban and rural challenge of the decade. WHO
and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation.
World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund (2008) Progress on Drinking-
water and Sanitation. WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and
Sanitation.
World Resources Institute (2008) Earth Trend. http://earthtrends.wri.org
1 2 2
Impact of land use and land cover on evapotranspiration in urban area
based on remote sensing data

Guanghen NI
1)
, Shuzhen JING
2)

1) State Key Laboratory of Hydro-Science and Engineering, and Department of Hydraulic Engineering,
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, 100084
ghni@tsinghua.edu.cn
2) Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University
Beijing, China, 100084
jsz02@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn

Abstract

This study focuses on the impact of land use/cover (LULC) on evapotranspiration (ET) during
the process of urbanization. Based on Landsat TM/ETM+ images, land use/cover (LULC) is
obtained and daily evapotranspiration (ET) is calculated with the Surface Energy Balance
Algorithm for Land (SEBAL). Landsat TM/ETM+ images, acquired in 1999 and 2005 were
utilized. The changes of land use/cover (LUCC) and daily evapotranspiration from 1999 to
2005, and correlation between LUCC and ET change were analyzed. As an essential indicator
of biomass and greenness, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is also selected
for correlation analysis. The results indicate that land use/cover changes for the period of
1999-2005 showed the characteristics of rapid urbanization, with large-scale of natural land
uses and covers being converted to urban construction land. ET change is in accordance with
LUCC, the area with low ET values expanded while the area with high values such as water
body and forest declined. A positive correlation between NDVI and daily evapotranspiration
is found and the correlation coefficient is 0.7.

Keywords: Land use/cover (LULC), NDVI, evapotranspiration (ET), urbanization, SEBAL

1. Introduction
With rapid urbanization, large-scale natural surfaces such as green land, bare soil and water
body were replaced by anthropogenic surfaces such as concrete and asphalt. These changes of
urban surfaces lead to changes of regional and global climate, ecological environment in
urban regions. As a significant term in the earth's water and energy balance equation,
evapotranspiration (ET) is a key factor of local weather and climate change. Therefore, it is
essential to analyze the relationship between land use/cover (LULC) and ET in urban area.

Land use/cover maps are traditionally updated relying on occasional and expensive aircraft
flights for photography. Since regional land use/cover changes brought about by human
activity tend to occur incrementally and frequently, traditional monitoring methods have large
limitation. Now, routinely available several times a year, multi-spectral satellite imagery has
the capacity to detect land use/cover changes on a scale, and the satellite data can also be used
to derive various land surface parameters, providing both spatial and temporal comparisons.

Of various kinds of methods estimating ET, those by means of remote sensing have their
superiority. The Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) is a model used to
1 2 3
compute evapotranspiration (ET) in large scale region based on Remote Sensing images
which have the visible, near infrared and infrared bands. The model is widely used, and its
accuracy has been proved repeatedly.

In this study, SEBAL is applied to two Landsat TM/ETM+ scenes of 1999 and 2005 to
retrieve daily evapotranspiration (ET). Then, supervised classification for land use/cover is
applied and NDVI is obtained by means of ERDAS software. The changes of land use and
land cover and their impact on evapotranspiration is investigated.


The surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL), a physically based multi-step
model, is formulated by Bastiaanssen in 1995. SEBAL is based on surface energy balance
equation which includes net radiance flux, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux and latent heat,
which reads as
n
E R G H = (1)
where E is latent heat flux, R
n
is net radiation, G is soil heat flux, and H is sensible heat flux.
The computing process of SEBAL is presented in Fig.1.

Fig.1. Computing process of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) which
converts remotely measured spectrally emitted and reflected radiances into the surface
energy balance

Beijing, with the area of 16807.8km
2
, was chosen as the study area. As the capital of China, it
has the typical characteristics of urban sprawl, and includes various types of urban surfaces.

Landsat ETM+ images on July 1 1999 and Landsat TM images on June, 23 2005 (p123r32)
were selected for use, considering vegetation growth and availability of good quality images.
The chosen Landsat images were acquired under clear sky conditions and the systematic
corrections have been conducted. In addition, 1:10,000 scale topographic maps were utilized

to examine the classification accuracy. Other data sets used in the study include DEM maps
(90m) in Beijing, and Daily meteorological data (in terms of temperature, sunshine hours,
wind speed, relative humidity) on July 1, 1999 and June 23, 2005.


3.1 Land use/cover change (LUCC) from 1999 to 2005

Remotely Sensed Imagery Visual Interpretation is used for land use/cover classification and
the nine types considered are high-dense construction, low-dense construction, farmland,
fallow, bare land, urban greenland, sparse woodland, forest and water body. Table1
summarizes the land use/ cover changes in Beijing from 1999 to 2005.

Table 1 Land use/ cover changes in the study area from 1999 to 2005 (Unit: Km
2
)
Land use/ cover 1999 2005
1999-2005
Area of changes Percentage of changes (%)
High-dense construction 707.72 1149.63 441.91 62.44
Low-dense construction 1437.78 1399.41 -38.37 -2.67
Farmland 2164.89 3231.31 1066.41 49.26
Fallow 2022.53 1048.05 -974.48 -48.18
Bare land 1096.90 826.29 -270.61 -24.67
Urban Greenland 347.93 304.33 -43.60 -12.53
Sparse woodland 4118.36 5483.22 1364.86 33.14
Forest 3451.92 1934.34 -1517.59 -43.96
Water body 214.83 187.95 -26.89 -12.52
Sum 15564.51 15564.51 - -

Fig. 2 Distribution of Land Use/ Cover in 1999 and 2005, Beijing

In the study area, high-dense urban construction land increased by 62.4% from 1999 to 2005,
while bare land, urban Greenland, woodland and water decreased by 24.7%, 12.5%, 2.0% and
12.5% respectively.
1 2 5
As indicated in Fig.2 that from 1999 to 2005, urban expansion mainly resulted from the
conversion of agricultural land (including farmland and fallow) and urban greenland. At the
same time, rapid urbanization also affected the density of the urban construction, and the area
converted from low-dense to high-dense reached 362.81km
2.

3.2 Evapotranspiration (ET) change in Beijing from 1999 to 2005

Based on Landsat TM/ETM+ images, using SEBAL the daily ETs on July 1 1999 and June 23
2005 were calculated by means of the ERDAS software, and Fig.3 shows the results.

Fig. 3 Distribution of Actual ET in 1999 and 2005, Beijing

The regions with low ET value located in the urban construction land and the daily ET is less
than 2mm, while those with high value are forest, water body etc. and the value is higher than
5mm. Comparing Fig.3 with Fig.2, it is found that with rapid urbanization, the area with low
values expanded, while the area with high values decreased significantly.

Fig.4 Distribution map of ET change from 1999 to 2005 in Beijing

Fig.4 shows the ET change from 1999 to 2005 in the study area. The pixels ET decreased
significantly located on the southwest boundary of Yanqin County and in the north of Miyun
Reservoir, where the conversion from water body to other natural surface such as farmland,
fallow and bare land took place. In the northwest of Haidian District, as large-scale woodland
were converted to farmland, bare land or urban land, ET value decreased significantly, which
1 2 6
are marked in red in Fig.4. In addition, light decrease or increase of ET value mainly resulted
from the seasonal conversion between farmland and fallow.

3.3 Correlation analysis between daily ET and NDVI

As a great indicator of biomass and greenness of land surface, NDVI is selected for further
correlation analysis. NDVI were calculated as the ratio between measured reflectance in the
red (R) and near infrared (NIR) spectral bands of the images.

1) Average ET and NDVI of different land use/ cover (LULC)

Table2 shows the average ET and NDVI in six land use/cover types in 2005. Except water
body, other land use/cover types has the positive NDVI: Forest has the highest average ET
and NDVI, which were respectively 4.56mm and 0.69, while high-dense urban construction
land has the lowest ones. The average ET declined from forest, sparse woodland, farmland,
bare land and high-dense urban construction land, while the average NDVI declined in the
same sequence.

Table2 Average ET and NDVI of typical land use/cover in 2005 in the study area
Land use/cover Average ET (mm) Average NDVI
High-dense construction 1.52 0.02
Bare land 2.50 0.12
Farmland 3.12 0.36
Sparse woodland 3.89 0.45
Forest 4.56 0.69
Water body 5.15 -0.16

2) Correlation analysis between ET and NDVI

Spatial profiles of ET and NDVI were obtained with the aid of ERDAS software. Quantitative
analysis indicated that positive correlation exists between daily ET and NDVI, and the
correlation coefficient is 0.7, as shown in Fig.6.

Fig.6 Scatter Diagram and Regression Analysis Result between ET and NDVI

Water body is not considered in the correlation analysis, for its exceptive property in NDVI.
1 2 7
4. Conclusions

The changes of land use/cover (LULC) and ET in Beijing, from 1999 to 2005, is investigated
with the aid of remote sensing. NDVI is also chosen as a significant indicator of LULC for
correlation analysis. The results indicate:
1) In the study area, the land use/cover change (LUCC) led to significant change of the daily
ET during the 6 years from 1999 to 2005. With rapid urbanization, the density of the city
is increased with the loss of natural surface, and low-ET area expanded.
2) Daily ET is positively correlated with NDVI, which reveals the important characteristics
of LULC. Urban construction land has the lowest ET and NDVI, while forest has the
highest ET and NDVI.
3) As an important factor in water and energy balance system, ET value is closely related to
comfortable degree of urban environment. The response of ET to LULC may provide an
approach for evaluating urban water and thermal environment by LULC or indicators
associated with it such as NDVI.
4) Besides NDVI, other indicators of LULC, such as Broadband Albedo, Percentage of
Impervious Surface can be introduced for further study.

5. Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project
No. 50679031).

6. References

Bastiaanssen W.G.M., Menentia M., Feddesb R.a., et al. (1998). A remote sensing surface
energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL): 1. Formulation. Journal of Hydrology, 212213
(1998) 198212.

Honglin X., Qihao W. (2007). The impact of land use and land cover changes on land surface
temperature in a karst area of China. Journal of Environmental Management 85, 245257.

Huang R, Xu H. (2005). A study on the relationship between land cover/ use and urban heat
environment using landsat ETM+ satellite imagery. Remote Sensing Information, 2005, No.5,
36-40.

Liu C, Gao Z, Gao W. (2007). Retrieval evapotranspiration and land surface temperature in
response to land use/cover change based on remote sensing data [J]. Transact ions of the CSA
E, 2007, 23 (8): 1- 8.

Liu Z, Lei Z, Dang A, Yang S. (2004). Remote sensing and the SEBAL model for estimating
evapotranspiration in arid regions. Journal of Tsinghua University (Sci. & Tech.), Vol.44,
No.3, 421-424.

Mu F, Zhang Z, Chi Y, Liu B, Wang C, Tan W. (2007). Dynamic Monitoring of Built-up
Area in Beijing during 19732005 based on Multi-original Remote Sensed Images. Journal
of Remote Sensing, Vol. 11, No. 2: 257-268.
1 2 8
A Concept on Integrated Groundwater Management
to Sustain Cities of Indonesia using System Interrelationship Model

Priana Sudjono
1)
and Fitri Prabarani
2)

1,2)
Department of Environmental Engineering
Bandung Institute of Technology
Jalan Ganesha Bandung Indonesia 40132
e-mail:
1)
psudjono@memteq.com;
2)
fie_pie_tie@yahoo.com

Abstract

Groundwater is an important resources in cities but the management is still sound partially
approached. Unsuccessful management indicated by further inland of seawater intrusion, land
subsidence, and permanent drop of the water table have taken place in all cities in Indonesia.
A system interrelationship model is proposed as a base of a concept that integrates knowledge
on groundwater related components and defines the interrelationships. The interrelationships
mean that any alterations of a component will exhaustively affect the connected components.
The components that ensemble the system are housing, agriculture, industry, law and
regulation, water supply company, seawater, shallow groundwater, surface water, and
recharge area. Then, the knowledge is mapped in the form of diagrams in order to draw ideas
of interventions to the components in reaching the decided goals. Thus, the concept on
integrated groundwater management is defined through a system that contains groundwater
related components. The knowledge on the components and the mutual relationships among
the components are the basic for making proposal on interventions to the components for
sustaining life in cities.

Keywords: city, groundwater, integrated, sustain, and System Interrelationship Model.

1. Introduction

In many large cities of Indonesia, water supply infrastructure is very limited in serving the
water. As a solution, urban people use groundwater for domestic and industrial activities.
Groundwater abstraction finally is uncontrollable then several new problems emerge.
Classical efforts to conserve groundwater such as imposing regulation on abstraction had been
taken by the government, but the result was almost disappointed such as in Bandung Surabaya,
Jakarta, and Semarang. System interrelationship model tries to take account on all
components related to groundwater in a comprehensive model, thus an integrated solution can
be created.

Number of people in cities of Indonesia is almost doubled for every 20 years but
infrastructure on water and sanitation are almost stagnant. City inhabitants have long been
lack of piped water. Moreover, factory, hotels, and hospitals are not served by enough piped
water. As the only available clean water is groundwater, they exploit it then the control is
almost out of reach. Furthermore, conflicts on water resources rise (D.N.Aulia, 2008) while
alterations on land-use of city hinterlands as recharge areas reduces the percolation rates
1 2 9
(S.Utami, 2007; I.Narulita, 2008). As a final result, sanitation in cities is very severe
(H.Poedjiastoeti et al, 2008), water quality of some city-ponds is bad (R.Batara et al, 2008),
and diminishing green-areas produces negative consequences on human health (T.Suryanti,
2008). It meant that groundwater management is a central part to sustain life in a city
especially in Indonesia.

Classical solutions to prevent diminishing groundwater had long been unsuccessful. Sihwanto
and Iskandar (2000) proposed zoning of an area based on several criteria. These are (a)
groundwater yield; (b) maximum allowable and rate of groundwater draw-down; (c)
maximum water quality degradation; and (d) negative impacts on environment indicated by
alteration of surface cover, land subsidence, migration of groundwater from pervious layer,
and dispersion of pollutants. Moreover, some regulations had been imposed and some
government institutions have authorization to control the groundwater. However, in some
cities it had been reported that replacement of freshwater by saline water in coastal areas,
permanent draw-down of the water table had been taking place (A.Taufiq and N.Iskandar,
2000; Soetrisno, 1991), and land subsidence (e.g. Wahid, 1998; A Mulyana, et al, 1993;
H.Z.Abidin et al, 2003).

A concept on integrated groundwater management must be developed as several attempts to
solve groundwater are only partial solutions. This produces other problems on other
components, thus, the groundwater can not play roles to sustain life in cities. The new concept
was developed based on the fact that policy on groundwater should consider any related
groundwater problems and solve them simultaneously. An integrated concept on groundwater
management to sustain life in cities can be developed by acquiring knowledge on the roles of
each component in a system, and knowledge on interactions among components, then
compose them into a system showing their roles in influencing the groundwater. A brief idea
of the oncept is presented and only groundwater and industry are presented to represent the
whole components.

2. System wide focus

System wide focus, which is found by applying systemic thinking technique, tries to see
whole components comprising the considered problems. Bertlett (2001) exerts that wide focus
outlook to a system combines analytic and synthetic thinking process. Problems on
groundwater in sustaining life in a city were analyzed, then background knowledge of the
components was acquired from experts and research findings. Synthesizing the components to
form solid interrelationships is the essence of System Interrelationship Model (SIM). Then
the knowledge embodied the model is mapped and query derived from the goals can be set up.
In order to reach the goals, the components are intervened, in other words, modified the data
owned by the components to a wanted value. Thus, the interventions move the equilibrium of
the system toward the goal.

3. A theme for groundwater

Having understood that groundwater must be widely viewed from an outside box, a
significant theme on groundwater to sustain life in cities is how to manage in an integrated
way. The goal of groundwater management is to efficiently distribute the water and use it to
1 3 0
support human activities. On the other side, groundwater conservation is related to future use
of the water (Goetz, 1985). So, both terms have a similar goal in using water wisely without
producing any destruction. Besides, integrated means to manage by intervention to the
groundwater related components simultaneously for reaching the goal.

4. System interrelationship model for groundwater

System interrelationship model (SIM) is a model to describe real world phenomena according
to the developers interests in order to draw interrelationships among components embodied a
system under consideration. By developing a SIM, knowledge required to explain the
behavior of the system can be identified.

A study on groundwater management based on systemic thinking had been conducted in a
study area, Semarang city, and a SIM for groundwater together with an expert-system like
programming had been developed (P.Sudjono et al, 2003). Further study refined the SIM and
the computer program (Zulkarnaeni and P.Sudjono, 2007; F.Prabarani and P.Sudjono, 2008).
The results of the study defined that the roles of groundwater are under the influence of
recharge area, seawater, water supply company, wastewater, housing, shallow groundwater,
surface water, law and regulations, industry, and agriculture. The defined SIM for Semarang
city is shown in figure 1.
The model on groundwater as shown in figure 1 consists of components and lines containing
knowledge of the interactions. The system can be described as follows. Water demand
increases in accordance with the increasing number of house as it is a common trend in most
cities in Indonesia especially in Java. Besides, agriculture lands located close to a city are
rapidly converted to factories. Further, any activities produce more demand on land that
means land as a recharge area reduces significantly. In such situation water supply
company should raise the production. In fact, the company faces problems related to
expanding the investment in addition to difficulties to get steady flow of surface water. As a
consequence, groundwater as an alternative source of clean water is exploited by people for
domestic and industrial purposes. Although the groundwater abstraction by industries is
under government law and regulation, but in some cities, seawater intrusion had reached far
Agriculture
Law and
Regulation
Recharge
Area
Industry
Deep
Groundwater
Water Supply
Company
Housing
Shallow
Groundwater
Seawater
Surface
Water

Figure 1. A system interrelationship model for groundwater
in most cities of Indonesia.
1 3 1
inland. In another side, industry produces waste water that, if not treated, reduces the quality
of the surface water and the shallow groundwater.

As the components are interrelated, they create bounded cycles. Making an alteration on each
component may continue exhaustively to other connected components. The interrelationships
are complex and require experts knowledge on each component to explain on how it plays
roles in a system. A component owns knowledge then is mapped in the form of diagrams
developed for every kecamatan (district). Although groundwater boundary is not similar to
the kecamatan boundary, the administrative boundary has been chosen in the management.
Herewith as an example of diagrams on groundwater and industry are presented in figure 2
and figure 3 respectively.

Water supply
Flow from
deep well
Raw water
Piped
water flow
Industrial
Water demand
Types of
industry
Wastewater
characteristics
Assessment on
Wastewater
Available water
District
(Kecamatan)
Number of
industry
The occupied
area
Percentage of
serviced water
Water quality
standart
Waste
handling
Sewerage
systems
Treatment
plant
Assessment on the
waste treatment
systems

Figure 3. The knowledge on industry.
Groundwater zoning
Allowable
abstraction
District
(kecamatan)
Piezometric
Electric
conductivity
Land subsidence
and seawater
intrusion
Rock formation
and marphology
Lithology and
geology
Hydrogeologic
condition and impact
from abstraction
Yield at every
layer
Water quality

Figure 2. The knowledge on groundwater.
1 3 2
The lines connecting components indicate knowledge of reciprocal interactions. Alterations
on the data and properties of a component mutually impact those of the direct-connected
components. An example of knowledge related to the interactions involving groundwater is
presented in table 1.

Table 1. The direct influence of the connected components to the groundwater.

Component
The
Influential
Components
Data Required Explanation
Groundwater

Water supply
company
(WSC)
Flow of
groundwater
abstraction
Service area
In case WSC exploit groundwater, the water
table may decrease rapidly as other parties
illegally do the same.
Recharge area
Soil characteristic
Land use
Topography
Recharge area may sustain the continuity of the
groundwater. Land use determines the
capability of the area to recharge same water
for future use.
Industry
Water demand
Flow of
groundwater
abstraction
Industrial area
High demand on water may encourage the
manager to find solution by making more
wells. As a consequence, the abstracted water
exceeds the permitted flow that causes
permanent drops of the water table. Industry
located in recharge are may reduce the
recharge rate.
Law and
Regulation
Environmental
law related to
groundwater
Law and regulation may safe the water table in
case they are enforced to be obeyed.
Seawater
Inland distance of
the intrusion
Seawater may intrude groundwater in case the
groundwater is abstracted excessively.

Table 2. The direct influence of groundwater to the connected components.

Component
The Influential
Components
Data
Required
Explanation
Water supply company
Groundwater
Yield
Depth of
permeable layer
Water quality
Groundwater may become source of
low price water supply.
Recharge area non
Industry
An area having high groundwater
yield is preferred by investors to build
factory on it.
Law and Regulation
Bad situations on groundwater
requires further efforts to implement
the law and regulations.
Seawater non

The reciprocal interactions between two components, here an example of an interaction
between groundwater and industry, are transformed to a diagram shown in figure 4 and 5.


5. Intervention strategy

The model shown in figure 1 can indicate the required knowledge of the concerned system.
Using similar way as presented in figure 2 to 5, actions or interventions to all components in
order to sustain the groundwater, thus, can be defined as part of the management strategy.
Sudjono (2007) proposed the intervention to components of the defined groundwater system
to sustain life in cities on the surface as summarized in table 3.

Permeable
surface
Expansion of
industry is permitted
Reduce
recharge rate
Relocation of
industry
Abstraction by
Industry
Groundwater yield
For every layer
The ratio
acceptable
Further abstraction is
still possible
Not-acceptable
The flow of abstraction
should be reduced.
Some wells must be
shut down
District
(Kecamatan)
Number of
industry
Occupied area and
location

Figure 4. The influence of Industry to groundwater.
Industry is
restricted.
Industry must
be relocated .
Existing industry is
still permitted.
New industry is
prohibited.
New Industry is
not permitted in
the area as it is a
conservation area.
Hydrologic
condition
Groundwater
abstraction is
only for
domestics.
Groundwater
abstraction is
permitted only from
a certain depth.
Groundwater
abstraction requires
permission from an
authorized
institution.
The number of new
industry is
controlled as the
area is close to the
city.
Industries is
permitted to
abstract
groundwater from a
certain depth.
The number of new
well and the
pumping flow are
controlled.
Groundwater should
be explored from a
certain depth or
layer.
New deep wells and
the flow of the
pumps must be
registered and
controlled.
Hydrogeological
study is required
proceeding
abstraction.
Groundwater may
under the
influence of saline
water, thus the
abstraction for
only domestic is
possible.
The groundwater
yield is low, so the
area does not
attract industry.
New developed
industry can be
established in this
area in addition to
the existing
industrial estate.
Critical zone Amber zone Safe zone I Safe zone II Safe zone III Safe zone IV

Figure 5. The influence of groundwater to Industry.

Table 3. Proposed interventions to the components of the systems.

Components Intervention
Water supply company Raise the percentage of service for domestic and industry (Purnama et al, 2006).
Groundwater Protection to over exploitation.
Seawater Non.
Shallow groundwater Shallow groundwater must be protected from domestic and industrial
wastewater, also solid waste disposal is located in a right place.
Housing Housing is not located in recharge areas. It is provided with wastewater treatment
and solid waste collection and disposal facilities.
Agriculture Agriculture practices should avoid erosion and minimal use of pesticide and
fertilizer.
Recharge area Recharge areas must be kept green.
Industry Groundwater consumed by industries should be substituted by piped water
provided by a water supply company. Otherwise individual mini-treatment is a
solution to get clean water. In such case industries are placed in an industrial
estate to make raw water delivery possible. As well, communal wastewater
treatment can be implemented to reduce cost and to reach efficient control.
Surface water Surface water should be protected from entering pollutants discharge by industry,
house hold, and agriculture activity.
Law and regulation Law enforcement and control are required.

6. Conclusion

In many cities in Indonesia as well as cities in developing countries, they lack of sanitation
and water supply infrastructures. It means that piped water only covers small percentage of
people or the amount of water demand is higher above the coverage. Then groundwater is an
alternative as it has acceptable quality. Unfortunately, uncontrollable abstraction in addition
to failure on land use planning may results in land subsidence, seawater intrusion, and
permanent dropdown of groundwater table. System Interrelationship Model is an approach to
integrate all significant components related to groundwater. The management of groundwater
means to use the water efficiently in order to sustain human life on the surface as a city.
Simultaneous intervention to the components is an integrated way to reach the goal.

References

Abidin, Hazanuddin Z., Rochman Djaja, Heri Andreas, M.Gamal, Dodid Murdohardono, and
H.Rajiyowiryono. Penurunan Tanah di Cekungan Bandung pada Perioda (2000-2002)
Hasil Estimasi Metoda Survei GPS. Jurnal JTM, vol.X, no.2, 2003:pp.97-110.
Aulia, Dwira Nirfalini. (2008). Pemberdayaan Masyarakat dalam Pengelolaan Lingkungan
Permukiman yang Berkelanjutan. Lingkungan Tropis, Edisi Khusus 2008, Priana
Sudjono, R. Ruhiyat, and W. Astono (Eds), pp. 325-336.
Bartlett, Gary. Systemic Thinking: A Simple Thinking Technique for Gaining Systemic Focus.
The International Conference of Thingking Breakthroughs 2001. Probsolv International,
2001.
Batara, Ricy., Fachrul, M.F., dan D.Hendrawan. Kajian Kualitas Perairan Situ Teluk Gong,
Jakarta Utara. Lingkungan Tropis, Edisi Khusus 2008, Priana Sudjono, R. Ruhiyat, and
W. Astono (Eds), pp.161-169.
Goetz, Philip W. Ed. In chief. Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol.15, 1985: pp. 553.
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Harnadi, Dadi. Survei Konservasi Airtanah Daerah Semarang dan Sekitarnya. Directorate
Geology and Environment, Department of Mining and Energy of Indonesia. Report no.
68/HGKA/1991. (1991).
Mulyana, A., Warsono, S., and Boetje R. Denny. Konservasi Airtanah Daerah Semarang dan
Sekitarnya. Directorate Geology and Environment, Department of Mining and Energy of
Indonesia. Report no. 82/HGKA/1993. (1993).
Narulita, Ida. (2008). Penurunan Resapan Air di Cekungan Bandung. Lingkungan Tropis,
Edisi Khusus 2008, Priana Sudjono, R. Ruhiyat, and W. Astono (Eds), pp.229-239.
Poedjiastoeti, Hermin., Karmila, M., and J.Kautsary. (2008). Persepsi dan Preferensi
Masyarakat Nelayan Bandengan Terhadap Sanitasi Lingkungan. Lingkungan Tropis,
Edisi Khusus 2008, Priana Sudjono, R. Ruhiyat, and W. Astono (Eds), pp.277-287.
Prabarani, F., and Priana Sudjono. (2008). Pembentukan Query terhadap Hubungan antara
Airtanah Dalam dengan Industry pada Program Sistem Konservasi Air Tanah Kota
Semarang. Lingkungan Tropis, Edisi Khusus 2008, Priana Sudjono, R. Ruhiyat, and W.
Astono (Eds), pp.343-351.
Purnama, Setyawan., Kurniawan, A., and Sudaryatno. Groundwater Conservation Model in
Coastal Plain of Semarang City. Forum Geografi, Vol.20, No.2, Desember 2006: 160-174.
Sihwanto and N. Iskandar. Konservasi Airtanah Daerah Semarang dan Sekitarnya. Directorate
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Sudjono, Priana. An Integrated Method on Groundwater Management Based on System
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1 3 6
THE IMPACT OF GUAMS POPULATION GROWTH ON ISLAND
WATER RESOURCES

Shahram Khosrowpanah

Professor of Civil Engineering, Water and Environmental Research Institute of the Western Pacific
(WERI), University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam 96923
e-mail: khosrow@uguam.uog.edu

ABSTRACT Despite the world economic crisis, the island of Guams anticipating a military
buildup in the region. The economy of Guam, a small tropical island in the western Pacific
with a population of 175,000, is heavily dependent on tourism and U.S. military activities.
Guam receives approximately one million visitors a year. According to the recent base
closure agreement between the governments of the U.S. and Japan, the U.S. military will
relocate Marines and Air Force personnel to Guam. The net increase of civilian population
plus the accelerated increase due to military relocation will have a great impact on the islands
resources. This is especially true for island water resources which are limited. This paper
reviews the impact of population growth on the islands surface and groundwater and
recommends early planning for additional sources of surface water, improvement to the
distribution system, and implementing water conservation practices.
KEY WORDS: water demand, water use data, population growth, groundwater hydrology,
streams.

INTRODUCTION

Guam is located in the Pacific Ocean approximately 2,600 km (1,625 mi) south of Japan and
4,100 km (2,563 mi) west of the Honolulu, Hawaii, and 3,800 km (2,375 mi) north-east of
Bali as shown in Figure 1. It is a tropical island at North Latitude 1328 and East Longitude
14445. Guam is approximately 48 km (30 mi) in length and varies in width from 6 to 19 km
(4 to 12 mi) and is the largest of the Marianas Island chain with a total area of 549 square km
(212 square miles). Guam consists of two distinct parts. The northern half of the island is a
generally uniform limestone plateau with three hills; the highest, Mount Santa Rosa 257 m
(844 ft), is composed of volcanic rock. No stream exists on the plateau as rain water rapidly
percolates into the limestone. The southern half of the island is volcanic rock, deeply
dissected and eroded. A mountain ridge runs parallel to and near the western coast. The
highest point of the ridge, Mount LamLam, is 406 m (1,332 feet) above see level. Most
rainfall in volcanic areas of southern Guam enters directly to stream valleys. The island has
about 46 streams, which drain into the coastal areas.

The climate of Guam is characterized as tropical marine. The weather is generally hot and
very humid with little seasonal temperature variation. The mean high temperature is 27 C
(81 F) and mean low is 24 C (76 F). The coolest months are January and February. Daily
maximums and minimums vary no more than 6 C (10 F). Relative humidity ranges from 65-
80% during daylight hours to 85-100% at night. Guam has two distinct seasons, one wet and
one dry. Most of the average annual rainfall of 2,438 mm (96 inches) falls during the wet
season from July through November. The remaining months constitute the dry season. The
mean annual rainfall shows significant geographic variation. It ranges from 2,030 mm (80
1 3 7
inches) in central and coastal lowlands (in northern Guam) to 2,790 mm (110 inches) over the
southern Guam uplands. Variations from year to year may be quite large. For instance, the
maximum recorded rainfall at Inarajan Agriculture Station was 3,860 mm (152 inches) in
1980, while the minimum was 1,117 mm (44 inches) in 1998.

Frequent storms, common in the summer and fall, disrupt this pattern and occasionally
intensify to typhoon status (Lander, 1994). An average of three tropical storms and one
typhoon pass within 333 km (180 nautical miles) of Guam each year. Typhoons occur year-
round, but the highest risk is in October and November. The most intense typhoon to pass
over Guam recently was Super Typhoon Pongsona, with sustained winds of 233 km (145 mi)
per hour. It hit Guam on December 8, 2002 and caused massive destruction.

Figure 1. Guam location and its geology

The present Guam civilian population is 175,000 which is a mixture of native Chamorro and
other immigrants from the U.S. and neighboring countries. The Guam economy relies on
tourism and military activities and these industries will remain the prime economic force well
into the future.

Recently, an agreement has been signed between the governments of Japan and the U.S. to
relocate Marines and Air Force personnel from Okinawa to Guam. As a result Guams
population will increase approximately by 30% in six years (Felix P. Camacho, 2008). This
huge increase will have a great impact on every aspect of island resources especially on island
1 3 8
water resources. Since the island has limited sources of drinking water and these sources
depend on annual rainfall, it is important to review the impact of this sudden population
increase on these resources as explained in this paper.

METHODOLOGY

To understand the impact of population growth on island ground water and surface water
requires reviewing the hydrological budget for the island, present water usage, and the water
needs for population growth projection for the next decades.

Hydrological Budgets

As mentioned earlier Guam is essentially composed of two different islands sutured together
along a geological contact as shown in Figure 1. Each unit is about 259 km
2
(100 mi
2
) in area
and each may be treated as a separate entity, the northern part that has only groundwater and
southern part that mainly has surface water.

Northern Guam - Groundwater

Hydrological mass balance for northern Guam has been investigated by numerous researchers
using various methods. The most recent attempt Jocson et al. (1999) that was done by
researchers at University of Guam, WERI indicates that only 67% of the rainfall recharged to
groundwater, and the infiltration rate for the probable budget is 878 million liters a day (878
mld) which is 232 million gallons a day (232 mgd) with no surface runoff, and 801 mld (212
mgd) when surface runoff is 5% of the rain. According to these researchers, 30% of the total
recharge can be withdrawn without deteriorating either the quality or quantity of water. The
rate of removal that meets this criterion is called sustainable yield. The Guam
Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA) that oversees the groundwater pumpage rate has
chosen to use the conservative sustainable yield of 227 mld (60 mgd) based on northern
Guam lens study, CDM, (1982).

Southern Guam - Surface water

In southern Guam, recharge to groundwater is small while the direct surface runoff is high
because of the low soil permeability. There are 46 streams that drain into the ocean, and one
manmade reservoir. The Fena reservoir can sustain a draft of 43.5 mld (11.5 mgd). A
comprehensive study of potential surface water development in the south was done by Barrett
Consulting Group (1993). Eighteen streams were evaluated as potential sources of fresh
water. In 1992 Guam Waterworks Authority (GWA) developed intake and water treatment
facilities for using one of the streams (Ugum River) for supplying drinking water for the
southern part of the island. Presently GWA is pumping 8.5 mld (2.2 mgd) from this stream.

1 3 9
Present Water Usage

The total water production from ground, surface, and springs are listed in Table 1, Guam
Environmental Protection Agency Guam EPA (2007). GWA is responsible for three water
systems that operate and maintain more than 200 water facilities on Guam. The military
operates Fena reservoir and wells inside their bases which provide drinking water for their use.
They sell half of their production (17 mld/4.5 mgd) to GWA for civilian uses. The private
users include drinking water bottle companies, construction companies, and golf courses.
Guam residents are entirely dependent on GWA for providing drinking water. Very few
Guam residents use rain catchment systems to supplemental their water supply. According to
a recent GWA master plan study, the amount of water that is being lost through the water
system is 50%. This is called unaccounted for which is comprised as illegal connections,
pipe leaks, or unreadable meters, Guam Waterworks Authority (2006). In addition, the tourist
industries such as hotels are partially dependent on GWA for providing drinking water.

Table 1. Total ground and surface water production in (mld/mgd), Guam EPA, 2007

Sources GWA Air Force Navy Private Users Total
Groundwater 134.4/35.5 18.9/5 13.2/3.5 7.5/2 174/46
Reservoir 17/4.5 17/4.5 34/9
Surface 8.3/2.2 8.3/2.2
Total 216.3/57.2

Population

The Guam economy is almost entirely based on tourism and military activities. Immediately
after World War II, the population increased from 22,290 in 1940 to 59,498 in 1950, a 167
percent increase. Since then the civilian and military population has increased at the end of
each decade as shown in Table 2, U.S. Census Bureau, Department of Commerce (2000).

Table 2. Guams population history

Year 1960 Year 1970 Year 1980 Year 1990 Year 2000
67,044 84,996 105,070 133,152 154,805
13 % change (1950) 26% change 23% change 26% change 16% change

The tourist arrivals for the last 7 years are shown in Table 3. For the last 7 years, however,
the population growth and tourist arrivals have slowed down due to factors such as the 9/11
attack in 2001, Typhoon Pongsona in 2002, the ongoing war in Iraq and the recent financial
crisis.

Table 3. Guam visitors arrivals, 2001-2007

Arrivals FY01 FY02 FY03 FY04 FY05 FY06 FY07
1,159,895 1,058,704 909,506 1,156,863 1,210,147 1,217,111 1,223,719
% change -9.9% -8.7 -14.1 27.2 4.6 0.6 0.5
1 4 0
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Guams population is projected to continue to grow.
However, growth rates are projected to slow in the future, U.S. Census Bureau, (2004). The
Guam population growth projections had been reported by Guam Waterworks Authority
(2006) as shown in Table 4. The lowest projection is for 0.3% annual increase, the second
option is 1.2% annual increase, and the high percentage growth is 2.6% per year increase.

Under a recent bi-lateral agreement between the Governments of Japan and the U.S.,
approximately 40,000 military personnel with their dependents will be relocating from
Okinawa to Guam by 2014. It is also estimated that for road and housing construction 20,000
immigrant workers will be needed. According to recent Gov. of Guam testimony before US
Senate, Felix P. Camacho (2008), a total of 30% will be added to 175,000 present population
of Guam within a 6 year period.

Table 4. Civilian population projection scenarios

Year Population
U.S. Census Bureau
Lower
GWA 2006
Medium
GWA 2006
High
GWA 2006
2000 154,805 154,805 154,805 154,805
2005 166,769 157,141 171,757 176,004
2010 179,658 159,512 190,565 200,105
2015 190,699 161,919 211,432 227,507
2020 202,419 164,363 234,585 258,662
2050 221,451 179,817 437,595 558,667
2100 257,232 216,942 1236970 2016,142

DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As the result of Military relocation to Guam, a total population increase of 40,000 has been
estimated. The distribution of this population will be 50% in the northern part of the island
and the other half will be in Navy base at southern part. Considering the present population
of 175,000, an accelerated increase of 30% within 6 years period will occur. Using the
medium civilian population growth estimates (Table 4), the total island population by year
2015 will be at 251,432 which is a summation of 211,432 and the addition of 40,000 people.
An increase of 76,432 to the present population of 175,000.

The present withdrawal from Guams aquifer is 174 mld (46 mgd), that is 76% of the
estimated sustainable yield of 227 mld (60 mgd). If we assume that no Guam residents use
water catchment practices (rain catchment systems), that they continue to use 494 liters per
day (130 gallons per day) for each person, the GWA rate of unaccounted for is 50%, and
the number of tourist arrivals will not change, then the amount of additional ground water
needed for the additional increase of 76,432 population will be 56.6 mld (14.9 mgd). The
total withdrawal will be 230.5 mld (60.9 mgd) which is equal to the sustainable yield of 227
mld (60 mgd). This means that if Guam continues to use ground water for additional
population growth, with no increase in tourist population, the total ground water withdrawal
will be equal to the sustainable yield. Any additional population growth can not be supported
by groundwater resources. The GWA and military should be looking into using surface water
as a supplement. However, in spite of groundwater development, surface water development
1 4 1
requires selecting a site, design and construction of an intake structure, and a treatment
facility. This requires early planning, design and funding sources.

The recommendation is that GWA and the military should develop plans for using streams in
southern Guam for water supply now, not waiting for the next 6 years. Presently, there is no
water conservation plan for encouraging people to use rain catchment systems. The
Government of Guam should encourage or make it a mandatory for new home construction
permits to have a rain catchment system as part of the plan. Water conservation practices
need to be encouraged. Recently, GWA revised their water rate for additional funds to
upgrade their distribution system and reduce system leakage. System improvements, using
water system modeling, reducing the amount of unaccounted for, and encouraging water
conservation practices should be the goals of GWA and military water utility.

REFERENCES

Barrett Consulting Group (1993). Phase I Geotechnical Studies Conceptual Surface Water
Development Plan Guam, HLA Project No. 21148. W.B. Flores/Barret Consulting Group,
Agana, Guam.

CDM (1982). Final Report, Northern Guam Lens Study, groundwater management program,
Aquifer Yield Report. Camp. Dresser and McKee, Inc. in assoc. with Barret, Harris &
Associates for Guam Environmental Protection Agency.

Felix P. Camacho, the Honorable Governor of Guam (2008). Governor Statement before the
U.S. Senate Committee concerning the US Military buildup on Guam. US Senate Committee
on Energy and Natural Resources, May 1, 2008, Washington D.C.

Guam Environmental Protection Agency (2007). Annual well production, Gov. of Guam,
Water Division, Mangilao, Guam.

Guam Waterworks Authority (2006). Draft Water Resources Master Plan. Gov. of Guam,
Tamuning, Guam.

Jocson J.M.U., Jenson J.W. and D.N. Contractor (1999). Numerical Modeling and Field
Investigation of Infiltration, Recharge, and Discharge in the Northern Guam Lens Aquifer.
Technical Report 88, Water and Environmental Research Institute of the Western Pacific,
University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam.

Lander, M.A. (1994). Meteorological factors associated with drought on Guam. Technical
Report 75, Water and Environmental Research Institute of the Western Pacific, University of
Guam, Mangilao, Guam.

U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Guam Department of Commerce, Agana, Guam.
U.S. Census Bureau (2004). Guam Department of Commerce, Agana, Guam.

1 4 2
Urban-rural interrelation in water resource management:
problems and factors affecting the sustainability of drinking water supply
in the City of Bandung Indonesia

Parikesit
1
, T. Husodo
1
, , S. Okubo
2
, T. Herwanto
1
, E.N. Megantara
1

A. Pandi
1
, D. Muhammad
1
, and Rusydi
1

1
Dept. Biology & Institute of Ecology Universitas Padjadjaran Bandung Indonesia
2
Graduate School of Agricultural & Life Sciences the University of Tokyo Japan

Abstract

Water resource is an important element and it functions to maintain the linkage between rural
and urban areas in many parts of Indonesia. In fact, it is quite common that urban areas in
Indonesia rely on water supply from rural areas located outside the administrative boundary.
To some extent such situation could have a significant effect on the sustainability of water
supply in urban areas. This urban-rural interrelation through water resource and problem
related to supply sustainability is also true for the City of Bandung Indonesia where the
demand on clean water for daily needs is increasing. This city capital relies on water supplies
generated from catchment areas located in different towns and districts outside the city. Yet,
the present situation and condition of catchment areas is worrisome and the condition is
worsening in some parts of the catchment. Among the measures taken to cope the present
problems are reforestation and reboisation, land conservation, but other essential factors
related to agricultural practices and water use efficiency have not been considered thoroughly.
Therefore, a conceptual plan should be established at landscape level by taking into account
biophysical as well as social aspects of the area where rehabilitation programme aimed to
maintain water supply sustainability will be carried out.

Keywords: Catchment, drinking water, land conversion, intensive agriculture

1. Introduction
In may parts of Indonesia, urban rural interaction is established, among others,
through a system of water supply and demand. In fact, it is quite common to observe that
many urban areas absolutely rely on water supply from the surrounding rural areas. This has
caused the sustainability of water supply to urban areas really depends on how water resource
is managed in its source located outside the urban boundary. Sustainable water resource
management that guarantess the maintenance of urban rural interaction is actually becoming
a hot and rather sensitive issue in Indonesia in general and in Java in particular. This is
because in many parts of the country the availability of water for drinking is becoming an
important issue, not only in the perspective of water quantity but also its quality.

The above mentioned situation is also true for the City of Bandung West Java
Indonesia. This provinces capital city with its population of about 2.3 million really relies on
water supplied from the surrounding rural areas. Catchment areas for citys drinking water are
located outside its administrative boundary, i.e. in the northern and southern parts of the city.
The catchment areas are covered within not less than 13 sub-watershed regions, and
administratively they belong to six neighbouring districts, namely Districts of Bandung, West
1 4 3
Bandung, Cimahi, Sumedang, Cianjur, and Garut. In this regions, agriculture and other
bioresource-based extractive activities are stil predominant resulted in profound effects on the
condition of water resource supplied to the City of Bandung.
The demand for drinking water in the City of Bandung is projected to increase along
with citys population growth at about 4.7%/year. The projected average percentage increase
of water demand from year to year between the period of 2008 and 2015 is about 3.8%.
Nevertheless, the citys drinking water company (PDAM) claims that the company will not
be able to fulfill the increasing demand at least until year 2015. This is due to the fact that the
company is facing serious problems concerning, among others, infrastructure, deteriorating
conditions of water resource and catchment areas, conflict in water usage, and institutional-
related aspects. On the other hand, the West Javas Board of Regional Plannng and
Development (2004) reported that in 2010 there will be water shortage with estimated deficit
about 0.13 billion m
3
/thn for Bandung Metropolitan. At the present, PDAM is only able to
provide drinking water service to about 65% of total population in the City of Bandung. Yet,
the company has set a target to increase the percentage of househould with supplied drinking
water to about 85% in 2015.
The present condition of catchment areas that supply water for drinking to the City of
Bandung is experiencing serious degradation due to population growth, land conversion for
new settlements and expansion of agricultural land, declining of forested land area, and
unsustainable agricultural practices. These factors have affected not only the quantitative
amount of water availability, but also the qualitative condition of raw water flown to the water
treatment installation located in the city. Watershed rehabilitation is necessary to be
undertaken in the Citarum watershed as the major and most important watershed that supplies
drinking water to the City of Bandung. The present condition of the watershed is very critical
because various human activities in agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors are practiced
in a somewhat unsustainable way.

Some necessary measures have been performed although the result is not yet as
expected. Reboisation and reforestation, land conservation, water pollution mitigation, and
law enforcement are among undertaken measures involving local and regional governmental
offices, academic institutions, NGOs, and public. Until now, the management of the Citarum
watershed is tends to be partially (sectoral-oriented) carried out due to lack of mutual
understanding among relevant stakeholders. It is likely that the absence of common principles
that accomodate all parties interests is one of the factors causing this situation. Apart from
that, necessary and appropriate approach like ecosystem (landscape) approach to be used as
basis in watershed rehabilitation is not yet well understood by the relevant stakeholders.

2. Materials and Methods
The data presented in this paper are part of the results derived from a
multidisciplnary study carried out by the Institute of Ecology Padjadjaran University Bandung
in cooperation with the Bandungs Drinking Water Company (PDAM Kota Bandung)
complemented with secondary data obtained from various sources like West Javas Board of
Regional Planning and Development, Provincial Office of Environmental Management,
Provincial Office of Center for Water Resource, and Provincial Office of Land Resource.
The collected primary data covers biophysical and social aspects related to water
resource management in the catchment area of Southern Bandung. Biophysical aspect consists
of hydrology (including water quality), environmental geology, climate and rainfall, soil and
1 4 4
land use, and agroecosystem. Whereas social aspect covers demography, socio-economics,
socio-cultural, and institutional arrangement (including leadership and social orientation).
Watershed was used as unit of study inwhich the study area was divided into two
main sub-catchment areas, namely Cisangkuy and Cilaki sub-catchments. Hydrological
sampling to measure water quantity and quality was performed in 31 sampling sites located in
the two sub-catchments. Thirty four parameters of water quality were measured in the field
and analysed in the laboratory. The results were then compared with the standard as
determined in the provincial regulation concerning raw water for drinking water. For social
surveys, some villages located in the two sub-catchments were selected based on socio-
ecological characteristics that might affect water resource management.

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Current situation and condition related to water resource in Bandung Metropolitan
The main source that supplies raw water for drinking water in the City of Bandung are
Cisangkuy and Cilaki rivers located in southern Bandung (both rivers are part of the Citarum
watershed) and they supply about 80% of raw water. At present, the condition in all citys
water sources is deteriorating because of environmental degradation in the Citarum watershed
like severe erosion and sedimentation, land conversion. On the other hand, lack of awareness
among stakeholders to effectively and efficiently use the water resource and limited budget
for environmental conservation and rehabilitation seems t be persistent problems.
The catchment area in the Southern Bandung is located in mountainous region with
undulating and hilly areas, flat lands are scaterred particularly in lower elevation. Based on
spatial data measurement, about 36% of the catchment area has slope > 40%. With such
topographical condition, complemented with Andosol and Latosol dominated soil types and
declining tree vegetation cover, the catchment is vulnerable to severe erosion. Average annual
erosion rate is about 146.5 ton/ha causing high turbidity in the main rivers (Cilaki and
Cisangkuy) and the greater part of the area (93%) is categorized as having severe to very
severe erosion rate. Therefore, appropriate land management should be performed.
The dynamics of rivers water discharge in the catchment area in southern Bandung is
demonstrated by its intermittent characteristic. This means that water discharge actually
depends on the magnitude of rainfall; the higher the amount of rainfall the higher the water
discharge in the river. However, water discharge in the dry season declines considerably, and
it has been decreasing in the last few years. Ratio between maximum and minimum
discharges can be used as an indicator of deteriorating condition in the watershed. A previous
study indicated that the ratio between maximum and minimum water discharge in the Upper
Citarum watershed was > 50 (West Java Provincial Office of Environmental Management,
2002). This result suggests that the environmental condition in the catchment area that
supplies drinking water to the City of Bandung is experiencing serious decline.
The source of surface water entering Cisangkuy and Cilaki rivers as the main suppliers
of raw water to the City of Bandung consists of main sources and suppletion (irregular supply
from areas surrounding the reservoirs). These sources originate from headwater in Mt.
Wayang and some tributaries; there are about 13 tributaries supplying water to Cisangkuy and
Cilaki rivers. From these two rivers, water is then run as raw water to the intake before being
treated as drinking water in water treatment plant in Bandung. Based on field measurements,
water discharge varies from site to site, the range is between 0.02 m
3
/sec. and 8.4 m/sec. with
water velocity 0.07 m/sec 2.3 m/sec.
From secondary data provided by the states electricity company, it is shown that
water discharge in Cilaki river in the period 1993 2006 has been declining. Maximum water
discharge was 4.79m
3
/sec and it was attained in March 1993; the lowest water discharge was
1 4 5
0.1 m3/sec that occurred in August 2006. Whereas the average water discharge in the same
period was 1.24-3.68 m
3
/sec. Based on annual data on water discharge there has been a
fluctuation of water discharge with declining trend in the last five years.
Apart from decreasing water quantity as mentioned above, water generated fro the
catchment area on Southern Bandung is also suffering from quality deterioration. Water
quality measurements carried out recently in several sampling sites located in Cisangkuy and
Cilaki rivers indicate that some paramaters are worsening. Tables 3 and 4 summarize the
results of water quality measurements. If the results were compared to the standard according
to the decree No. 39 year 2000 concerning raw water for drinking (Category B) issued by the
Governor of West Java, some sites in the Cisangkuy and Cilaki rivers indicate measured
values for particular parameters do not fulfill the terms as tolerated by the decree. These
parameters are H
2
S, dissolved oxygen (DO), BOD, COD, surfactant, sulphate, Mn (only in
Cisangkuy river), fecal coliforms, and total coliforms. Overall, the quality of water in Cilaki
river is categorized as poor if it was used as raw water for drinking water.
The declining of water quality in the catchment area is caused by several related
factors like expansion of agricultural land in sloppy areas, intensive agriculture practices
without taking into account necessary measures in agricultural land conservation and water
source protection, expansion of human settlement. All these related factors seem to be derived
from continuing population growth and increasing number of poor-resource farmers.
Therefore, integrated measures that include various biophysical and social aspects should be
considered to improve water quality in the catchment area of Southern Bandung.
3.2. Direct and indirect factors affecting water supply sustainability
The sustainability of water supply for drinking water in the City of Bandung really
depends on how water resource ands the watershed where water sources are located are
managed. The implemented management is certainly affected by various factors, biphysical as
well as social-related factors. The root factor that profoundly affects the sustainability of
water supply to the City of Bandung is population growth that generates several affecting
factors like land conversion, unsustainable agricultural practices, forest encrachment, poverty,
and so on. These factors eventually affect the condition of catchment area where raw water is
generated to supply raw water for drinking in the City of Bandung.
Environmental degradation in the catchment area in Southern Bandung is due to the
fact that the majority of villagers rely on local natural resources for their livelihood. The
majority of the population (> 70% of the total population) living in the catchment area have
income-generating activities in agricultural sector and extractive activities for subsistence.
Yet, landlesness seems to be a persistent problem in the area. On the other hand, the average
of land ownership among farmers in general does not exceed 0.3 ha. Environmental
degradation is also due to the decline of forest cover caused by forest encroachment that has
been happening in the last ten years. Encroachment has caused about 17,533 of forest cover to
disappear. But since 2007, forest encroachment has been able to be halted although constraint
is still occurring from management perspective. Apart from that, some parts of the forested
area is also designated as production forest where tree cutting is commonly practiced. In
relation to the expansion of human settlement, it is estimated that about 47% of the catchment
area is currently becoming built area, especially for human settlement.
Deteriorating condition of environment in the catchment area is obvious in
Cisangkuy watershed where 30% of the area is currently suffering very severe erosion rate (>
480 tonne/ha/yr); 15% of the area is classified to have severe erosion rate (180-480 t/ha/yr);
15% is moderately eroded (15-180 t/ha/yr); and ligh erosion rate 10% (< 15 t/ha/yr).
1 4 6
Although there is no official data, it is believed that water utilization for agriculture,
domestic, and other purposes (e.g. plantation) has been increased. This has resulted in
increasing conflict of water resource use between fulfilling the need of raw water for drinking
in the City of Bandung and the need of water for agriculture and households in the catchment
area of Southern Bandung. From the institutional perspective, it is likely that coordination
among institution (government, private, and public) in different administrative levels (local
and provincial) is still lacking. Above all, law enforcement in reletion to water and land
resources management is another issue that has not been performed well.

Table 1. Summaries of problems related to water resource in the catchment area of Southern
Bandung from biophysical and social perspectives

Aspects
Directly related to water resource
issue
Indirectly related to water resource
issue
A. Climate and
rainfall
1. Tendency of increasing mean monthly
temperature, evaporation, in both rainy
and dry seasons, in the period between
1991-2008 causing an increase in
evaporation and evapotranspiration.

2. Tendency of decreasing air pressure
between August April, and May during
1991 - 2008; this has resulted in
increasing evaporation.

6. Increase daily, monthly, and annual
evapotranspiration during 1991-2008,
this tends to decrease baseflow dan direct
runoff in the catchment area in southern
Bandung.

8. Tendency of declining monthly as
well as annual precipitation during 1991-
2008, causing decline of baseflow dan
direct runoff in rivers within the
catchment area of suthern Bandung; this
has resulted in decreasing water
discharge.

B. Environmental
geology

a. Geomorphology 1. Morphological characteristic of the
catchment area has high runoff and low
infiltration capability.

2. Morphological characteristic of the
area where groundwater is accumulated
has moderate runoff and low infiltration
capability.

3. Morphological characteristic of the
area where groundwater is stored and
outflown has low runoff and high
infiltration capability.

b. Topography-
Relief
1. Sloppy areas with low or without
vegetation cover causing high runoff,
erosion, and sedimentation.
1. Cut and fill in sloppy areas for
agricultural land causing high runoff,
erosion, and sedimentation; in some
parts this has caused the disappearance
of water springs.
1 4 7
Aspects
issue
issue
c. Rocks 1. Vulnerable rock and weathered soil
with high potentiality for landslide to
occur.
1. Cut and fill activities for agriculture
and access opening (road) have
disturbed rock layer that in turn may
affect the condition of water springs.
d. Soil 1. Weathering rock has low resistency
upon erosion and landslide.
1. Cut and fill activities for agriculture
and road access have disturbed rock
layer that in turn may affect the
condition of water springs.
2. Soil stability in some parts of the
catchment areas is low.
2. Low soil stability cause frequent
landslide which in turn may change the
depth of water body (river and lake).
3. Soil texture with moderate to high
erodibility.
3.Land clearing for agriculture has
caused the loss of vegetation cover and
it increases erosion, landslide,
sedimentation; this has resulted water
body in some parts of the catchment to
become shallow.
4. Low to moderate soil permeability. 5. Lack of measure to support land
conservation like drainage system and
terraces are absent in many parts of the
catchment.
e. Hidrogeology

> infiltration zone 1. Lack or no vegetation cover has
caused a decline of water infiltration, this
has resulted in decreasing water
discharge, disappearance of water
springs, and decreasing water refill to the
aquifer.

> Spring 1. Decreasing of water debit in a number
of springs from 5 L/sec to only 1-2L/sec.
2. Declining land cover around water
sprngs.
C. Hidrology 1. In the last 15 years, there has been
declining water discharge in various
rivers that function as major supplier of
raw water for drinking water in the City
of Bandung.
2. Impairment of facility that channels
water from some sources causing loss of
potential debit at about 337 L/sec,
resulted in decreasing supply to
Cipanunjang reservoir and this in turn
caused declining supply of raw water to
the City of Bandung.
3. Severe sedimentation in Cipanunjang
reservoir at the amount about 10.91
ton/day and in Cileunca 12.87 t/day
causing the decline of reservoir storage
capacity.
5. Operation of three hydropower plants
to generate electiricity tend to use more
water indicating the declining efficieny
of the plantss turbine.
6. Water extraction from some main
rivers for agricultural land, and it tends
to increase during the dry season; such
activity affects water quantity and
quality.
1 4 8
Aspects
issue
issue
7. Water extraction from the reservoirs to
water cashcrops cultivated in the
drawdown area surrounding the
reservoirs.
D. Water quality 1. Intesive agricultural practices (crop- as
well as animal-based production
systems) have caused some parameters
of water quality categorized as poor

E. Land use 1. About 15.260 Ha of land within the
catchment area under crticial condition
and rehabilitation programme has not yet
been achieved.
1. Rehabilitation programme through
tree planting cannot be achieved well
because the majority of farmers possess
very limited of land acreage (0.15
Ha/hh).
2. Plantation is the dominant land use
type and manage independently
(otonomous) by the states plantation
estate; to some extent direct control by
provincial or municipal government is
lacking.
3. Land use change occurs continously
and better water-conserving land use like
forested area and tea plantation have
been experiencing conversion to annual
crops
3. Land utilization in the tea plantation
areas does not properly perform as
designated (illegal cultivation are
encountered in somewhat remote parts
of the plantation).
4. Land resource utilization in some area
in the catchment does not in concordance
with the spatial planning established by
the District of Bandung.
4. Increasing tendency of land needed
for settlement and agriculture along
with ppulation growth; this especially
occurs in tea plantation areas.
5. Future conflict in water use to to the
development of water supply system in
the District of Bandung.
5. Very limited land is available (only
1%) for expansion of human
settlement until 2027.
F. Agroecosystem 1. Intensive agriculture is a common
practice performed year round and tend
to be monospecific resulted in
continuous use of water for watering (in
dry season) and pesticide spraying

2. Cultivated commodities usually
required large amount of water

3. Animal-based production system
developed in the catchment area is one
that needs huge water availability.

4. Water extracted from water body is a
common practice performed by farmers
cultivating the land near the river

G. Land
conservation
1. Agricultural activity and kinds of
commodities cultivated, especially in
sloppy areas, force farmers to neglect
land conservation consideration affecting
water quality
1. Tree planting is rarely performed by
sharecroppers and farmers cultivating
small piece of sloppy land
H. Demography,
Socio-Economic
1. High dependency on water resource
for domestic use, agriculture in both the
rainy and dry seasons; it is increasing
along woth population growth.
1. Increasing pressure on land resource
due to population growth.
2. Economic activities performed by
local people highly rely on activities that
use great amount of water resource
2. High dependency on free biomass
energy cause local people to encroach
forest and/or cut trees in forst as well
1 4 9
Aspects
issue
issue
as non-forest sources.
3. Low education level has caused low
awareness among the majority of
villagers to actively invovlve in water
and land resources conservation.
I. Institution,
leadership, and local
orientation
1. Plantation estate is in control of
large portion of land resource and
water resources. This could limit the
local government to take necessary
measure in coordinating efforts for
integrated land and water management.
2. The role and involvement of local
informal leaders in land and water
resource conservation is still lacking.

4. Conclusions
The City of Bandung has been experiencing a somewhat serious problem with regard
to he water supply for drinking water. This might affect the target to improve drinking water
supply and service in the coming years. The problems faced in the current water resource
management are due to the fact that the environmental conditions in the catchment area is
deteriorating due to factors related to biophysical and social aspects. A conceptual plan should
be established at landscape level by taking into account biophysical as well as social aspects
of the area where rehabilitation programme aimed to maintain water supply sustainability will
be carried out.

5. Acknowledgments
The financial support to conduct the study by a multidisciplinary team from the Instituteof
Ecology Universitas Padjadjaran was provided by the City of Bandungs Drinking Water
Company.

6. References
Anonymous. (2008). Spatial Planning of District of Bandung 2007 2027: compilation and
data analysis. District Government of Bandung. (In Indonesian)
Anonymous. (2008). Water Balance in Region IV Banjaran. Indonesia Power.
Anonymous. Preliminary study and dan interbasin water transfer detail design. PT. Kwarsa
Hexagon. (In Indonesian)
Municipal Board of Development and Regional Planning. (2008). Decree No. 3 Year 2008
concerning Spatial planning District of Bandung 2007 2027. District Government
of Bandung. (In Indonesian)
Narulita, I., Rizka, M., Rahmat, H. (2006). Characteristics of rainfall in the Greater Bandung.
Seminar proceeding. Research Center for Geotechnology. Indonesian Research
Institute. (In Indonesian)
West Java Board of Regional Planning and Development. (2004). Environmental
management planning in the Greater Bandung. (In Indonesian)
West Java Provincial Office of Environmental Management.(2002). Conservation measures in
the Citarum Watershed West Java. (In Indonesian)

1 5 0
Integration of Flood Control and Environmental Preservation
in Urban River

Takeyoshi CHIBANA
1)

1) Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo
e-mail: chibana@hydra.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

In this paper, the important factors to integrate flood control and environmental preservation
were examined. Firstly present condition of flood control measures and their effect on river
ecosystem was reviewed. Next, the effect of four factors; alignment of river channel, width of
river channel, design of river crossing structures, and type of revetment works on river
morphology was analyzed. On the basis of these results, the way to integrate flood control and
environmental preservation was discussed. Especially the importance of stream line and
power regulation during a flood event was pointed out.

Keywords: river morphology, alignment of river channel, width of river channel, revetment
works, river crossing structures

1. Introduction

In urban rivers, it is considered to be difficult to balance the flood control measures and
environmental preservation measures. Ecosystem in urban rivers has degraded for several
decades due to the regulation of river channels. At the same time, however, the flood control
measures also have become insufficient recently because of the dense land use around the
river and global warming etc. Hence it would be a good opportunity for reviewing river
management. In this paper, the effect of conventional flood control measures on river
morphology was analyzed and the present condition was evaluated in terms of environmental
preservation. And finally the important issue to integrate flood control and environmental
preservation was discussed.

2. Typical flood control measures

Flood control measures can be classified into inland flood regulation inside city region
and river water regulation inside river channel. Moreover, river water regulation can be
classified into discharge regulation and improvement of river channel. Inland flood
regulation can be classified into improvement of drainage network and retention of rain
water. Classification is shown in Fig.1.
1 5 1
River water
Regulation
Inland water
Regulation
Discharge
regulation
Dams
Channel network
(floodway etc)
Improvement of
river channel
Improvement of
drainage river
Retention of
rain water
Flood
Control

Fig.1. Classification of flood control types

In many countries, river channels and their alignment have been modified artificially by
constructing concrete revetments and levees at both sides, and the discharge is regulated by
dams. Especially in Japan, rivers are often quite steep, leading to a sudden rise in the
discharge rate after rainfall. In regards to large rivers, Japan has suffered from severe flood
damage and the government and citizens have made great effort to control floods. Recently
the number of damaging floods has been gradually decreasing, but rivers have been
continuously regulated and changed, especially in urbanized areas. However, the risk of flood
is expected to increase due to the global warming in future, while enough space to enlarge the
width of river or to change the river course does not exist around the river in city regions. It is
an important issue how to reduce the risk of flooding in city regions.

3. Environmental preservation in a river channel

Conventional flood control measures such as construction of concrete revetments or
straightening of river channel should be improved continuously from the view point of safety
management, but they should be harmonized with the environmental preservation at the same
time. In Japan, river environmental preservation was declared one of the important purposes
of river management in River Law in 1997. Before this year, the main purposes of river
management concerned flood control and water use only. During the 1970s, however,
ecological conditions in rivers became worse and worse. After that period, government and
citizens started to try to restore and preserve river environments.

For example, the photograph shown in Fig. 2 was taken in some rural area in Japan. All
over Japan, we could see this kind of landscape in the past. This river runs through the village
and village people have their houses near the river with no barrier between their village and
the river. There is easy access to the riverfront and there are many aquatic species found in
this river. This is the original condition of Japanese rivers.
1 5 2

Fig.2. River that runs through a rural village Fig.3. Typical urban river

However, Fig. 3 shows one of the typical urban river channel in which both banks are
covered by concrete while the channel has many steps. Steps were constructed to reduce the
riverbed slope and prevent erosion when a meandering river course was shortcut and
straightened. These concrete structures are often found in urban rivers. In this case, there is no
interaction between the forest and the river and also fish neither migrate upstream nor find
their preferred habitat. Around such a river, residents seem not to care about the river, because
no fishing activities are found and the water quality is usually bad. In this case, it is difficult
for residents to keep their motivation to improve the river. Finally the urban river falls into the
vicious cycle of deterioration.

4. Effect of conventional flood control measures on river morphology

Whether we focus on flood control or environmental preservation, relationship between river
morphology and shape of river channel has to be understood. For representing the shape of
river channel, four factors that are alignment of river channel, width of river channel, design
of river crossing structures, and type of revetment works were focused on.

*Alignment of river channel
Usually gently meandering river course is designed by referring the original river course. In
inner bank side of the meandering channel, a point bar is created by transported sand from
upstream and scour pool is created at the opposite side. In that case, several types of
morphological units are created. However sometimes the shoreline suddenly changes in the
flow direction, where the embankment or its foot protection is often damaged due to the
excess force during flood. For example, as Fig. 4 shows, the revetment was broken at the
corner of sudden change of channel alignment. In this case, the elevation of foot protection
also changes just upstream side of the damaged revetment. From the view point of flood
control, sudden change of river flow should be avoided, but on the other hand, monotonous
flow and morphology should be avoided from the view point of environmental preservation.
In order to balance these two issues, it is necessary to predict and control the flow condition
during flood. Water colliding front should be protected robustly, but other areas can be
utilized for environmental preservation zone.
In city region, it is impossible to change the alignment of the dyke, but we can change the
alignment of low flow channel inside a river channel and flow line in the channel. In that
case, compound channel is preferable in order to design the alignment of flow channel.
1 5 3

Fig.4. Damage of revetment works at the corner of sudden change of the alignment

*Width of river channel
In urban rivers, the width of river channel is quite narrow compared with its depth due to the
land use around the river. However depth per width ratio determines the river morphology
inside the channel. No depositional river bed form is created in a narrow channel, but on the
other hand, deposited sediment occupies some portion of the river channel in a wide channel
because the stable river width is determined by the physical property of target river such as
sediment size, river bed slope and annual maximum discharge. As Fig. 5 shows, sometimes
the river bank is covered with vegetation. The vegetation in a river channel becomes
roughness during flood as well as habitat of many creatures during normal flow.

Fig.5. Deposition of sediment to create naturally stable width of a river channel

*Design of river crossing structures
In a river channel, there are many river crossing structures such as drop structure to reduce
the riverbed slope or weir to withdraw water. Those river crossing structures affects the
sediment flow from upstream to downstream. In an original river course as is shown in Fig. 2,
sediment in a channel is continuously transported during flood. On the other hand, if drop
structures are installed, most of the sediment in the river channel can overpass the structures
during large flood events only. However usual flood erodes the river bed along the water pass
because of little supply of sediment from upstream. Consequently high river bank with dense
vegetation is created especially just downstream side of the structure as is shown in Fig. 6.
1 5 4

Fig.6. Difference of riverbed morphology between up and downstream side of a drop
structure

*Type of revetment
Type of revetment affects the river flow along the river bank and determines the river bed
configuration as is shown in Fig.7. If the river bank and foot of it are covered with smooth
concrete blocks, then water-power is not attenuated by embankment and its foot protection
during flood. Additionally, no sediment is supplied from the river bank, hence the pool
becomes longer and the depth becomes constant in the flow direction due to the foot
protection. However deep but short pool is created around a large protrusion of the bank such
as spur dyke. The depth and the velocity are quite uniform spatially in front of the concrete
revetment despite the diverse morphology is created around a spur dyke.
Riverbed
Water Surface
Riverbed
Water Surface
Concrete revetment with foot protection
Spur dyke

Fig.7. Longitudinal profile of river bed along the revetment works

5. Discussion How should we integrate Flood Control and Environmental
Preservation?

River morphology determines both the capacity of discharge in a river channel and habitat
condition for several aquatic lives. Among several creatures, vegetation is a key factor from
the view point of flood control and environmental preservation, because the overgrowth of
1 5 5
specific species of vegetation decreases both discharge capacity in a river channel and
biodiversity. In examining river morphology, we have to predict what kind of vegetation will
grow on a dry riverbed. Briefly speaking, distribution of relative height on a dry riverbed and
size of riverbed material determine the frequency of disturbance on vegetations during flood
events and therefore the vegetation type corresponds to the morphology in a river channel.

In terms of river management, planar longitudinal and cross-sectional design of river
channels determines the morphology and the distribution of vegetation on it. In urban rivers, it
is difficult to change the planar design of river channels, but the design of low flow channels
can be modified in a compound river channel. As is mentioned above, sudden change of a
river channel alignment is not preferable, but a meandering channel with several curvatures
creates diverse morphology. Additionally it is better to change the width of a river channel in
places. In wider region, both transported sediment and discharge are stored during flood.
Consequently the peak discharge in a lower reach can be reduced and a broad dry riverbed
with vegetation is created in wider region. Moreover whether the channel width is wider than
the stable width that is determined by flood discharge, size of riverbed material and riverbed
slope is important. In a wide river channel, diverse morphology and natural bank are created
by natural forces. In terms of longitudinal design, the distribution and the height of river
crossing structures are important. High river crossing structures make riverbed slope much
milder than the original condition and sediment transport becomes inactive. However,
especially in urban rivers, riverbed slope became much steeper than the original condition due
to straightening of a river channel. In that sense, some low river crossing structures should be
installed to control stream power during a flood event. Moreover, in urban rivers, river
crossing structures often create diverse morphology such as dry riverbed, riffle and pool
around them. In terms of cross-sectional design, we may have to modify the conventional
revetment works. Smooth surface protection and foot protection with concrete blocks make
main stream line concentrate along the river bank during a flood event. Consequently the
conventional revetment works decrease the diversity of morphology and increase the risk of
revetment damage. Traditionally spur dykes were utilized to control main stream line, but
recently concrete blocks to resister the stream power during flood are more popular. However
the control of main stream line as well as stream power during a flood event should be
considered in planar, longitudinal, and cross-sectional design of river channels in order to
integrate flood control and environmental preservation. In predicting the main stream line, we
can predict the vegetation growth as well as the morphology.

6. Conclusions

In this paper, the effect of planar, longitudinal and cross-sectional design of a river channel
on the morphology was examined. Especially four factors that are alignment of river channel,
width of river channel, design of river crossing structures, and type of revetment works were
focused on. Consequently, it was suggested that the control of stream line and power during a
flood event is essential despite the present flood control measures tend to resister the stream
power only.

7. References
T. Chibana (2008). Urban River Management: Harmonizing River Ecosystem Conservation,
chapter 3 in Urban Environmental Management and Technology, K. Hanaki (ed.)
Springer.

1 5 6
Catchment-scale water management of wastewater treatment
in an urban sewage system considering CO
2
emission assessment

Goro Mouri
1
and Taikan Oki
1)

1) Institute of industrial science, the University of Tokyo,
Be605, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguroku, Tokyo, 153-8505, Japan
e-mail: mouri@rainbow.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

In this study, a dynamic numerical model was developed to examine catchment-scale
wastewater management, including urban household wastewater treatment, and the model
enabled the evaluation of both water quality and energy consumption. This system was
applied to the actual sewage system, and the effects of management strategies on water
quality and energy consumption were shown in a numerical simulation. The entire water
resource system of a basin, including a forest catchment and an urban city area, was evaluated
synthetically from a spatial distribution perspective with respect to water quantity and quality;
the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technique was applied to optimize wastewater treatment
management with the aim of improving water quality and reducing CO
2
emissions. A
numerical model was developed to predict the water cycle and contamination in the
catchment and city; the effect of a wastewater treatment system on the urban region was
evaluated; pollution loads were evaluated quantitatively; and the effect of excluding rain
water from the treatment system during flooding and of urban rain water control on water
quality were examined. Analysis indicated that controlling the amount of rain water inflow to
a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in an urban area with a combined sewer system has a
large impact on reducing CO
2
emissions because of the load reduction on the urban sewage
system.

Keywords: Environmental impact assessment, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), CO
2
emission, Numerical
hydrological model

1. Introduction

Water shortages and water pollution are a global problem. Increases in population can have
acute effects on water cycles and on the availability of water resources. In fact, wastewater
management plays an important role in mitigating negative impacts on natural ecosystems and
human environments and is an important area of research. In this study, we modeled
catchment-scale hydrology, including water balances, rainfall, contamination, and urban
wastewater treatment. The entire water resource system of a valley from a catchment scale to
an urban scale was evaluated synthetically from a spatial distribution perspective with respect
to water quantity and quality; the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technique was applied to
optimize wastewater-treatment management with the aim of improving water quality and
reducing CO
2
emissions. A numerical model was developed that predicted the water cycle and
contamination in a catchment, including a city; the effect of a wastewater-treatment system on
an urban region was evaluated; pollution loads were evaluated quantitatively; and the effect of
excluding rain water from the treatment system during flooding and of urban rain water
control on water quality were examined. Analysis indicated that controlling the amount of
rain water inflow to a WasteWater-Treatment Plant (WWTP) in an urban area with a
1 5 7
combined sewer system has a large impact on reducing CO
2
emissions because of the load
reduction on the urban sewage system.


In the model, the effects of floods, low water, flow rate changes, and water quality were
calculated for sub-catchments (unit grids), and a synthetic evaluation was performed to
determine the effect of wastewater treatment on water quality. Subsequently, the results for
the entire grid were unified and the catchment-scale effects were evaluated. In addition, one
object of the evaluation was to determine the amount of CO
2
emitted in the process of
handling the wastewater, a parameter that represents an important measure of environmental
impact and that has not been easy to evaluate until now. Optimal management methods that
maximize water quality improvements and minimize energy consumption (CO
2
emissions) in
a wastewater-treatment system are proposed. This model is divided into a natural system sub-
model and an urban system sub-model.

Natural system sub-model
In the present study, to improve the appearance and predictive accuracy of a catchment sub-
model, spatial data on geography, precipitation, temperature, and land use were used as inputs
to develop a distributed type model that reproduces and predicts the amount of water and the
pollution load inside a catchment (Fig.1). A distributed type rainfall runoff model using a
grid type Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was built, and a space-time distribution evaluation
of the amount of water, the water quality, and the sediments in an entire catchment was
performed (Fig.2). Flood and low water conditions were modeled, and the influence of urban
wastewater treatment on water quantity, contaminants, and sediment levels was quantified.
This models performance was validated, including assessments during a heavy rainfall event
and a low water period,.

[Fig. 1 Map of the modeled catchment.] [Fig. 2 A typical simulation result of total
nitrogen load (mg/l) at the time of a flood.]

Urban system sub-model
In this study, with rain and wastewater as natural and artificial external forces, respectively,
the effect of wastewater-treatment was calculated. Variation over time in the amount of
influent and water quality were calculated by performing dynamic simulation of wastewater
treatment using the ASM; the response of a natural system to input conditions, that is, amount
of water, a water quality model, the flood flow rate of drainage, and the temporal response of
5000 1000015000200002500030000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
X (m)
Y

(
m
)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

water quality, was examined. We confirmed that it was possible to reproduce wastewater-
treatment process results under dry weather conditions and that the obtained calculations were
in general agreement with past observations (Fig. 3). Influent quality (Fig. 4) was based on
survey data provided by the city of Matsuyama. Removal of an organic substance by a
heterotrophic microbe, expressed as a ratio, is defined as being proportional to the microbes
multiplication rate. Therefore, the main COD components in the final treated water reflect the
presence of substances that are inert biodegrade substance (Fig. 5).

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
D

(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
C
O
D

(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
4
6
8
10
12
14
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
H
4
(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
O
3
(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
(b) ammonium nitrogen
(c) nitrate nitrogen
(a) biodegradable substrate
(d) organic nitrogen
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
D

(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
C
O
D

(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
4
6
8
10
12
14
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
H
4
(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time, days
N
O
3
(
g
/
m
3
)
measured data
calculated data
(b) ammonium nitrogen
(c) nitrate nitrogen
(a) biodegradable substrate
(d) organic nitrogen

[Fig. 3 Results of wastewater treatment validation.] [Fig. 5 Typical wastewater effluent contents.]

Development of the environmental impact calculation module at the time of construction and
operation
CO
2
emissions were presumed using the LCA technique, and a wastewater treatment system
was evaluated. Until now, LCA has mainly been applied to evaluate a product. In this study, it
was used to evaluate CO
2
emissions for sewage system optimization. Tables 1 and 2 list CO
2

emissions data associated with construction and operation of WWTPs and pumping stations.
The construction phase data were based on accumulating the energy-consumption basic unit
from annual sewer statistics (JSWA, 2004). The annual energy consumption in an operation
phase was computed using data on the annual consumption of electric power and fuel of a
sewage treatment plant CO
2
emissions calculations were based on the fuel use rate. About
30% of the CO
2
generated by building a plant was associated with pipe construction, and
about 60% of the pipe was basic-type pipe with a diameter of less than 600 mm.

[Table 1. CO
2
emissions associated with maintenance and operation of a sewer system.]

Component CO
2
Emission (T-C/y)
drainage pipe construction 7982.5 27.9
drainage pipe maintenance 32.1 0.1
pumping station construction 399.3 1.4
pumping station operation 2468.6 8.6
water treatment plant construction 8776.2 30.7
water treatment plant operation 8910.0 31.2

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
nitrate(0.44)
ammonia
(9.27)
soluble organic(0.01)
suspended organic
(0.01)
inert (3.68)
readily
biodegradable
(44.23)
slowly
biodegradable (0.73)
inert (0.73)
soluble
suspended
soluble
suspended
Fractions of organic matter
in wastewater expressed as COD
Fractions of nitrogen
in wastewater expressed as Total Nitrogen
Total 49.37(g COD/m
3
) Total 9.73(g N/m
3
)
COD
N0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
nitrate(0.44)
ammonia
(9.27)
suspended organic
(0.01)
inert (3.68)
readily
biodegradable
(44.23)
slowly
inert (0.73)
soluble
suspended
soluble
suspended
Total 49.37(g COD/m
3
) Total 9.73(g N/m
3
)
COD
N
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
nitrate(2.75)
ammonia
(7.73)
suspended organic
(0.01)
inert (7.90)
readily
biodegradable
(0.26)
slowly
inert (0.73)
soluble
suspended
soluble
suspended
Total 8.22(g COD/m
3
) Total 10.71(g N/m
3
)
COD
N0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
nitrate(2.75)
ammonia
(7.73)
suspended organic
(0.01)
inert (7.90)
readily
biodegradable
(0.26)
slowly
inert (0.73)
soluble
suspended
soluble
suspended
Total 8.22(g COD/m
3
) Total 10.71(g N/m
3
)
COD
N
[Fig. 4 Typical wastewater influent contents.]

[Table 2. CO
2
emissions per unit of treated water.]

Pumping Station Wastewater Treatment Plant
annual treatment quantity (1000m
3
) 5938 48584
energy consumption (kcal/m
3
) 815 381
CO
2
emission (kg-C/m
3
) 0.416 0.183


Management scenario analysis of a drainage system in an urban region
To quantitatively evaluate the effect of flood management and to plan the optimal strategy,
the levels of influents from all parts of an urban sewer system, the WWTP, and the catchment
were planned, and the integrative numerical simulation of water quantity and quality was
determined. These elements are required to understand water quality improvement, synthetic
evaluation of energy consumption (CO
2
emissions) reduction effects, and the entire catchment
modeling system. Here, the trade-off between water quality improvement and energy
consumption was considered in the management strategy, which used wastewater treatment
technology. The following features were taken into consideration when setting up the
management strategy of the wastewater treatment in cases of rainy weather. The generation is
sudden, and the amount of water and loading dose are huge. Trials for each flood
management strategy were performed as follows.

Scenario 1: present condition (Present Situation: PS scenario)
The present condition, which involves not performing wastewater treatment system
management, was represented by this first scenario (PS). In the combined sewer system, the
pollution loading under rainy weather conditions is very large, and untreated water is
discharged to public water areas, such as rivers. To reduce the load, wastewater treatment is
required. However, technology that allows for whole-quantity advanced treatment of drainage
has not yet been put into practical use in the case of rainy weather.

Scenario 2: influence of drainage overflow in the case of rainy weather (Combined Sewer
Overflow: CSO scenario)
In the second scenario (CSO), the height of the overflow structure of a drain pipe is optimized.
Under conditions of heavy rain, water containing suspended particles of nitrogen and organic
substances overflows from the combined sewer system. Also, the load flowing into a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) increases greatly compared to the load under fine
weather conditions. Under the CSO scenario, the amount of inflow to the WWTP is controlled
at about 2.1 m
3
/s, which is the maximum throughput. Under this scenario, using the existing
combined drainage system, it is difficult to completely process contamination substances. The
effect of a portion of the unsettled drainage discharging to public water areas was considered.
Moreover, the CSO scenario is taken into consideration as a component of a drainage pipe
system.

Scenario 3: the effect of a storage tank installed at the end of a drain pipe system (Detention
Tank: DT scenario)
1 6 0
The third scenario (DT) examined the effect of temporarily storing WWTP influent in a tank
installed at the end of the drainage pipe system in the case of rainy weather. Under this
scenario, the amount of inflow to a WWTP is controlled, as in the CSO scenario, at about 2.1
m
3
/s. However, the unsettled overflow sewage is not discharged to public water areas but is
temporarily stored in the tank. After a flood, the stored water is processed at 1.5 m
3
/s, and
then discharged to public water areas.

Scenario 4: the effect of solid matter residence time in a WWTP (Solids Retention Time: SRT
scenario)
In the fourth scenario (SRT), the effect of increasing the residence time in the WWTP by a
factor of 1.2 (about 9.5 h) was examined. Because WWTP residence time is determined by
the multiplication rate of the microbes in activated sludge, a longer residence time will
advance the nitrification of ammonia. Furthermore, because the oxidization decomposition of
organic substances in a flood is carried out by autotrophic microorganisms, COD
concentrations will decrease. Therefore, although the quality of the final WWTP effluent may
improve, energy used to aerate the reaction vessel increases. The effect was examined.

Scenario 5: the effect of load reduction by source control of household effluent (Source
Control: SC scenario)
The fifth scenario (SC) involved reducing the WWTP inflow under rainy conditions by
reducing the amount of water used in each home by 20%. Controlling sewage discharge from
homes is difficult, despite the relatively low loads. However, because reductions are expected
due to advances in household water-saving technologies in recent years, the effect was
examined.

Scenario 6: the effect of reducing the extent of impervious areas (Reduction of Impervious
Area: RIA scenario)
In the sixth scenario (RIA), the extent of impervious surfaces, which exacerbate flooding
conditions, was reduced, and the amount of inflow to a drainage pipe system was reduced by
10%. Reductions in the extent of impervious surfaces may also reduce sewer overflow of a
combined type drainage system. Moreover, RIA was not applied in the second scenario
(CSO).

Scenario 7: the combined proposal of source control (SC) and a storage tank (DT) (SC + DT
scenario)
In the seventh scenario (SC + DT), source control of household effluent and the storage tank
concept were both used, and the effect of limiting WWTP influent rates at about 2.1 m
3
/s at
the time of a flood was examined.

Scenario 8: the combined proposal of impervious area reduction (RIA) and a storage tank
(DT) (RIA + DT scenario)
The eighth scenario (RIA + DT) examined the effect of limiting the amount of influent to
WWTP to less than about 2.1 m
3
/s by impervious area reduction and the use of a storage tank.

Scenario 9: the combined proposal of flocculation treatment (FT) and a storage tank installed
at the end of a drain pipe system (DT) (FT + DT scenario)
The ninth scenario (FT + DT) examined the effect of flocculation treatment in physical
chemistry, separation of solid particles to reduction aeration energy and the use of a storage
tank.
1 6 1
The effect and impact evaluation of drainage system management
The comparison of the effects of the different management scenarios was carried out on 23
September, 2004. A management strategy to improve environmental conditions in the
catchment will be examined further once the model accuracy and numerical simulation are
improved. While it was shown here that the eight proposed scenarios are effective at
controlling the amount of water in the wastewater-treatment system at the time of a flood, and
the water quality characteristics were appropriately modeled, it was also evident that real-
world applications of this wastewater-treatment management system need to have high
precision. The amount of influent to the WWTP changed accordingly, as shown in Fig. 6.
That is, under the SC scenario and the RIA scenario, the inputs were reduced by 20% and
10%, respectively, at the time of a flood, and under the SRT and DT scenarios, the input was
the same as under the PS scenario. The
effects of a complex scenario, from the
pollution loading amounts to the final
effluent leaving the WWTP, are shown in
Fig. 7. On the other hand, reducing the
amount of influent to WWTP greatly
affected energy consumed and CO
2

emissions (Fig. 8). A large portion of the
energy used for water quality improvement
is consumed by aeration in the reaction
vessel of a WWTP system. Hence,
consumption energy is proportional to the
amount of WWTP influent.

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
PS CSO DT SRT SC RIA SC+DT RIA+DT FT+DT
c
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
COD
NH4-N

0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
PS CSO DT SRT SC RIA SC+DT RIA+DT FT+DT
C
O
2

(
k
g
/
e
v
e
n
t
)
I PST AS FST DW DS DD natural puration

[Fig. 7 The amount of influent to the WWTP [Fig. 8 Comparison of CO
2
emissions under
under each management strategy.] each management strategy.]

4. Conclusions

In this study, nine flood management scenarios were examined using (1) technology that
predicts the amount and quality of water in a catchments water cycle, and (2) Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) technology to evaluate the synthetic management of a wastewater-
treatment system in a city. The technology employed is applicable to evaluating the impact of
the amount of water from a natural drainage basin and the quality of water accompanying a
flood event. Moreover, this technology optimizes existing wastewater treatment systems and
can be applied to an actual WWTP, as in the eight scenarios examined here. Further
improvements in model accuracy can be applied to further optimize wastewater treatment
systems. We found that reducing the extent of impervious surfaces can reduce the load at the
untreated wastewater untreated wastewater
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
time, days
r
e
c
e
i
v
i
n
g

w
a
t
e
r

f
l
o
w

(
m
3
/
s
)
PS
CSO only
DT only, FT+DT
SRT only
SC only
RIA only
DT+SC
RIA+DT
[Fig. 6 The amount of influent to the WWTP
under each management strategy.]
1 6 2
time of a flood event, and the CO
2
emissions associated with such a strategy were shown.
Therefore, results of the model have practical benefits and applications.

5. Acknowledgement

This study has been supported by the research founding from the New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organization (NEDO). The authors are grateful for their supports.

6. References

Schutze, M., Butler, D. and Bruce Beck, M. (1999). Optimization of control strategies for the
urban wastewater system an integrated approach. Wat. Sci. Tech., 39(9), 209-216.

Entem, S., Lahoud, A., Yde, L. and Bendsen, B. (1998). Real time control of the sewer
system of Boulogne Billancourt a contribution to improving the water quality of the seine.
Wat. Sci. Tech., 37(1), 327-332.

Ichinose, T., Hanaki, K., Ito, T., Matsuo, T. and Kawahara, H. (1997). Feasibility study on
district heating system based on combination between geographic information systems and
life cycle assessment. J. Environmental Science. 10(2), 119-127.

Mouri, G. and Oki, T. (2009). Modeling the catchment-scale environmental impacts of
wastewater treatment in an urban sewage system for CO
2
emission assessment, 8th
International Conference on Urban Drainage Modeling, Tokyo, Japan, 2009.9. (in review)

JSWA, Japan Sewage Works Association. (2004). Sewerage Statistics 2004.

1 6 3
Session 4: Culture and Settlements
Daoism and Environmental Sustainability
A Completely Different Way of Thinking

Qiang Luo
1)

1) WERI (Water and Environmental Research Institute of Western Pacific)
University of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam 96923, U.S.A.
e-mail: qluo@uguam.uog.edu

Abstract

The scientific definition of environmental sustainability is similar to Daoisms fundamental
principle natural ways of doing. However, they are slightly different and this difference
prescribes that their ways of thinking for sustainability are completely different. Daoism
(Taoism) is the greatest ancient (about 600 BC) Chinese philosophy, which is full of Oriental
wisdom and scientific thoughts. Daoisms essence says, If one is doing nothing, everything
is done. This is the most profound thought of Daoism, which seems to be paradoxical. But it
is this paradoxical philosophy that provides a completely different way of thinking for
sustainability How about not doing it? In this paper, the popular way and Daoisms way
of thinking for sustainability are outlined and an inverse application of Daoisms way of
thinking to three environmental cases is related.

Keywords: environmental sustainability, Daoism, Taoism, sustainable development.

1. Introduction

In the latest two decades, sustainable development is widely recognized and discussed by
scientists, political leaders, and common people in the world. United Nations Brundtland
Commission stated in its General Aessebly Report (United Nations, 1987), Believing that
sustainable development, which implies meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, should become a
central guiding principle of the United Nations, Governments and private institutions,
organizations and enterprises. This statement by Brundtland Commission coined what has
become the most often quoted definition of sustainable development. On the broader scope,
sustainable development or sustainability includes three aspects, environmental, social and
economic sustainability (Adams, 2006). The discussion in this paper is only constrained to
environmental sustainablity, which is also referred to as sustainablity hereafter.

Environmental sustainability is that human interaction with the environment is pursued with
the idea of keeping the environment as pristine and natural as possible. An unsustainable
situation occurs when natures resources are used up faster than they can be replenished.
Thereby, sustainability requires that human activities only use natures resources at such a
rate that they can be replenished naturally. Theoretically, the long-term result of
environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life and could imply extinction of
humanity (Wikipedia, 2009). This is probably the most uptodate scientific definition of
environmental sustainability. The core of this definition is natural keeping the the
1 6 4
environment as natural as possible, and consuming natures resources at a natural rate.

The concept of natural is also the fundamental principle of Daoism (Taoism). Cambridge
Advanced Learners Dictionary online has an entry to explain Taoism/Daoism as a religion
developed originally in ancient China which emphasizes a simple and natural life. And
Macmillian English Dectionary (Macmillan Education, 2002) has a similar entry which reads,
Taoism, noun, a Chinese system of religion and thought that says people should live a simple,
natural, and honest life. These definitions outline the fundamental principle of Daoism
though misstate it as a religion. Acutally, Daoism is rather a philosophy of science than a
religion (Luo, 2005).

In the coming sections, the popular way of thinking for sustainability will be first outlined,
then, Daoisms fundamental principle and essence will be related, after that, Daoisms way of
thinking for sustainability will be summarized, and finally an inverse application of
Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability to three environmental cases will be given briefly.

2. Popular way of thinking for sustainability and its risks

With global industrialization, it has become common sense that our current life style and the
economy pattern have broken the environmental sustainability. Climate disasters such as El
Nio-Southern Oscillation, droughts, and mountain fires are good examples of this breaking.
How do we make transition from the old life style and economy pattern (fossil fuel,
automobile throw-away) to the new style and pattern (reuse, recycle, new energy) so as to
achieve environmental sustainability? In Europe, it is aware that technology is playing a
critical role and that new technologies may be the key to substantial improvements in material
and energy intensity (Adams, 2006).

In the meantime, Japans Third Basic Environment Plan was adopted by the Cabinet meeting
in April 2006. The Plan defined a sustainable society as a society where we are able to
ensure global and local protection of a healthy and nature-rich environment, protect human
wellbeing for individual citizens and hand over such protection to future generations. In
order to build such a society, we need to solve the existing problems regarding (1) limited
resources on the Earth and (2) the limited ability of nature to manage human-caused pollution
(Japan Ministry of Environment, 2007). This also implies the use of new technologies.

As Adams (2006) pointed out that new technologies may also pose unknown risks to health,
welfare and environment, and new institutions may be needed to manage transition to new
technologies. Because of the limitation of current scientific knowledge, any introduction of
new technology could turn out to be a new disaster rather than sustainability to our
environment. Nuclear power, for example, was recognized as clean energy 50 years ago, but
power plant failure could be disastrous and catastrophic (such as former Soviet Unions
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant disaster, 1986), and nuclear waste from the reactors is also a
severe threat to the environment.

Even though a new technology may not be a destructive force to the environment, we may not
be completely aware of its impact on the environment, whether positive or negative, due to
the spiral nature (back and forth) of human cognition. The history of public open spaces in
Japanese cities is a typical example during the development of Japans economy. Many
1 6 5
pictures from the early 19th century show that there were plenty of open spaces in the cities
for the civillans to do outdoor activities (Kitahara, 2004). People enjoyed life in the open
spaces with a lot of temporary facilities such as wood benches, tea stalls and vendor booths.
But city development has been gradually eliminating these good things from the public. But
later on in the last few decades, city planners have recognized the problems of removing open
spaces from the public, and started again struggling to restore open spaces for city life. The
Japanese, and probaly peoples of most modernized countries in the world, have made a big
turn and finally reached back to the starting point.

The popular way of thinking for sustainability is based on the understanding that if the human
disturbance to the environment is within the natural scope, the environment is able to
restore its original stability. However, it is difficult for us to define what human activities are
within this natural scope and what are not due to the limitation of current scientific
knowledge and the spiral nature of human cognition. We have numerous fresh memories of
the latest six decades that human activities have come out to be a waste of energy and incur
unsustainable effects to our environment, and that introduction of new technologies and
technology innovations have resulted in catastrophic consequences to the environment. Is
there a different way of thinking so that we can avoid all these? The answer is yes, for sure.
This different way of thinking is Daoism.

3. Daoisms fundamental principle

About 2,500 years ago when Laozi (600 BC- 470 BC), the originator of Daoism, was setting
forth the basic thought for Daoism, he taught, Humankinds activities conform to the laws of
the earth. The earths activities conform to the laws of the solar system and the universe. The
universes activities conform to the laws of Dao. And Daos activities conform to the laws of
the nature. ( ) Dao ( ) is the core of Daoism and has a
close relation with the concept of energy in modern physics (Luo, 2005). This 2,500-year old
principle is very scientific from the point of view of modern science (Luo, 2005). If it is
interpreted in scientific terms, it can be restated as, Human beings live on the earth and so all
their activities are constrained by the gravitational force of the earth. The earths self-rotation
and orbiting the sun is controlled by gravitational force from the sun and other stars and
planets in the solar system and the universe. The universe is governed by Dao or the law of
energy conservation. The top law for Dao or energy and all is natural. (Luo, 2005; YeShell,
2009). The term natural here means un-human-controllable, un-human-interfered, simple,
and primitive. This is the fundamental principle of Daoism.

Comparing Daoisms fundamental principle with the scientific definition of environmental
sustainability, which is given in Introduction, one can see that they are quite similar. However,
their difference is also obvious. Daoism emphasizes complete non-human interference with
the nature while the scientific definition of environmental sustainability allows natural
intervention in the environment. This difference prescribes their different ways of thinking for
environmental sustainability.

4. Daoisms essence and Laozis most profound thought

Before we start discussing Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability, we need to know the
1 6 6
essence of Daoism, which is the most profound thought of Laozi. This thought comprises of
an important concept wuwei (in Chinese simplified characters: , and traditional
characters: ).

Although Laozis original meaning of wuwei is simply doing nothing (Luo, 2005; YeShell,
2009). However this simple concept is so profound that the ordinary people in the history
and modern world found and is finding that it is too difficult to understand. Loy (1985)
explained wuwei in an escalation way so that common people may agree with him. He stated,
(1) The simplest interpretation of wei-wuwei is that it means doing nothing, or as little as
possible. (2) A more common interpretation of wei-wuwei sees it as action which does not
force but yields. Rather than being a version of doing nothing, this might be called the action
of passivity. (3) Probably the most common interpretation of wei-wuwei is action that is
natural. Loys (1985) most common explanation, wei-wuwei is action that is natural,
causes the problem that we have to define the critera that what action is natural and what is
not. These critera could be rather subjective and just like a new technology that may incure
disastrous consequences to the environment or waste human efforts. It is obvious that wei-
wuwei is action that is natural is not Laozis original meaning. But this explanation is very
common.

A similar explanation of wuwei was give by Kardash (1998). He related, A key principle in
realizing our oneness with the Tao is that of wuwei, or non-doing. Wuwei refers to behavior
that arises from a sense of oneself as connected to others and to ones environment. It is not
motivated by a sense of separateness. It is action that is spontaneous and effortless. At the
same time it is not to be considered inertia, laziness, or mere passivity. Rather, it is the
experience of going with the grain or swimming with the popular. Our contemporary
expression, going with the flow, is a direct expression of this fundamental Taoist principle,
which in its most basic form refers to behavior occurring in response to the flow of the Tao.
According to Luo (2005) and YeShell (2009), going with the flow is a misunderstanding of
Laozis thought. In the real world, people always recognize the flow as the popular trends,
which have served as the destructive forces to the environment. This is obviously not Laozis
original meaning.

Actually, Laozis original meaning of wuwei is simply doing nothing. If we are not able to
grasp this meaning of wuwei, we are not able to understand Laozis most profound thought
Daoisms essence, Wuwei er wubuwei ( ), which means as simple as the
characters themselves, If one is doing nothing, everything is done.

(Luo, 2005; YeShell,
2009). This seems to be paradoxical and probably the most difficult thought for most people
to understand. Why doing nothing is the necessary and sufficient condition that everything
is done? To interpret philosophically this simple yet most profound thought in the world,
there have been thousands of thousands of books filling up libraries. However, it still can be
explained in simple words by using facts in human history. The following is some examples.
If we hadnt use nuclear power, there would be no problems with nuclear waste treatment.
If we are doing nothing to use nuclear power, everything related to nuclear waste treatment is
done!

If we hadnt invent automobiles using fossil fuel, there would be no global warming. If
we are doing nothing to invent or use automobiles consuming fossil fuel, everything related to
global warming is done!
1 6 7

If we hadnt invented plastic bags, there would be no problems with the white garbage that
is not able to degrade naturally. If we are not doing anything to invent or use plastic bags,
everything related to treatment of white garbage is done!

If there hadnt been industrialization, there would be no problems of environment pollution.
If we are doing nothing about industrialization, everything related to environment pollution
is done!

If there hadnt been urbanization, there would be no worries for unsustainable cities. If we
are doing nothing about urbanization, everything related to sustainable cities is done!

We can also move a little forward from historical facts into a scientific explanation. In order
that we can understand more clearly why Laozi came out with these seemingly paradoxical
teachings, it is necessary for us to go through Laozis complete teachings of this piece. Laozi
taught, One who is practicing Dao does fewer and fewer with time, and finally he may do
nothing. If one is doing nothing, everything is done. (In Chinese:
) In a simplified situation, Dao can be taken as energy, and
practicing Dao is the process of acquiring energy (Luo, 2005; YeShell, 2009). This piece of
Laozis teachings can be interpreted in scientific terms as, One who is acquiring energy has
fewer and fewer things to do when he obtains more and more energy, and finally he would
have nothing to do. When he is doing nothing, everything is done because the energy that he
received would do everything for him. This is the easiest and most scientific interpretation
for Daoisms essence and Laozis most profound thought.

5. Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability

Being aware of historical facts that any disturbance to the environment could be a waste of
energy and incur unsustainable effects to the environment, and that introduction of any new
technology could result in catastrophic consequences to the environment, it is inevitable that
we turn to Daoism to seek an alternative way of thinking for sustainability.

If the popular way of thinking for sustainability can be simplified into one word doing,
Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability can also be summarized into two words not
doing based on Daoisms essence, which states that If one is doing nothing, everything is
done. From a more realistic standpoint, the Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability can
be outlined as, How about not doing it? The differences between these two ways of thinking
for sustainability are obvious and huge.

Practically, proponents of the popular way of thinking for sustainability (most researchers and
consultants) always investigate into the feasibility of a new plan or project, asking questions
such as: Is it environmental friendly? Are we sure that it wont incur potential threats/risks
to the environment? Does it help improve our environment? Are the benefits greater than
the costs? And so on. If the answers to most of these questions are yes, it is quite likely
that they recommend, Do it.

For the proponents of Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability, they assume that any new
plans or projects may incur negative impacts on the environment, and therefore would not ask
1 6 8
those questions that are asked by the proponents of the popular way of thinking. But rather,
they ask questions like: Do we really need this plan/project? Is it urgent? Would people
die if the project is not constructed? Would the community vanish if the plan wont be
implemented? And such. If the answers to all these questions are no, they may recommend
to the decision makers by saying, How about not doing it?

Who is not happy with not doing it? First, bosses of consulting and construction companies
are not happy because there would be no business for them. Second, government officials are
not happy either because they would have no achievements to show off to his boss or voters
to get promoted or re-elected. How about the public? Are they happy? Yes, it is sure that they
are happy with not doing it. From time to time we watched TV news around the world that
the public was rallying themselves against a new project rather than in favor of it. So, the
public is intrinsically favorable to Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability.

Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability not doing, is not only friendly to the public
but also the friendliest way to the environment because it incurs the least, if not no,
disturbance to the environment. In comparison with the popular way of thinking for
sustainability doing, Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability not doing is a
completely different way of thinking for sustainability.

6. Cases study an inverse application of Daoisms way of thinking

It is difficult to find a case that Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability is successfully
applied in the real world, but it is easy to pick up situations that there exist severe issues
because Daoisms way of thinking was not applied. Inverse application means that if
Daoisms way of think had been applied these issues would not have been incurred.

The first case of these is the famous riverbed-over-ground issue in the Yellow River, China.
The Yellow River is the second largest river in China with a watershed area 752,443 km. The
annual average discharge in 2007 at Huayuankou Station is 855.21 m/s. The name Yellow
River means that the water in the river is always yellow or brown due to heavy sediment
loads. According to Yellow River Conservancy Commission of MWR (2008), sediment-
flushing volume in the downstream reaches was 1.64910
8
m
3
from November 2006 to
October 2007, equivalent to a discharge 5.23 m
3
/s. The heavy sediment deposits on the
riverbed in the downstream reaches, especially those reaches near Kaifeng, Henan. There
were levee breaches and big floods in the history, and the meandering river course kept
shifting in about 30 years. This phenomenon is depicted vividly by a famous local saying,
Living on the left bank for 30 years and on the right bank for another 30 years, which tells a
story of river course changing rather than people moving their houses. In order to protect
people living alongside the river from floods, higher and higher embankments have been
constructed and gradually the riverbed has rose higher than the ground outside the river due to
sediment deposition. Comparing with the elevation of Kaibao-si Pagoda, or Kaifeng Tieta as
known, the top of the embankments is 15 m above the ground of the Pagoda and the riverbed
is 5 m higher than the ground of the Pagoda. The situation is still getting worse and flood
threats to Kaifeng, the ancient capital city of China and the home of 4.8 million people, is
becoming severer and severer. Nobody has a final solution to this issue. However, about 50
years ago, Huang Wanli (1911-2001), a former professor from Qinghua University, suggested
a solution: Just leave the Yellow River alone, establishing a warning system to warn the
1 6 9
residents when an embankment breach happens and depositing money for emergency use to
evacuate the people and resettle them. Unfortunately, the government did not adopt his
suggestion. Huangs suggestion followed Daoisms way of thinking doing nothing to the
river itself. Recently, some researchers and professors suggested constructing sediment-
blocking dams in the source tributaries of the Yellow River. This would be a new disaster to
the river and might deteriorate the situation even worse.

Another case is the Arakawa River channel reformation project in Tokyo, Japan. After the
1910 huge floods, the Japanese government decided to construct a cannel wider and straighter
than the natural channel to connect the upstream reaches of the Arakawa River and Tokyo
Bay. This was the 22 km long and 500 m wide artificial channel following a new course,
which was a huge project that took 17 years (1913-1930) to complete. The project had been a
great success, and there was no big problem with the project itself (except for that the old
Iwabuchi Sluice Gate was rusted out and a new one had to be constructed in 1975), and no
floods happened in this area any more after the project was completed. Because of this, the
area alongside the former natural channel of Arakawa, renamed as Sumitakawa thereafter, has
been densely developed and become the commercial and political center of Tokyo. It is
estimated that this area is the most densely populated area (9,150 persons/km
2
) among the
Level 1 river basins in Japan (Arakawa Karyu River Office, 2008). This becomes a severe
issue that any floods would incur huge loss of property and human lives and the Arakawa
Karyu River Office (2008) pledged that they would absolutely fight back a flood of a 200-
year return period and never allow inundation to happen in this area. But how about floods of
a 500-year or even 1000-year return period? Nobody would know. If, only if, the channel
reformation project had not been implemented, there would still be minor floods in this area,
which therefore would not have been densely developed as it has been today, and there would
be no huge loss even if a flood of a 1000-year return period would occur.

The last case is the Estuary Sluice Gate in the Denpasar River. From the aerial photos, the
estuary has a sluice gate to control the water flow and two long levees to separate the
freshwater from the seawater. This facility can surely stop backwater from the sea but may
cause the problem of sediment deposition on the riverbed along the estuary reaches. The
sluice gate may also incur problems to the ecosystem. The solution to these problems may not
be as difficult as those for the Yellow River and the Arakawa River, but the only and
complete solution may be removing the facility itself. This means that if the facility had not
been constructed, there would be no such problems.

7. Conclusions and discussion

At this point in time, it can be concluded that i) Daoisms fundamental principle is similar to
the scientific definition of environmental sustainability, but the slight difference between
them defines their different ways of thinking for sustainability; ii) Daoisms essence, If one
is doing nothing, everything is done, provides an alternative way of thinking for
sustainability; iii) Daoisms way of thinking for sustainability not doing is completely
different from the popular way of thinking for sustainability doing; iv) Daoisms way of
thinking for sustainability incurs the least disturbance to the environment and therefore may
provide the final solutions to some difficult environmental situations.

There exists a paradox in the environmental sustainability from the viewpoint of biological
1 7 0
and cosmological evolution. This paradox is that humanity is actually the result of natural
evolution including universe and life evolutions, and therefore human beings are part of the
nature. From this perspective, whatever human beings are doing is natural, and both Daoisms
way and the popular way of thinking for sustainability are not valid. However, considering the
long-term evolution of the universe, in which no lives could survive in the later period of the
universes lifetime, all human efforts would turn out to be vain. So, what are the benefits
doing all these? Good point! This is Daoisms way of thinking Dont do it.

8. References

Adams, W.M., (2006). The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and
Development in the Twenty-first Century. Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting,
29-31 January, 2006. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_future_of_sustanability.pdf.

Arakawa Karyu River Office, (2008). Estimated Flooding Map of Arakawa Basin (
). http://itgis.ara.go.jp/arahzd/app/map/main.jsp. (In Japanese).

Japan Ministry of Environment, (2007). Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound
Material-Cycle Society in Japan 2007. http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2007/.

Kardash, T., (1998). Taoism - The Wu-Wei Principle. Jade Dragon Online, June 1998.
http://www.jadedragon.com/archives/june98/tao.html.

Kitahara, T., (2004). Designing a place for peoples public life: small trials in two Japanese
cities, Paper presented to Walk21-V Cities for People, The Fifth International Conference on
Walking in the 21st Century, June 9-11 2004, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Loy, D. (1985). Wei-wu-wei: Nondual action, Philosophy East and West, 35 (1), pp.73-87.

Luo, Q. (2005). Lao-zi and Daode-jing. 21st Century Press, Nanchang, p.280. (In Chinese).

Macmillan Education, (2002). Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners of
American English, Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London, p.2128.

United Nations, (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development,
General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 11 December 1987.
http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm.

Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, (2009). Sustainable Development.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development.

Yellow River Conservancy Commission of MWR, (2008). Yellow River Sediment Bulletin
2007. http://www.yellowriver.gov.cn/gonggao/200808/P020080808377840788633.doc.

YeShell, (2009). Scientific Interpretation of Laozi and Daoism, Lijiang Press, Guilin, p.350,
in print. (In Chinese).

The Landscape of Bangkoks Agricultural Fringe and City Region
Sustainability: An Ecological and Cultural Co-Evolution.

Danai Thaitakoo
1)
and Brian McGrath
2)

1) Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University,
Phyathai Rd., Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
e-mail: danait@yahoo.com
2) Parsons the New School for Design,
25 East 13
th
St., New York, NY, U.S.A.
e-mail: mcgrath@newschool.edu

Abstract

The urban hydro-agricultural complex of the Chao Phraya River Delta was radically
transformed as a result of Bangkok's rapid and expansive urbanization over the last fifty years.
While the delta and the city are now in conflict, they were once entangled in a highly resilient
absorbent agricultural matrix in concert with climatic cycles of monsoon and dry seasons.
Urban planning and design education and research can begin to address the pressing need of
adaptation to urbanization in this mega-city through a careful reexamination of the evidence
of the resilient performative capacity of this delta citys past through systematic archival,
remote sensing and field observation. Understanding of historical resilience and adaptation of
living with water evident in indigenous and traditional processes are crucial in land and
waterscape planning and design for the Chao Phraya deltas city region future.

Keywords: agricultural fringe, agricultural marix, landscape changes, historical resilience and
adaptation, idegeneous and traditional processes.

1. Introduction

Along the 14
th
parallel, day and night
oscillate neatly between predictable twelve
hour divisions and months pass with little
change in temperature barely affected by
the earths axial tilt. However between
May and October, a shift in atmospheric
currents brings monsoon rains from the
Indonesian archipelago north to the
mountain ranges ringing northern Thailand
whose runoff feeds the Mae Nam Chao
Phraya River Basin and Bangkok
sprawling across its flat, silted tidal delta.
Seasonal cycles of precipitation rather than
temperature extremes of winter and
summer bring rhythm to life just above the
equator, putting into motion human cycles
of planting, harvest and migration, as well
Figure 1: The watery Chao Phraya Delta with
Bangkok sprawling into rice fields to the east and fruit
orchards on the west bank.
1 7 2
as shaping Thai beliefs and rituals.
Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, is situated in a slight deltaic high amidst a predominantly
low lying, flat terrain of the lower Chao Phraya River Delta. The area was first urbanized
during the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767), as a vast network of mixed fruit orchards and
market towns planted within a harsh
marshland (Tachakitkachorn, 2005).
The rapid development of the lower
delta for export rice cultivation
affected the rapid urbanization of the
city of Bangkok (Takaya, 1987). In
the early years, many canals were
constructed and functioned as
highways (Takaya, 1987). The
canals radiated outward from the
center of the city, providing access
to the city center as well as the
agricultural market towns along the
waterways. Along the canal banks
were homes and shop houses. The
lands in between were fruit orchards and rice paddies. The early residents relied upon canal
and river water for their basic needs (Jarupongsakul and Kaida, 2000).

During the beginning period of city
establishment (1782-1900), Bangkok
grew rather slowly. The city's rapid
urbanization and increase in
population started after the Second
World War (BMA, 2004). These
rapid changes brought the number of
land based infrastructure and other
constructions that resulted in a rapid
increase in built up area (BMA,
2004) at the expense of cultivated
land and the hydrological matrix.
The swift expansion of Bangkok's
industry and suburban development
occurred in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Consequently, the growing demands for housing sprawled eastward into the paddy fields
(Jarupongsakul and Kaida, 2000). The rapid urbanization also affected the city's unique vast
canal network which became secondary to the construction of roadways through the rapid
urbanization. The network once considered a lifeline became much neglected and ignored, yet
still fragility persists in many areas. The major mechanism that keeps the delta habitable and
prolific has been damaged (Jarupongsakul, 2000) and creates hardships for the many farmers
who continue to rely on the waterways. Many canals were filled up for developments or
replaced by the construction of new roads, while many others became stagnant and non
navigatable, reduced to drainage ditches and open sewers.

Figure 2: Bangkoks urban agriculture - rural mosaic
Figure 3: Bangkok circa 1890 (left) and 2004 (right) (False
color ASTER vnir Image): the two views show how the
Bangkok urban morphology follows the pattern of water-
based rice and fruit framing
1 7 3

This paper is organized around three overlapping eras of historical research in the socio-
natural systems which constitute the Chao Phraya Delta region, as well as three periods of
modern urbanization change in Bangkok. The first, from around 1950 to 1970, The long term
field work on the social ecology of rice growing village of Bang Chan east of Bangkok by
social scientists from the Cornell Thailand project - Lucien M. Hanks Rice and Man:
Agricultural Ecology in Southeast Asia (1972) - is examined.

The second period of examination is from 1970 to 1990, the research from the Center for
South East Asian Studies at Kyoto University, Japan. Works examined include Shigeharu
Tanabes Historical geography of the canal system in the Chao Phraya, 1977, Yoneo Ishiis
Thailand: A Rice-Growing Society, 1978, and Yoshikazu Takayas Agricultural Development
of A Tropical Delta : A Study of the Chao Phraya Delta, 1987. Together they produced
comprehensive historical surveys of a rice growing society.

Finally, we examine the development of Bangkok from 1990 to the present and the
emergence of transnational researchers in the last twenty years in new researchs which reflect
an acute understanding of the challenges facing the city in the future in conjunction with
systematic archival of historical records, documents and maps, remote sensing and field
observation. This emergent research and education field represents a method for achieving
urban design models which grow out of more intimate knowledge of the Thai cultural and
environmental historical contexts, especially in its examination of a complex ecosystem.


The East Bank: Wet Rice Cultivation and Subdivisions

Minburi was the site of Lucien Hanks
landmark human-ecosystem study of
the Ban Chan rice-growing community.
Hanks carefully documented extended-
family households who responded to
changing market and technological
conditions through an intricate
feedback system, moving from shifting,
to broadcasting and, finally, to
transplanting rice during Thailands
first period of modernization. Hanks
study demonstrated how village-level
decisions affected environmental
change in concert with shifting market
trends (Hanks, 1972). The present
landscape is much more fragmented
and heterogeneous, with many methods of cultivation and income-producing activities
competing, and various stages of planting, growth and harvesting coexisting. Historical
evolution and seasonal rhythms have collapsed into a mixed-time image of lapsed land-use
fragmentation and superposition.
Figure 4: Wet rice cultivation: rice and festive Fields
1 7 4
The endless flat plane of Rangsit
consists of 200,000 hectares with no
large rivers or topographic relief. In the
1890s, Dutch hydrologist Homan van
der Heide, the first director-general of
Siam Land, Canals and Irrigation Co,
who worked for the Thai government
between 1902 and 1909 and the creator
of the royal irrigation department,
rationally planned the diversion of
water through 20 straight northsouth
canals, 30 to 40 kilometers long and
spaced at 2 kilometers, with smaller
numbered irrigation canals repeated at
1-kilometre intervals. Large areas were opened up for habitation as feeder canals assured a
steady water supply for newly developed paddy fields. In the early 20th century, the Bangkok
periphery became the primary rice bowl for the region, and the kingdoms primary economic
base. With global food shortages following the Second World War, World Bank loans
allowed the completion of van der Heides plan of a modern irrigation system, resulting in a
human-controlled water system where growing cycles could be in sync with markets rather
than seasonal precipitation (Takaya, 1987).

Now, however, the emerald-green carpet of Rangsits fields extends in narrow rows
chequered with a grey pattern of new
housing and factory estates. Developers
have planted these crowded single-
family homes and factories in dense
rows on the kingdoms most fertile soil.
Fishing nets are suspended over the
waterway, and narrow wooden
pedestrian bridges cross to rice-farming
villages hidden behind jungle-like
vegetation. A few kilometers down the road, a giant helium balloon marks the entrance to a
new housing estate perpendicular to the canal. A security guard stiffly salutes outside a gated
estate raised above, and walled from, the surrounding paddies. Inside, a faux New-England-
common green lawn is lined with concrete colonial homes with terracotta roofs in four
varieties crowded together within the former rice plot.

The West Bank: Crossing the Meanders Orchards, Gardens and Gated Communities

The thickly vegetated orchards along the river meanders, this area is a poldered flood-control
reservoir, where excess water from the city centre is discharged. A west bank orchard and
vegetable garden consists of a corduroy pattern of rows of small dredged ditchs alternating
with built-up mounds. The layered tree canopy of a deltaic mixed orchard consists of spindly
betel nut and sugar palms at the highest level, blocking little sunlight from the next layer of
coconut palm, durian, mango, pamelo, jackfruit, star fruit, mangosteen, guava, rambutan, rose
apple, banana trees and orange saplings. The lowest layer consists of vegetables or herbs,
benefiting from the filtering of the strong tropical sun. However, all over the west bank, this
cool, aromatic and verdant mix, the green lung of greater Bangkok, is rapidly being replaced
Figure 5: Canals and abundant resources
Figure 6: Wet rice cultivation and subdivisions
1 7 5
by up-market gated housing estates
taking advantage of the attraction of
a lush green area now minutes away
from the center of the city.

Coconut palms still line the major
supply canals, but much land is
uncultivated, and unpicked
coconuts clog the canals. Labor-
intensive fruit production has
declined and farmers widen
irrigation ditches below in order to
farm fish inside the orchard canals.
The type of fish varies depending
on market demands and water
quality, and provides a temporary
source of income on land awaiting
redevelopment.

Landscape Structures, Functions and Changes

The Chao Phraya River deltas rice growing society is a complex socio-economical-
ecological relationship of structures and functions and changes (Ishii, 1978 and Brummelhuis,
2007). Base upon the condition of climate (Kyuma, 1978), topography (Takaya, 1978) and
soil (Hattori and Kyuma, 1978) the low land/wet rice cultivation has been adopted in
according with nature (Hattori and Kyuma, 1978). Landscape and people evolved together
through rice cultivation with indispensable water into a rice-economy (Ishii, 1978). The rice-
economy was significantly influence by water availability, thus traditional water management,
was in place for distribution of water and flood control at a small scale in according to
hydrological and topographical characteristics with unique local social organization (Ishii,
1978 and Brummelhuis, 2007).

The lower part of the Chao Phraya River, the geomorphologically younger part of the delta, is
a part of the center of the geographical living space of Thailand (Tanabe, 1977). This view
was built upon the capability of the landscape to provide functions or potentials for human
inhabitation and exploitation, such as
the capacity to produce foods and
resources, the capacity to build
humans habitat and places, a self-
regulated environment, based on the
resilience of the landscapes ecosystem
and the capability to link with aesthetic,
scientific, cultural and other interest of
human kind (Zonneveld, 1988).

The alteration of the delta landscape during the Bangkok's early day was land reclamation for
rice culture and human settlement. The construction of vast canal networks was the process of
turning the swampy land into the prolific producer by the way of irrigation and drainage
(Takaya, 1987). The vast canal network also functioned as highways providing accessibility
Figure 7: Abandoned mixed-fruit orchards and coconut groves
revert to wild grasslands awaiting new housing-estate
development and a vegetable farm consists variety of market
vegetables and herbs growing: lemon grass, ginger, spring
onions, lettuce and other leafy greens.
Figure 8: The old course of the Chao Phraya River, a new
public beach has formed over Khlong Bangkok Noi.
1 7 6
of a landscape and surrounding area and beyond as far as the waterway went (Takaya, 1987).
This scene of landscape change was continued until the end of the Second World War. The
Chao Phraya River and vast network of canals were bloodlines for Bangkok's residents. As a
part of their lives, people lived in concert with the natural process of hydro-ecological of
flood and flooding. Adaptation was the key in living with the rhythm of the natural process by
building their living environment according to hydro-ecological dynamic without any action
against the course of the natural process.

The tributary cultural geography in the Chao Phraya River Basin terminates in the distributary
network of an endlessly meandering network of natural streams and constructed waterways in
and around Greater Bangkok. Absorbing, distributing and retaining water during the dry
season and draining excess water during wet season, the vast network of canals brings
tangible evidence of the regions larger hydrological cycles to the details of every-day life in
the historically urbanized delta.

The agricultural land such as paddy rice field also benefits human by contributing to water
management (Sathianpantarit et al., 2000 after Yuyama et al., 1996 and Yuyama, 1999) as:
1. Flood mitigation as retarding basin
2. Water resources for downstream area as regulating pond
3. Water quality and ecosystem conservation
4. Protection of soil erosion
5. Production of oxygen
6. Provision for recreational opportunity.

The recent trend of urban growth is concentrated in the urban fringe area, a transition between
the inner city and the outer part or suburb area. This urban-rural intermixed area can be
characterized by the sprawl of old and new residential estate developments, clusters of
industrial estate, strip developments of commercial areas along the roads and large shopping
centers. These settlements situate in the old agricultural areas that can be viewed as the
pattern of patchy human developments in the matrix of agricultural and open fields.
Figure 9: The vanishing land and waterscape: rapid changes brought the number of land based
infrastructure and other constructions that resulted in a rapid increase in built up area at the expense of
cultivated land and the hydrological matrix. (adapted from Sternstein 1982)
1 7 7
The rapid development of the lower delta for export rice cultivation affected the rapid
urbanization of the city of Bangkok (Takaya, 1987). The growth of the nation and the city
brought rapid urbanization to the low-lying flat terrain of the lower Chao Phraya Delta. Once
considered unsuitable for human habitat (Takaya, 1987), Bangkok has grown into a tropical
megacity. One of the major losses through the rapid urbanization of the city is Bangkok's
unique vast canal network. The network once considered a lifeline has been neglected and
abandoned (Jarupongsakul, 2000). The plight of climate change compounds an already
complex ecosystem with many conflicts between delta and the city dynamics. The delta and
the city present threats to each other due to a lack of both recognition of natural hydrological
processes and the indigenous and traditional knowledge of living in concert with natural
cycles of wet and dry seasons. The dynamic of space-time relationships of human and nature
has failed to recognize the importance of the hydro-ecology of the landscape of the city.

4. Conclusions: Urban Agriculture and City Region Sustainability: a Co-Evolution.

The daily acts of eating, breathing and drinking bring awareness to the sensory aspects of
existence and give insight towards comprehending the city as an ecosystem. Taste and sensual
pleasure are design tools that take into account the biophysical and socio-cultural life-support
conditions of a city. The periphery of Bangkok leaves the oily and bitter aftertaste of
environmental degradation and rampant land speculation amid the struggles of small farmers.

An ambition green belt plan as a sprawl-containment strategy is not possible in this rapidly
developing metropolis already marked by a vastly dispersed industrial and residential fringe,
where orchard- and rice-farmers struggle behind car manufacturing plants and chains of
suppliers, or in the path of voracious housing development. Instead, localized strategies must
be deployed on the ground. The revaluation of pockets of the citys agri- and aquacultural
fringe in order to provide breathing space, temperature moderation, water-quality
maintenance and new perspectives is critical.

The cultural production of localities within such disjunctive flows is quite complicated work,
and requires new collaborative tools developed between design, education, ecology, and
social research. The ecological theory of patch dynamics (Pickett, 2004) reflects a paradigm
shift in the understanding of socio-natural urban interrelationships, and better equips us to
tackle the design and planning challenges of greater Bangkoks shifting mosaic of farm,
factory and housing development strung together along the urban fringe. A careful
reexamination of the historical resilience and adaptability of living with nature of indigenous
knowledge and local wisdom would be crucial for dealing with future uncertainty such as
climate change.

We suggest the possibility of a bottom-up approach for emerging democracy and sustainable
development. In recognizing patchy rather than centralized urban development, localized air-,
water- and food-quality management could be strung among the under-utilized open spaces
concentrated on the orchard meanders and the long, ancient irrigation canals, made visible
and publicly accessible. Physical connections provide feedback loops between farmers,
consumers and policy-makers. This is not just an engineering solution towards sustainability,
but the recognition of a patchy new symbolic realm as well as a sensual and seductive new
cultural space where water and agricultural lands can become the fuel source for the mobile
1 7 8
culture on both roads and canals to reweave the geo- and aqua-bodies into a new cultural
landscape.

We also suggest a radical shifting in emphasis from the current solid state of landscape
urbanism, towards a more systemic approach to urban ecosystem understanding in urban and
landscape planning and design a waterscape urbanism - a water based urbanization based
on agriculture. Thai urbanity and domesticity evolved from intimate association with climatic,
topographic and hydraulic conditions. River, canal and lagoon based garden cities retained six
months of rainwater for the following six dry ones, staging ceremonies and rituals in sync
with attentive observation of hydrological cycles and variations.

Contemporary Bangkok might look to the historical context of Thai waterscape urbanism for
solutions to the pressing problems of vanishing urban agricultural land and climate change: a
pre-modern, locally controlled, human ecosystem watershed model structured and sustained
Thai cities for centuries. An animist tradition combined with an inherited Hindu-Buddhist
cosmological framework created a tributary culture for a locally managed, forest and
agricultural production society with a Dhamma King, as the symbolic Lord of Life
symbolized through water. A reassessment of how river and water flows have been adjusted
to pass around and through cities rather than flushed under them is critical in order to create
new dynamic design models of urban ecosystems. The understanding of historical resilience
and adaptability of living with water of indigenous and traditional processes would be crucial
for dealing with future uncertainty. This is not just a historical model, but contemporary urban
ecosystem designs around the world are looking for ways to retain water in cities (McGrath,
2008). Contemporary urban ecosystem science and Thai urbanism both point to the creation
of cities as water retention systems for socio-cultural as well as environmental reasons.

5. Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Built Environment Innovation Center, Faculty of
Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, the Thailand Research Fund, International START
Secretariat, the research project Investigation of Rapid Urbanization Processes Using
ASTER, MODIS, and Landsat Data and the National Science Foundation and Baltimore
Ecosystem Studys Long-Term Ecological Research program for their partial support of this
research.

6. References

BMA (2004). Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, General Information WWW page,
http://www.bma.go.th/bmaeng/body_general.html#geography, December, 2004.
Brummelhuis, H. T. (2007). King of the Waters, Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Hanks, L. M. (1972). Rice and Man: Agricultural Ecology in Southeast Asia, Chicago: Aldine
Publishing Company.
Sternstein, L. (1982). Portrait of Bangkok, Bangkok: Bangkok Metropolitan Administration.
Pickett, S.(2004). Lecture at Columbia University, Graduate School of Architecture, Planning
and Preservation. 11 October 2004
Hattori, T. and K. Kyuma (1978). Chapter 9 The Soil and Rice-Growing, in Thailand : A
Rice-Growing Society, Ishii, Y. (Eds)., The Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
1 7 9
Kyoto University, Kyoto
Ishii, Y. (1978). Thailand: A Rice-Growing Society, translated by Peter and Stephaie Hawkes.
Monographs of the Center for South East Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Honolulu:
University Press of Hawaii.
Jarupongsakul, T. (2000). Chapter 2: Geomorphology Aspects Affecting the Occurrence of
Floods and influencing the Drainage in the Lower Central Plain, Thailand, in the
Analysis and Preparation for Flood-risk map in the Lower Central Plain, Thailand,
Jarupongsakul, T. (ed) Bangkok: Center for Disaster and Land Information Studies,
Chulalongkorn University.
Jarupongsakul, T. and Kaida, Y. (2000). The Imagescape of the Chao Phraya Delta into the
year 2020, Proceedings of The International Conference: The Chao Phraya Delta:
Historical Development, Dynamics and Challenges of Thailand's Rice Bowl: 12-15
December 2000, Bangkok: Kasetsart University.
Kyuma, K. (1978). Chapter 6Climate and Rice-Growing, in Thailand: A Rice-Growing
Society, Ishii, Y. Edited., The Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University,
Kyoto
McGrath, Brian et. al., (2008). Designing Patch Dynamics, New York: Columbia University
Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation.
Tanabe, Shigeharu 1977. Historical geography of the canal system in the Chao Phraya Delta
from the Ayutthaya period to the fourth reign of the Ratanakosin Dynasty,
Monographs of the Center for South East Asian Studies, Kyoto University,
Tachakitkachorn, T. (2005). A comparative Study on the Transformation Process of
Settlement Developed form Orchards in the Chao Phraya Delta, Doctoral
Dissertation, Kobe University.
Takaya, Y. (1987). Agricultural Development of A Tropical Delta : A Study of the
Chao Phraya Delta, translated by by Peter Hawkes, Monographs of the Center for
South East Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
Zonneveld, I.S. (1988). Landscape Ecology and its Application, in Landscape ecology and
Management, Proceedings of the First Symposium of the Canadian Society for
Landscape Ecology and Management: University of Guelph, May, 1987,
Polyscience Publications Inc., Montreal, Canada.
Sathianpantarit, P. A, Mujalinvimuti, P.Klinkhachorn, A. Punyachom, S. Jirasirisopon, Y.
Yuyama (2000) Water Management in the upper East Bank of Chao Phraya Delta, in
Proceedings of The International Conference: The Chao Phraya Delta: Historical
Development, Dynamics and Challenges of Thailand's Rice Bowl: 12-13-14-15
December 2000, Kasetsart University, Bangkok.

Pictures Credits
Figure 1, Satellite image source: The Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF), University of
Maryland http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/index.shtml
Figure 2, Ying Pongkajonkijkan
Figure 3, Bangkok circa 1980 Map: Larry Sternstein, 1982. Portrait of Bangkok
Bangkok ASTER VNIR image: The acquisition of ASTER data was supported
by a research project, Investigation of Rapid Urbanization Processes Using
ASTER, MODIS, and Landsat Data, by Dr Philip Christensen, Principal
Investigator, NASA Grant number: EOS/03-0000-0502.
Figure 4-8, Danai Thaitakoo
Figure 9, The triptych of maps from 1935, 55 and 75, adapted from Sternstein 1982.
1 8 0
Damage investigation of timber structures by
The 2007 Noto Peninsula Earthquake

Kaori Fujita
1)
and Hiromi Sato
2)

1) Department of Architecture, The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656 , Japan
e-mail: fujita@arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2) Faculty of Engineering, Tokushima University
2-1 Minamijyousanjima-cho, Tokushima 770-8506, JAPAN
e-mail: sato@ce.tokushima-u.ac.jp

Abstract
This paper presents the results of the damage investigation of timber structures by the Noto
Peninsula Earthquake on 25 March, 2007. More than 2,000 timber houses were severely
damaged by this earthquake. The most devastated district was Wajima City on the Noto
Peninsula, located by the Sea of Japan, where many of the buildings are of traditional timber
construction. Damage investigation was operated in this district together with a detailed
damage investigation on a typical traditional timber townhouse, which was severely damaged
by this earthquake. The results of the damage investigation is discussed in relation with the
strong motion record close to the site as well as the results of micro tremor measurement and
static push over analysis operated on the specific structure after the earthquake.

1. Introduction
Timber structures in Japan have suffered great damage from strong earthquakes repetitively.
The devastating damage by the 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu Earthquake (Kobe earthquake) is well
known, but earthquakes not as strong have also repetitively occurred and damaged many parts
of the country. An earthquake of Magnitude 6.9 hit the suburban district by the Sea of Japan
on 25
th
March, 2007. The epicenter was located on the western coast of Noto Peninsula, in
Ishikawa Prefecture (Fig.1,2). In the most severely damaged district, Wajima City there are
many traditional timber houses from the pre war period.
Damage investigation on timber structures in the devastated area is reported together with
detailed investigation on a typical traditional townhouse in the district. The structural
characteristic of the investigated house is determined through micro tremor measurement and
static push over analysis.

2. Outline of 2007 Noto Peninsula Earthquake
An earthquake of Magnitude 6.9 hit the northwestern part of Japan on 25
th
March, 2007. The
epicenter was located on the western coast of Noto Peninsula, in Ishikawa Prefecture. The
maximum seismic intensity (JMA seismic intensity scale) observed in the vicinity of Wajima
City was above six (Figs.1 and 2). The maximum acceleration was approximately 780 gal
recorded in Anamizu City, which is adjacent to Wajima City (Table1). The earthquake
1 8 1
destroyed or severely damaged 2,237 timber houses, and collapsed houses caused 345
casualties in Ishikawa Prefecture, as shown in Table 2.
The most severely damaged district, Wajima, is famous for the craft and craftsman of
traditional lacquer work on wood dishes and bowls. The district can also be defined as one of
the typical local country side in Japan, with aging society and depopulation. As the district
missed being involved in the bombardment during the Second World War, there are many
traditional timber houses from the pre war period.

Fig.1 Map of Japan and location of
Ishikawa Prefecture (in green)
Fig.2 Seismic intensity scale of the earthquake affected
area and route of investigation
Table 1 Location of site and measured values of the Noto Peninsula Earthquake 2007

Site*
Seismic Intensity
Scale by JMA
Maximum accelerationgal=cm/s
2

Epicentral
Distance (km)

NS EW UD
K Anamizu 6+ 473 782 556 19
M Wajima City 6+ 464 439 190 27
K Togi 6- 717 849 462 7
M Togi 6- 276 507 452 9.6
M Noto-cho 6- 235 147 118 42
K Wajima 6- 519 396 141 27
K Noto 6- 622 589 147 42
*M:Japan Meteorological Agency, KKyoshin-Network by NIED. References [1], [2]
Table 2 Statistics of damage (as of 27 June, 2007)
Damage Ishikawa Prefecture Wajima City Nanao City
Casualties
Death Toll 1 1 0
Serious Injury 73 44 17
Light Injury 271 69 110

Houses*1
Collapse 641 499 50
Serious Damage 1,596 1,029 238
Partial Damage 13,987 7,658 2,262
Buildings (excluding houses) 4,321 2,814 333
*1 Number of buildings (not units)

4. Damage Investigation
Damage investigation was performed in the affected area, particularly in the vicinity of
Wajima City. The typical timber town houses are of post and beam construction with clay tile
for roofing and mud wall with bamboo substrate as interior and exterior walls. Fig.3 shows
the flexural failure of the timber column at the connection of the hanging wall. This is a
typical failure mode of a traditional timber building with large opening. Fig.4 shows an
example of a collapsed town house. Timber siding walls are applied as the exterior finishing
of the mud bearing wall, in order to protect the mud from rain and snow.
In Wajima city there are many storehouses made with thick mud walls. The structural
elements are the same as those of the townhouses, but where the mud walls of town houses
are approximately 70mm thick, those of the storehouses reach 100 to 200mm in thickness.
This is mainly to protect the valuable properties inside the storehouse from fire. Although the
shearing force of the mud wall can be assumed to be proportional to the thickness of the mud,
and storehouses are often very simple in plan, these structures did not escape being damaged
by the earthquake (Fig.5). One of the reasons revealed from the investigation was that severe
decay was found at the bottom of the column and ground sill of many of the storehouses. The
decay was not evident prior to the damage as the timber elements were hidden from view by
the mud wall and timber siding (Fig.6). Several causes of the decay can be pointed out;
geographically the affected area is close to the Sea of Japan and the Wajima city is located at
the mouth of a river. Flood and tidal waves are recorded once in several years, which would
induce the timber elements to decay. Several master plasterers have also pointed out the
possibility of the defect of the plaster work in the initial construction, the drying procedure
being insufficient.

Fig. 3 Bending failure of column Fig.4 Collapsed townhouse
1 8 3

Fig.5 Damaged storehouse Fig.6 Detail of the storehouse

4.1 Detailed Investigation in Wajima City
Detailed investigation at the downtown district of Wajima city was operated several times
after the earthquake by the authors. The seismic intensity scale of the district was over six by
the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) scale. Strong motion record was measured at two
sites in downtown Wajima City, JMA and K-net as shown in Fig.2 and Table1. The maximum
acceleration recorded at JMA Wajima, which is approximately 500m from the investigated
area, was 464 cm/s
2
in NS direction and 439cm/s
2
in EW direction (Fig.8). The response
velocity spectrum shows a peak at 1.7-1.8 seconds, which exceeds 400m/s.

-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
10 20 30 40 50
Time(s)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
a
l
)
NS
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
10 20 30 40 50
Time(s)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
a
l
) EW
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
10 20 30 40 50 Time(s)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
a
l
) UD

Fig.7 Map of the downtown Wajima City. The red
dotted zone indicates the location of investigation
Fig.8 Acceleration record and psuedo
velocity response spectrum JMA Wajima
1 8 4
The investigated area is in the old down town district of Wajima, where many of the houses
are of traditional timber construction. Many of the townhouses in the district have narrow
faade facing the street and are very long in the transverse direction, sometimes reaching 80m,
forming a typical urban housing plan. Consequently the horizontal load resistance in the
shorter side, parallel to the street is often insufficient, as there are very few shear walls in this
direction.
A typical traditional timber townhouse in the district, indicated at the red circle in Fig.7, was
investigated in detail. The exact year of construction is unclear, but the subject is known to
have been constructed approximately 100 years ago. From the damage investigation operated
directly after the earthquake, the townhouse suffered severe damage from the earthquake. The
residual deformation angle of the first story after the earthquake was approximately 1/30 rad.
Most of the mud walls were cracked, and many of the timber joints were damaged.
To evaluate the fundamental vibration characteristics of the target house, microtremor
measurements and forced vibration tests were performed. Six accelerograms were used in the
tests. The natural frequency of vibration, the damping factor and the vibration mode of the
target house was determined. The natural period of vibration of the first mode in the X
(shorter) direction was 2.21 Hz and that in the Y direction were 3.0 and 3.97 Hz. The
damping factor, calculated from the logarithmic decrement of the free vibration waveform,
ranged from 3.5 to 8.4% in the X direction and 4.4 to 6.4% in the Y direction (Fig. 13).
To clarify the horizontal load-carrying capacity of this townhouse, static push over analysis
was also performed. The horizontal load-resisting elements of the townhouse are the mud
walls and the hanging walls. Analytical models of these elements were constructed using a
shearing model to portray the mud wall, and a multi-linear model to represent the load
displacement relationship of the mud wall, by Kawai et al [2]. The horizontal displacement of
the hanging wall was calculated from the sum of the bending displacement of the column and
the shearing displacement of the mud, the thickness of the mud wall was 70mm [3]. The
bending performance of the column, 120mm by 120mm, was modelled by considering the
results of the material test and the sectional area deficit at the joint. The result of the static
push over analysis of the first story is shown in Fig.14. The calculated maximum horizontal
resisiting force was approximately 197 kN at a deformation angle of 0.017 rad. in the Y (long)
direction and 33 kN at a deformation angle of 0.041 rad. in the X (short) direction. As the
calculated weight of the total structure was approximately 40 ton, the determined base shear
coefficient of the structure is 0.09 in the X direction and 0.49 in the Y direction. The results
show that the horizontal load bearing force is evidently insufficient in the X (short) direction,
as because the horizontal load bearing elements such as mud wall and hanging wall are very
few in this direction, due to the restriction in plan.
The strong motion record of the JMA Wajima shows that the peak ground accelerations are
approximately 450 cm/s2 for both NS and EW directions. From the response spectrum the
reponse velocity in the X direction, natural period of vibration 0.45s, is approximately 50kine
and that of Y direction, natural period of vibration 0.3 and 0.25s, were 30 to 40kine, response
acceleration exceeds 800gal in both directions. This exceeds the horizontal load carrying
capacity in both directions especially in the X (short) direction by far. Furthermore as the
natural frequency was determined from microtremor measurement, the value can be assumed
to decrease in the larger displacement range due to the stiffness degradation of the structure.
Which would induce larger reponse velocity possibly up to 100 kine.
Although the building was heavily damaged, it has escaped total collapse, and from the results
of the damage investigation, there were no evident differences in the X and Y directions,
which is contradictory to those from analysis. This indicates the need to investigate the
horizontal loading elements more thoroughly, accompanied by structural experiments to the
1 8 5
elements, such as the timber joints. But as the structure has not been dismanteled, the detail of
the joints are not evident until today. This townhouse has been structurally reinforced without
dismanteling the elements, and is still inhabited by the owner.

4.2 Investigation of post earthquake situation
Exterior investigation of the downtown district of Wajima City shown in Fig.7 was operated
one year after the earthquake in April 2007. This investigation was operated as a part of a
undergraduate design program by the Matsumura - Seike Fujita studio of the Department of

Fig.10 Exterior View

Fig.11 Interior view

Fig.12 Damage at the column
and mud wall
Fig.9 Plan and section of the investigated town house
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency(Hz)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
ch7/ch1
ch8/ch2
2.2
3.9 6.1

0
50
100
150
200
0 5 10 15 20 25
Displacement(cm.)
L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
Y
X
0.02rad 0.04rad 0.06rad 0.08rad

Fig.13 Transfer function by micro tremor
measurement
Fig.14 Result of Static push over analysis

Architecture, the University of Tokyo. Many of the houses in the district were taken down
(Fig.15, shown in green on the map Fig.16) or newly built (shown in yellow on the map
Fig.16), some of which were well capable of being reused if accompanied by sufficient repair
work. As referred to earlier this district is a typical suburban district with the depopulation
and aging of the inhabitants. Although many of the traditional timber townhouses in the
district are of high architectural quality and were still capable of being used, they were taken
down and many vacancies have appeared in the traditional townscape. The impact of the
earthquake hazard on architectural heritage proves their potential physical as well as social
vulnerability.

Fig. 15 Vacancy where the town houses were taken down and removed

Fig. 16 Exterior investigation of post earthquake downtown Wajima City (April 2007)
1 8 7
Conclusions
Outline of the result of the damage investigation on timber structures by the Noto Peninsula
Earthquake, 25
th
March, 2007, was reported. In the most severely damaged district, Wajima
City, where many of the buildings are of traditional timber construction, damage investigation
was operated, together with a detailed investigation on a typical traditional townhouse in the
district. The structural characteristic of the investigated house is determined through micro
tremor measurement and static push over analysis. The results showed that the typical
townhouse with a narrow faade has very small horizontal load resistance in this direction,
both analytically and experimentally. But from the damage investigation, this characteristic
was not evident, indicating the need for further investigation on the horizontal load resisting
elements.
Results of the exterior investigation of the downtown district of Wajima City operated one
year after the earthquake in April 2007 is shown. Many of the traditional timber townhouses
in the district with high architectural quality and still capable of being used, were taken down,
causing vacancies in the traditional townscape. The physical as well as social vulnerability of
the architectural heritage, which are not designated by the national or local government, is
pointed out.

Acknowledgements
The authors send sincere gratitude to Mr. Hagino, Ms. Furukubo, Prof. Matsumura, Prof.
Seike, Dr. Matsuda and the members of the Matsumura, Seike, Fujita Laboratory of the
University of Tokyo. The post earthquake building map was made by the investigation
operated by Dr. Y.Kadoriku, Kakikawa, Oosugi, Hoshikawa, Nakajima, Sugii Asamitsu and
other members of the Matsumura Studio.

References
[1] K. Fujita et al, Damage investigation of 2007 Noto Hanto earthquake -Damage of traditional timber
structures-, Journal of The Building Disaster Prevention, 2007.8, pp.38-43
[2] N. Kawai, et al, Dynamic Characteristic of Traditional Wooden Buildings Part 9, Summaries of
Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1, 2000.9, pp.145-146
[3] H. Sato, I. Sakamoto, et al. Study on the structural performance of traditional timber house based on on-
site loading test, Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering, No.602, 2006.4, pp.187-194
[4] H. Sato, T. Suzuki and K. Fujita, Study on the Structural Performance of Traditional Timber Townhouse
in Japan based on the Disaster of the Noto Hanto Earthquake in 2007, 2008 World Conference on Timber
Engineering, June 2008, CDR

1 8 8
Poster Session
Energetic analysis of various production systems in West Javan
agricultural landscape: looking for sustainable system

Muhamad, Dendi
1)
; Parikesit
2)
; Okubo, Satoru
3)
; Husodo, Teguh
4)

1)
Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University
Jalan Sekeloa Selatan 1, Bandung, 40132, West Java, Indonesia
e-mail: dendi@unpad.ac.id; zo_den@yahoo.com
2)

4)
Departmen of Biology, Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University
Jalan Sekeloa Selatan 1, Bandung, 40132, West Java, Indonesia
e-mail:
2)
parikesit@unpad.ac.id;
4)
teguh_ioe@unpad.ac.id
3)
Department of Ecosystem Studies, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences,
The University of Tokyo. Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
e-mail: aokubos@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

To indicate the sustainability of different agricultural landscape production system from its
energy efficiency, energy analysis study was carried out in a village, West Java. Data were
collected using questionnaires and direct measurements. We analyzed the energy efficiency of
each system and interactions among them through energy flows, and evaluated the
dependency of all systems on internal and external energy in the agricultural landscape.
Regardless of important role of local resources, much amount of external materials such as
inorganic fertilizers and pesticides were used in most ricefields accounted for 46 % of total
inputs. The systems, thus, had low efficiency about 2.78 and depended on external inputs
from outside of the agricultural landscape. On the contrary, in bamboo tree gardens and mix
tree gardens, use of external materials such as pesticide and chemical fertilizer was
significantly small (no more than 20 % of total inputs), particularly in bamboo tree gardens
(about 4 % of total inputs). Both tree gardens had higher energy efficiency (bamboo tree
garden: 28,89 and mix tree garden: 19.41) and lower external dependency than ricefield
systems. In kebun-talun system, which is an unique rotation system of bamboo tree garden
and kebun or upland field, dependency on external inputs was intermediate (38 % of total
inputs) compared to ricefield, bamboo tree garden and mix tree garden since farmers used
external materials only in kebun phase where the amount was still lower than ricefield.
Regarding energy efficiency which is about 20.74, the system was smaller than bamboo but
higher than mix tree garden and much higher than rice fields. There was relation among the
four systems in terms of energy flow. To increase the sustainability by reduce high
dependency on external inputs in ricefields, a new energy flow retrieved from tree gardens
should be considered.
Key Words:external dependency; sustainability, input-output; kebun-talun; energy efficiency.

1. Introduction
To study the agricultural production systems efficiency as an indicator of its sustainability,
energy analysis in different agricultural landscape production systems was carried out in a
village, West Java. The village is located in a fringe area of Bandung City which is a rural
area in a mosaic of urban-rural landscape. Thus, the village also one of typical agricultural
landscape that consist of divers production systems, namely rice fields, upland fields, bamboo
tree gardens (bamboo-taluns), mix tree gardens (taluns), and kebun-talun system. The energy
base analysis was choose due to the fact that all the materials which used in agricultural
production systems basically came from sunlight energy that had been converted to chemical
substances (food) by the plants (Pimentel et al., 1983). In other words, energy is essential for
accomplishing any works, without energy no action or process could occur and therefore no
goods or services could be produce. These means that using energy base analysis, efficiency
1 8 9
Poster Session
in different agricultural production systems could be compared and analyzed. Then, Base on
Fluck (1992) and Ramakrishnan (1990) perspective, the most useful approach in energy
analysis to determine energy efficiency is to combine energy flow and input-output analysis.
Then, from the energy efficiency the systems sustainability could indicated.
There are three main objectives in this research. First, is to know and understand interaction
among production systems which form an energy flow in agricultural landscape. Second, is to
analyze the energy input-output of each production systems. The last, is to compare energy
efficiency among different production systems, which one has is the most efficient in term of
energy to indicate its sustainability.

Data about input and output of each production system were collected using questionnaires
and direct measurements. Base on preliminary survey and land ownership census, numbers of
households in Karamat Mulya village were randomly selected using the formula from Lynch
et al. (1974). Base on the formula, the selected households consist of: 72 house hold own
ricefield, 23 house hold own upland field, 44 house hold own bamboo talun, 40 house hold
own mix talun, and 48 house hold own talun which still conducted kebun-talun systems in last
five years were selected to be interviewed using questioner. The aspects included in the
questionnaires were: household profile; type(s) of energy used by households; type(s) of
energy used as inputs by households in their agricultural production systems; source, mode of
procurement, and usage quantity; type(s) of energy which were outputs from their agricultural
production systems; usage (subsistence or to be sold); usage quantity and selling destination;
and accessibility to exports the outputs destination; management intensity, and management
of agricultural residues).
After all of the data were collected, then convert this input and output data in to energy base
unit per area size per time unit. Researches which was used as reference for the energy
conversion factors in this research are: Leach (1976), Cox and Atkins (1979), de Wit (1979)
Mitchell (1979), Cervinka (1980), Pimentel (1980), Ruthenberg (1980), Fluck and Baird
(1980); Doering (1980), Lockeretz (1980), Rutger and Grant (1980), Kuether and Duff (1981),
Uhl and Murphy (1981), Freedman (1982), Dazhong & Pimentel (1984; 1990), Han et al.
(1985), Christanty (1989), Gajaseni (1994), Nguyen and Hynes (1994), Singh and Behl
(1999), Sundkvist, et al. (1999). The data presented in this study were analyzed using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 11.0) Software. The analysis includes
frequency, correlation between variables, and cross tabulation.

The study site, Karamat Mulya Village, Soreang District, West Java, is located a fringe area
of Bandung City (West Java Province city capital). Karamat Mulya village is a rural area in a
mosaic of urban-rural landscape of Bandung Metropolitan. The village is located in elevation
700 - 1200 meter above sea level. In general, the topography of the study site is undulating
hilly area to flat area. The landscape consists of several components, tree garden (talun) areas
(consist of kebun-talun, bamboo talun, and mix talun) located in the hill area and rice field
and upland field in more relative flat area until flat area.
The results from this research are illustrated in Picture 1, which is the quantified energy flow
among agriculture production systems in the study sites agricultural landscape. As can be
seen from the picture there are many interactions between the agricultural production systems.
1 9 0
Poster Session

From the quantified energy flow (picture 2), it could be clarified that there are interaction
among the four systems in terms of energy flow, however, it was small portion: it was rare
case to use organic materials derived from taluns in ricefields, even though there are energy
flow in form of run-off and falling leaf (litter) which brought by the wind or rain from he
taluns (on the steep and upper area) to ricefieds (on the gentle and lower area) (which is
appeared as the dash line on Picture 1). Base on the energy flow which shown in Picture 2, an
energy input-ouput matrix was made (Table 1). Then, from the input-output matrix energy
efficiency of each agricultural production system could be calculated (Table 2).
1 9 1
Poster Session
Table 1. Energy Input-output Matrix of different agricultural production systems in
Karamatmulya Villages Agricultural Landscape (MJ ha
-1
year
-1
)
No. Input-Output
Quantity (MJ ha
-1
year
-1
)
Ricefield Kebun-Talun Mix tree garden Bamboo tree garden
local external Local external local external local external
Inputs:
1 Human Power 1706 - 2439 - 2463 - 1485 -
2 Animal Power 400 - - - - - - -
3 Tools - 540 - 128 - 63 - 63
4 Fertilizer - 528 - 510 - 450 - -
5 Animal manure - - 800 - 560 - - -
6 Pesticide - 33818 - 320 - 260 - -
7 Biomass 43287 - - - - - - -
8 Seeds - 3148 - 1067 - - - -
Total Inputs 45393 38034 3239 2025 3023 773 1485 63
Outputs:
1 Rice (grain) 18317 34018 - - - - - -
2 Residues 179614 - - - - - - -
3 Tubers/Rhizome - - 2088 6262 - - 385 -
4 Fruits - - 1772 7088 1426 8082 2340 -
5 Vegetables - - 9466 28398 - - - -
6 Timbers - - 2206 19856 8635 48933 695 2085
7 Bamboo - - 6296 25184 1700 3969 5815 32950
8 Fuelwood - - 575 - 923 - 459 -
Total Outputs 197931 34018 22403 86788 12684 60984 9694 35035

Table 2. Energy Efficiency of different agricultural production systems in Karamatmulya
Villages Agricultural Landscape (MJ ha
-1
year
-1
)
Energy
Production
Systems
Quantity (MJ ha-1 year-1)
EE)*
(O/I)
Inputs (I) Outputs (O)
local % external % Total local % external % Total
Ricefield 45393 54% 38034 46% 83427 197931 85% 34018 15% 231949 2.78
Kebun-Talun 3239 62% 2025 38% 5264 22403 21% 86788 79% 109191 20.74
Mix tree garden 3023 80% 773 20% 3796 12684 17% 60984 83% 73668 19.41
Bamboo talun 1485 96% 63 4% 1548 9694 22% 35035 78% 44729 28.89
Total 53140 57% 40895 43% 94035 242712 53% 216825 47% 459537
)* Energy efficiency = total outputs / total inputs

Regardless of important role of local resources, much amount of external materials such as
inorganic fertilizers, pesticides and tools were used in most rice fields and upland fields
(kebun phase in kebun-talun system) accounted for arround 45 % to 50% of total inputs. The
ricefield systems, thus, had low efficiency about 2.8 and depended on external inputs from
outside of the village. Even though, the ricefield energy efficiency in the research site is still
higher compare to ricefield that used diesel in Madras, India (energy efficiency: 1.7) and
ricefield that used machinery in Thailand (energy efficiency: 0.3) (Gajaseni, 1994; and
Norman, 1977). On the other hand, if it was compare with traditional ricefield in Thailand, the
efficiency is almost same, which is 2.7.
On the contrary, in bamboo tree gardens (bamboo taluns) and mix tree gardens (mix taluns),
use of external materials was significantly small (about 20 % of total inputs), particularly in
1 9 2
Poster Session
bamboo taluns (arround 4 % of total inputs). Both taluns had higher energy efficiency
(bamboo talun: 28.89 and mix talun: 19.41) and lower external dependency than annual crop
production systems (ricefield and upland field).
In kebun-talun system, which is an unique rotation system of bamboo talun and kebun or
upland field, dependency on external inputs was intermediate (about 38 % of total inputs)
compared to annual and perennial tree crop production systems since farmers used external
materials only in kebun phase where the amount was still lower than ricefields. Regarding
energy efficiency which is about 20.74, the system was smaller than bamboo talun but higher
than mix talun and much higher than ricefields.
The efficiency of kebun-talun system in the research site is not so different with shifting
cultivation system which has five to ten years rotation in India (Maikhuri, 1994). According
to his reseach findings, the eficiency of shifting cultivation system was decreasing due to the
shorten periode of rotation. So its efficiency from highest to lowest are arround 16,4 to 36,1
as the rotation periode increased. Thus, could be infere that the kebun-talun system efficency
is still between the interval of shifting cultivation systems efficency in India. In other words,
the talun system, especially the kebun-talun system in the research site are under good
condition.
It was clarified that although tree gardens (taluns), which were dominant agricultural land-use,
had high energy efficiency, its contribution to the production systems of ricefields was low
(less than 10 %). To reduce high dependency on external inputs in ricefields, a new energy
flow retrieved from taluns should be considered in landscape-based sustainability.

4. Conclusions
1. There are interaction among the four systems (ricefield, kebun-talun, bamboo tree garden,
mix tree garden) in terms of energy flow, however, it was small portion.
2. From the input-output analysis, it could be clarified that:
a. Much amount of external materials such as inorganic fertilizers and pesticides were
used in most ricefields accounted for 46 % of total inputs. The systems, thus, depended
on external inputs from outside of the agricultural landscape.
b. Use of external materials in bamboo tree gardens and mix tree gardens, such as
pesticide and chemical fertilizer was significantly small (no more than 20 % of total
inputs), particularly in bamboo tree gardens (about 4 % of total inputs). Both, bamboo
tree gardens and mix tree gardens had lower external dependency than ricefield systems.
c. In kebun-talun system, dependency on external inputs was intermediate (38 % of total
inputs) compared to ricefield, bamboo tree garden and mix tree garden since farmers
used external materials only in kebun phase where the amount was still lower than
ricefield.
3. From the energy efficiency analysis, it could be clarified that:
a. Ricefield had the most low efficiency about 2.78.
b. Both tree gardens had higher energy efficiency than ricefield (bamboo tree garden:
28,89 and mix tree garden: 19.41)
c. Energy efficiency of kebun-talun system which is about 20.74, the system was smaller
than bamboo but higher than mix tree garden and much higher than ricefields.
Although tree gardens and kebun-taluns, which were dominant agricultural land-use, had high
energy efficiency, its contribution to the production systems of ricefields was low. To
increase the sustainability by reduce high dependency on external inputs (particularly in
ricefields), a new energy flow retrieved from tree gardens should be considered.
1 9 3
Poster Session
5. References
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forest-West Java. Journal of Hydrology. 89 : 13 31.
Ceielski, E., Dunkerley, J. and Ramsay, W., 1979. Household energy and the poor in the
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Cervinka, Y., 1980. Fuel and energy efficiency. In: Pimentel (Editors), Handbook of Energy
utilization in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 15-21.
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University of British Columbia.
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______. 1996. Without Bamboo, the Land Dies: Biomass, Litterfall, and Soil Organic
Matter Dynamic of a Javanese Bamboo Talun Kebun System. Forest Ecology and
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Cox, G.W. and Atkins, M.D., 1979. Agricultural Ecology. Freeman, San Feansisco.
Dazhong, W. and Pimentel, D., 1984. Energy inputs in agricultural systems of China. Agric.
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322 - 336.
de Wit, C.T. 1979. The efficient use of labour, land and energy in agriculture. Agric. Syst. 8 :
279-287.
______. 1992. Resource use efficient in agriculture. Agric. Syst. 40: 125-151.
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(Editors), Handbook of Energy utilization in Agriculture. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, pp. 9-14.
Fluck, R.C. 1979. Energy productivity: a measure of energy utilization in agricultural
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for Agriculture and the Food Chain. Dalam: Stout, B.A., R.M. Pearl & R.C.
Brook (eds). Energy in World Agriculture. New York : Elsevier. pp : 83 - 88.
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Farm Production. Elsevier. Amsterdam, London, New York, Tokyo. pp : 39 - 43.
Freedman S.M., 1982. Human Labour as an energy source for rice production in developing
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Gajaseni, J., 1995. Energy analysis of wetland rice systems in Thailand. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment. 52 : 173 178.
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Rapid Rural Appraisal. Thailand : FARM Programme, FAO/UNDP & Suranaree
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Han, C.R., Golley, F. and Mou, Z.G. 1985. Energy analysis of advanced collective farms in
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Poster Session
Kuether, D.O. and Duff, J.B., 1981. Energy requirement for alternative rice production
systems in the tropics. International Rice Research Institute, Manila.
Leach, G., 1975. Energy and Food Production. International Institute for Environment and
Development, London, 151 pp.
_____, G., 1976. Energy and Food Production. IPC Science and technology Press, Guilford,
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Acquisition and Transition in Type of Energy for Domestik Uses in the
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Poster Session
______, K. Takeuchi, A. Tsunekawa & O.S. Abdoellah. 2004. Kebon Tatangkalan: A
Disappearing Agroforest in the Upper Citarum Watershed, West Java, Indonesia.
Agroforestry Systems. 63: 171182
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Poster Session
______, O. dan I. Soemarwoto. 1984. The Javanese Rural Ecosystem. Dalam: T. Rambo dan
E. Sajise (eds). In Introduction to Human Ecology Research, Honolulu: East West
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1 9 7
Poster Session
Conceptual Framework for Agricultural Landscape Conservation and
Food system for Sustainable City Region in China

ZHOU Dingyang
1)
, TAKEUCHI Kazuhiko
2)
, HARA Yuji
3)
and MATSUDA Hirotaka
4)

1) Department of Ecosystem Studies, The University of Tokyo
1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, JAPAN
e-mail: aa087407@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp
1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, JAPAN
3) Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654, JAPAN
e-mail: hara@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp
4) Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), The University of Tokyo
e-mail: matsuda@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

This paper outlines a framework for studying the linkage of food flow, agricultural land use,
and urban-rural sustainability. Input-Output table, scenario approach, GIS analysis and semi-
structure participate interview approach will be taken into city, county and market level. We
argue that a friendly agricultural landscape and a more locally based food system with tighter
links between producers and consumers can improve the integration of city region and thus
make the urban-rural more sustainable.

Keywords: Agricultural Landscape Conservation, Food Flow, Input-Output Tabel, Urban
Rural Sustainbility, Tianjin in China

1. Introduction

Land use is intimately related to socio-economic material and energy flows(Krausmann et al.
2004). Food provision is the vital function of agriculture ecosystem services(Metzger et al.
2006), which is including food production, the availability of, and access to food, controlled
by a range of biophysical and socioeconomic factors(GECAFS, 2002). In the current food
system, most societies are dependent on distant agro-ecosystems through trade and are no
longer directly dependent on local ecosystem for supply of food and goods(Sundkvist et al.
2005). Agriculture is the fundumatel of a sociey. Such these food flow directly influences the
agricultural land use and urban-rural sustainblity.

Agriculture land in China is mainly located in the same geographic areas where population
and major economic activities have been concentrated (Hubacek et al. 2001), which is also
highly correlated to the settlement(Tan et al. 2005), including urban builtup areas and rural
settlement. The spatial organization of Chinese city formulates the traditional function of
agricultural land in city region. The major function of suburban areas is the production of
vegetables and the other non-staple foods, which supply the daily needs of the population of
the central city. The rural in the outer ring, sometimes known as the outer suburbs, are almost
entirely rural, where most of the farmland of the city region is located, and produces the bulk
1 9 8
Poster Session
of the city regions food and grain. This spatial organization of the city region has allowed the
Chinese to achieve the goals of urban self-sufficiency and the integration of agricultural and
industrial activities through the flow of resources between the municipality and the
surrounding rural (Victor F.S. Sit1988).

However, things are changing recently. It is well-known China experiences an economic
booming during the recent two decades. The accelerated industrialization and urbanization
following open reforms and population increase have greatly affected agricultural land use
change along with the increase of rural settlements and urban sprawl. The fragmentation of
agricultural land can be also observed due to construction on land of the countryside. In
addition, the adoption of market principles has resulted in the international restructuring of
agricultural land use from traditional paddy production to more diversified agricultural
activities such as cash crops, fruits and aquaculture. A shift from local self-sufficiency
towards a domestic and global commodity market is ongoing. In facing of all these challenges,
an agreement that agricultural land loss and land degradation are undermined to protect
Chinas food production capacity (Verburg et al. 2000; Chen 2007). On the other hand, the
production function of agricultural land has been deeply doubted recently, especially in
metropolitan region, not only the local citizens, government but some scholars(Lichtenberg
2008).

Suprisingly, although the issue is so important and has such far-reaching consequences, there
is almost no empirical reasch studing the economic impact of agriculture industry change on
the other secotor from agriculture land use view, and check the acturally food cycle ratio and
food flow in city region. We shall now examine briefly the spatial distribution of agricultural
land, considered as the framework for effecting the goals of integrating town and country,
industry and agriculture, and maintaining urban self-sufficiency in food for improving urban
rural sustainability.

2. Study area and methods

2.1 Study area

This study takes Tianjin city as an example, located in the northeastern coast of China, which
is the third largest city and the second port city after Shanghai. This region has a long history
of industrial and urban development, boasting the famous Jingjintang Industrial Belt.

2.2 Methods

Food flow is characterized by an input-output structure, based on city and county input-output
table. It explicitly links industries in a value added chain from primary goods, over
continuously higher stages of intermediate processing, to the final assembling of goods and
services for consumption(Eickhout et al. 2007), and also provides an exploration of how
agriculture land use might respond to a range of future environmental change drivers,
including socio-economic change.

Because of uncertainties in social, political and economic development both within and
outside of China, the future of agricultural land use is unknown. Although it is not possible to
predict future land use it is possible to explore what might happen given certain assumptions
about societal developments and environmental change through the construction of scenarios.
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Poster Session
The scenario approach is widely used in many sciences (physical, economic, and social) in
varied circumstances and for different purposes (Ewert et al. 2005; Rounsevell et al. 2005;
Eickhout et al. 2007)

Landscape ecology is useful to know better agriculture land use pattern and its change by the
tool of GIS analysis. Semi-structure participate interview approach will be taken in selected
sites to study the actual food flow in a market scale and individual producer and consumers,
and also support the scenario analyze.

3. Research Framework

3.1 Strategic Goal and Objectives

This research may start with the analysis of current food flow/provision and agricutlural land
use from city, county and market level, and then build senariao to integrate food provision
and its connection with agricutlrural land-use planning procedures. Four strategic goals will
advance these objectives
1How Tianjin is facing the food provision risk problem? How is the gap between local
production and local consumption in different areas of city region?
2How the current agricultural land and its change on food production?
3To graft senariao and agriculture land suitable map based on food flow aspect, which has
a similar methodological approach to land evaluation and land use planning.
4As a conclusion: which are the principles for integrating food flow-based approach to
agricultural landscape planning in order to promote a sustainable city region.

3.2 Difficulty

The linkage between agricultural land use and food flow (food provision)
Whether the statistic data for I-O Table in Chinese yearbook, especially for the county level
and agricultural inner sector, is available or not?

Fig1. Research Flow

Current Cycle ratio in Agri. Sector
Agri. Land use change

Interview

Scale Method Aim
City
County
Market
Input-output table
GIS

Input-output table
GIS

Actual food flow from producer to
consumer

Current food flow in city region
Agri. Land use distribution

Scenario analyses & land suitable evaluation for future Agri. Land conservation

Poster Session
4. Acknowledgement

Thanks for Program of Government Graduate Student Scholarship (PGGSS) launched by
China Scholarship Council (CSC) to support me do this research in The University of Tokyo.

5. References

Chen, J. (2007). "Rapid urbanization in China: A real challenge to soil protection and food
security." CATENA 69(1): 1-15.
Eickhout, B., H. van Meijl, et al. (2007). "Economic and ecological consequences of four
European land use scenarios." Land Use Policy 24(3): 562-575.
Ewert, F., M. D. A. Rounsevell, et al. (2005). "Future scenarios of European agricultural land
use: I. Estimating changes in crop productivity." Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment 107(2-3): 101-116.
Global Environmental Change and Food Systems (GECAFS): Prospectus. (2002). Earth
System Science Partnership. Available at: www.gecafs.org
Hubacek, K. and L. Sun (2001). "A scenario analysis of China's land use and land cover
change: incorporating biophysical information into input-output modeling." Structural
Change and Economic Dynamics 12(4): 367-397.
Krausmann, F., H. Haberl, et al. (2004). "Resource flows and land use in Austria 1950-2000:
using the MEFA framework to monitor society-nature interaction for
sustainability." Land Use Policy 21(3): 215-230.
Lichtenberg, E. and C. Ding (2008). "Assessing farmland protection policy in China." Land
Use Policy 25(1): 59-68.
Metzger, M. J., M. D. A. Rounsevell, et al. (2006). "The vulnerability of ecosystem services
to land use change." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 114(1): 69-85.
Rounsevell, M. D. A., F. Ewert, et al. (2005). "Future scenarios of European agricultural land
use: II. Projecting changes in cropland and grassland." Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment 107(2-3): 117-135.
Sundkvist, A., R. Milestad, et al. (2005). "On the importance of tightening feedback loops for
sustainable development of food systems." Food Policy 30(2): 224-239.
Tan, M., X. Li, et al. (2005). "Urban land expansion and arable land loss in China--a case
study of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region." Land Use Policy 22(3): 187-196.
Verburg, P. H., Y. Chen, et al. (2000). "Spatial explorations of land use change and grain
production in China." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 82(1-3): 333-354.
Victor F.S. Sit. (1988). "Introduction: Urbanization and City Development in the Peoples
Republic of China." In: Chinese cities: the growth of the metropolis since 1949, Victor
F.S. Sit., L. Dong et al.(Eds), Oxford University Press, Hong Kong, pp.53-55.

2 0 1
Poster Session
Assessing policy implementation and social networks for sustainable
management of agricultural landscapes in a Japanese urban region

Kazuaki Tsuchiya
1)
and Kazuhiko Takeuchi
2)

1-1-1 Yayoi Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 113-8657, JAPAN
e-mail: aa087103@mail.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp
1-1-1 Yayoi Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 113-8657, JAPAN

Abstract

Agricultural landscapes are providing ecological services in expanded urban regions, thus
protection and establishment of sustainable management system of the landscapes are needed.
We assessed policy implementation and social networks for agricultural landscape
conservation in Japanese urban regions by utilizing multi-scaling approach. In this report, we
present results from survey of conservation of irrigation waterway in Kanazawa urban region
and research framework for assessment of policy and management implementations of
Satoyama in Tokyo urban region. It si also mentioned how our research will contribute to the
formation of sustainable city region in Asia.

Keywords: agricultural landscapes, policy implemantion, sustainable management, social
networks, Japanese urban regions

1. Introduction

Cities have grown with sprawling on past agricultural landscapes, which includes farmlands,
woodlands, irrigation waterways and other landscape elements. These landscapes can be seen
as a part of urban green spaces, which generate a diverse set of values of substantial
significance for human well-being (Geoghegen, 2002). However, those landscapes is loosing
its economic value by fragmentation of parcels or unfavorable effects from urban land uses,
and facing at further development or abandonment of managements. As a consequence, those
values by the agricultural landscapes are loosing in urban regions, thus it is urgently needed to
protect agricultural landscapes and establish its sustainable managements.

Public policies and social networks on management are playing a key role to tackle with those
problems of landscape conservation and management. Public policies are contributing
conservation by public acquisition of land, regulatory approaches, and incentive-based
approaches (Bengston et al., 2003; Nelson and Moore, 1996). Social networks among
stakeholders, or namely social capitals, contribute to solving management labor shortage,
knowledge communication between managers. Social capital can also be important for the
implementation of policies (Libby and Sharp, 2003). However, there is a lack of empirical
evaluations of those public policies (Bengston et al., 2003). Assessment of the policy
2 0 2
Poster Session
implementation is crucial for better conservation of the landscapes, because different policy
may have different environmental impacts (Conway and Lathrop, 2005).

This research performed to assess policy implementation and social networks for agricultural
landscape conservation in a Japanese urban region. Empirical research in conducted by using
actual examples of conservation policy on landscapes and its managers. In this report, we will
explain our basic methodological framework, results from survey of conservation of irrigation
waterway in Kanazawa urban region (Fig. 1), research framework for assessment of policy
and management implementations of Satoyama in Tokyo urban region (Fig. 1), and how our
findings will contribute to the formation of sustainable city regions.

Fig. 1 Map of case study sites

2. Methodological Framework

In this study, we used multi-scaling approach, which is a commonly used in the field of
landscape ecology (Wu, 2004). The multi-scale approach mirrors the hierarchical structure of
administration and management, thus spatiotemporal relationships among landscape elements,
policy implementations and managements within each spatial scale and relationship between
scales are examined. Both quantitative and qualitative data are integrated in each scale, by
using spatial attributes (Fig. 2). Quantitative data includes pattern and change of landscape
elements derived from aerial photographs or topographic maps and other geographic or
statistical datum such as land use maps or agricultural census. Qualitative data contains text
data of governments or interviews to municipal officer, farmers and citizen groups.

Fig. 2 Methodological framework which applied multi-scaling approach
2 0 3
Poster Session
3. Case 1: Conservation policy and management of irrigation waterways in Kanazawa
urban region

To clarify how waterways pattern have changed over time and how conservation policy and
management adapted to the change, we analyzed changes in the waterway system by using
old maps and GIS and conducted literature surveys on the conservation policies of the city
government and semi-structured interviews with the stakeholders of the waterway
management in Kanazawa, Japan. As a result, we found that the cause of the changes differs
by region with the same urbanization background (Fig. 3; Tsuchiya et al., 2007). For the
conservation policy and management, we found three main issues (Tsuchiya and Takeuchi,
2009). Firstly, the conservation policies did not include any measures which support farmers.
Secondly, the management structure was not fully formed among the stakeholders and the
stakeholders have no perspectives to the future. Thirdly, we found a lack of coordination
between conservation policies and current management systems.

Fig. 3 Changes in patters of waterway (left) and land uses (right) in Kanazawa

4. Case 2: Conservation policy and management of Satoyama in Tokyo urban region

To assess the policy implementation and social network on management of Satoyama, we
conduct survey by utilizing multi-scaling approach in Tokyo urban region (Fig. 4). Satoyamas
are defined as secondary woodland and grasslands adjacent to human settlements (Takeuchi,
2003). We used three spatial scales of parcel, municipality and whole urban region (Fig. 4).
We conduct analysis of parcel size and actual amount of working time of each management
activities in parcel scale. In municipality scale, we make analysis of institutional
environments and amount of management of each stakeholder in each municipality. Finally,
we conduct social network analysis of managers in whole urban region to understand
knowledge communication between those managers.

Fig. 4 Framework for the research of Satoyama in Tokyo urban region
2 0 4
Poster Session
5. Towards sustainable city region in Asia

This research is aimed to contribute solving the problem with natural resource in urban
regions from socio-economical aspects. For the natural resource management in urban area,
researches have developed especially in the field of urban forestry in Europe or the United
States. However, Asian and western cities have different patterns of the city forms and
urbanization process from past to present, thus the new planning concepts that respects Asian
contexts are needed (Yokohari et al., 2000). To develop effective policy and social network
for the management of agricultural landscapes in Asian urban regions, further empirical
studies in Asian cities and comparison studies among Asian and western countries is required.

6. References
Bengston, D. N., Fletcher, J.O., Nelson K.C. (2004). Public policies for managing urban
growth and protecting open space: policy instruments and lessons learned in the United
States. Landscape and Urban Planning 69(2-3): 271-286.

Conway, T. M., R. G. Lathrop (2005). Alternative land use regulations and environmental
impacts: assessing future land use in an urbanizing watershed. Landscape and Urban
Planning 71(1): 1-15.

Geoghegan, J. (2002). The value of open spaces in residential land use. Land Use Policy
19(1): 91-98.

Libby, W., Sharp, S. (2003). Land-Use Compatibility, Change, and Policy at the Rural-Urban
Fringe: Insights from Social Capital. Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 85: 1194-1200.

Nelson, A. C., T. Moore (1996). Assessing growth management policy implementation : Case
study of the United States' leading growth management state. Land Use Policy 13(4):
241-259.

Takeuchi, K., (2003) Satoyama landscape as managed nature. In: Takeuchi, K., Brown, R.D.,
Washitani, I., Tsunekawa, A., Yokohari, M. (Eds.), Satoyama: The Traditional Rural
Landscape of Japan. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, pp. 9-16.

Tsuchiya, K., Kano, Y., Takeuchi, K. (2007) Changes in the waterway system as a result of
rapid urbanization in Kanazawa City. Papers on Environmental Information Science, 21,
165-170. (in Japanese with English abstracts)

Tsuchiya, K., Takeuchi, K. (2009) Management systems of waterway networks after the
conservation policy implementation in Kanazawa urban-rural area. Trans. Rural Plann.
in press. (in Japanese with English abstracts)

Wu, J. (2004). Effects of changing scale on landscape pattern analysis: scaling relations.
Landscape Ecology, 19(2): 125-138.

Yokohari M., Takeuchi K., Watanabe T., Yokota S. (2000) Beyond greenbelts and zoning: a
new planning concept for the environment of Asian mega-cities. Landscape and Urban
Planning, 47, 159-171.
2 0 5
Poster Session
A Place for Commons in Extended Urban Spaces?
Community forestry networks and working woodlands in peri-urban Tokyo

Bolthouse, J
1)
, Yokohari M

1) Department of Environmental Studies, the University of Tokyo
Kashiwa-no-ha, Kashiwa Chiba 277-8563 Japan
e-mail: jay@nenv.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
The theme of this workshopsustainable urban/rural interactionsis addressed in this paper
through an examination of satoyama woodland revitalization in peri-urban Tokyo.
Historically, peri-urban woodlands often supplied urban areas with fuel and timber. Currently,
there are efforts to redevelop working peri-urban woodlands through community forestry. A
result of these initiatives is that suburban woodlands are becoming common resources. This
paper identifies a need to investigate processes of resource communalization and develop a
common theoretical language to discuss alternative futures for extended urban spaces. These
tasks are taken up through an analysis of community forestry network formation, operation
and effectiveness in Chiba Prefecture, a suburban area encapsulated within the Tokyo Mega
Region. This case study is part of a larger dissertation which develops theoretical and
practical understandings of neo-commons in woodland revitalization through a triangulation
of community forestry networks in England, New England and Japan. Initial results
demonstrate the importance of hub organizations and suggest that commons have an
important place in reworking extended urban spaces.

Keywords: community forestry, satoyama, working woodlands, neo-commons

1. Introduction

Urban areas have increasingly passed over their productive sub-urban supply zones in favor
of the global market. We now recognize that sustaining and redeveloping flows of exchange
between urban and surrounding rural areas is essential to sustainability. While securing
agricultural supply zones is paramount, woodlands in peri-urban areas also have important
roles to play. Before the proliferation of fossil fuels, many of todays peri-urban woodlands
supplied fuelwood and timber for urban markets. These woodland zones were captured by
von Thunen in his 19
th
century model of peri-urban production shaped by distance to market
(Fig.1). At present, amidst climate change and energy insecurity, as well as increased
recognition of the socio-cultural nature of woodlands (Rotherham 2007), attempts to
redevelop working woodlands in the urban fringe are emerging. However, while von
Thunens rings were produced through market forces, many efforts to restore working
woodlands are developing through community initiatives (Donahue 1999; Takeuchi et al.
2003). Peri-urban woodlands are focal points for these initiatives because of the presence of
both woodland (supply) and people (demand) (Fig.2).

In Japan, peri-urban satoyama woodlands are the focus of woodland revitalization.
Historically, agricultural villages [sato] managed nearby woodlands [yama] as commons to
regulate and produce a steady supply of fuelwood and green fertilizer. With urban growth
from the 17
th
century onwards, peri-urban woodlands were more intensively managed as short
2 0 6
Poster Session
rotation coppice to produce fuel for expanding urban markets (Shirai 2007). Beginning in the
1950s, satoyama woodlands were abandoned as a result of the fuel revolution and many
developed to produce space for urban growth. Yet many satoyama were simply abandoned
and resultantly continue to exist within the peri-urban fabric. Since the 1990s in particular,
citizen-based efforts to conserve, manage and restore satoyama have become prominent
(Takeuchi et al. 2003). Resultantly, as Takeuchi (2003) states, satoyama woodlands are once
again becoming common (p.201). Takeuchi further suggests that common will provide a
new form of resource management in the 21
st
century between the poles of public and private.

This paper takes the idea that satoyama are becoming common as its entry point for two
reasons. First, commons are essential to the redevelopment of working satoyama woodlands.
Satoyama revitalization requires a diverse community of local stakeholders, or what I call
here a community forestry network. The vast majority of satoyama woodlands are highly
fragmented across a patchwork of public and private land, under-managed, and of little
economic value. Moreover, while volunteer management is prominent, it faces many financial
and technical challenges. Thus, while roughly 20% of the Japanese land base is satoyama,
volunteers are only capable of managing an estimated .03% of this area (Tsunekawa 2003a, b).
Revitalization requires that public and private woodlands are recognized and valued as a
common local resource. In some instances, satoyama woodlands can be transferred into
common ownership. However, common ownership alone cannot redevelop working
woodlands. For instance, while it has been suggested that satoyama woodlands can serve as a
biomass resource and reduce local carbon emissions (Yokohari et al. 2006), these schemes
necessitate the formation of a community forestry network of various actorslandowners,
volunteers, government, local business leaderswilling to invest in infrastructure necessary
to develop local woodland supply and demand.

A second reason for selecting commons as an entry point is that, as Takeuchi (2003)
suggests, this concept offers an important alternative path for the future. In his ideas piece
for this workshop, McGee suggests two futures for Asian regions: one, pessimistic and based
on increased vulnerability; the other, more optimistically based on recovering local systems of
consumption/production. Since we aim for the latter, von Thunens rings provide a place to
begin discussion. However, von Thunens rings were formed by market forces of the 19
th

century. Markets of today are more likely to produce vulnerability. In recovering local
systems of production and consumption, commons (i.e. treating land as a common resource
2 0 7
Poster Session
rather than a commodity) are imperative. Commons also provide an alternative and unifying
theoretical language through which to discuss alternative futures for extended urban spaces.

The above discussion suggests the importance of commons and community forestry
networks to woodland revitalization, as well as the importance of commons might play in
general. From this discussion, two important research tasks emerge. The first is to examine
the role that common property resources and community forestry networks play in woodland
revitalization today. This can only be accomplished by examining communalizations; that is,
the processes and institutional frameworks through which formerly private or public resources
become common resources. The second task is to develop practical and theoretical
understanding of these neo-commons through comparative research in different socio-cultural
contexts.

This paper is part of a larger dissertation which takes up these two research tasks by
examining the role of common property resources in woodland revitalization in England, New
England, and Japan. In each of these areas, forest resources have become largely post-
productive, and community forestry networks are developing to revitalize local production
and consumption. My doctoral research examines the formation, operation, and effectiveness
of each of these networks. It is not a strict comparison, but instead a triangulation which
aims to situate each area in relation to the others in order to develop a practical and
theoretical language through which to foster woodland revitalization. Since there is not
adequate space here to present the case studies of England and New England in detail, the
following will focus mainly on community forestry network formation in Japan. However, the
final section will briefly discuss what satoyama revitalization efforts might learn from these
other areas.

This paper examines the formation of neo-common property resources and community
forestry networks in the Toukatsu region of Chiba prefecture, an area encapsulated within the
Tokyo Mega Region (Fig.3). Chiba prefecture the least forested (30%) prefecture in Japan,
and the Toukatsu region is even less forested (10%). However, this is a peri-urban forest zone
where large populations of people are intermixed with fragmented forests. Moreover, the
woodlands in this area are flat satoyama woodlands accessible to recreation and utilization. In
the northern part of the city of Funabashi (Fig.4), two institutional frameworksthe Chiba
Satoyama Act and the Forestry Laware being utilized to produce neo-common property
resources and community forestry networks. The following analysis outlines the formation
and frameworks of these plans as well as their benefits and limitations. The final section
addresses these limitations by briefly introducing community forestry networks in New
England (Massachusetts) and England (South Yorkshire).


To analyze the formation, operation and effectiveness of community forestry networks in
Chiba, this paper draws primarily from the following sources;
1) Government and NPO documents related to group activities and policy formation
2) Ongoing interviews with government officials (Chiba Forestry Division, Toukatsu
Agriculture and Forestry Support Center, and Chiba Satoyama Center) and NPO
members (Coppice Club, Friends of Teganuma Forests, and Chiba Satoyama Trust)
3) Participation in forest planning-related town meetings sponsored by the Toukatsu
Forestry and Agriculture Support Center (Dec. 2008 and Jan. 2009)
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Poster Session


Woodland Conservation
In suburban areas of Japan, woodland and agricultural land conservation begins with the
Urban Planning Law of 1968 which divided cities into Urban Growth Promotion and Urban
Growth Control areas. Northern Funabashi was designated an Urban Control Area and
development in the area was restricted. Although this designation has loopholes, it has
conserved woodland. Another important advance in woodland conservation was the
establishment in 1978 of the 15ha Prefectural Citizens Forest [kenmin-no-mori], the largest
block of continuous forest in the area. In contrast, most other remaining woodlands in the area
are highly fragmented, small, private patches. In 1990, Funabashi City began a program to
contract with landowners to lease smaller woodland plots as Citizens Forests [shimin-no-
mori]. Thus, patches of private woodland in the area have been transferred to public-use.

From 2001-2004, the governor of Chiba Prefecture conducted meetings at every city, town
and village in the prefecture. At these meetings, citizens repeatedly voiced a desire to
conserve satoyama. The result was the establishment of the Satoyama Act (SA: satoyama
jyourei) in 2003. This act aims to revitalize satoyama woodlands through a network of
landowners, citizen volunteers and the prefectural and local governments. It institutionalizes a
framework wherein citizen volunteers contract with woodland owners and the prefecture
recognizes and supports these agreements financially and technically through regional
Agricultural and Forestry Support Centers (Fig.5). Thus, the SA provides a network of
support for citizen-based woodland management. The prefecture also established the Chiba
Satoyama Center (CSC) in 2005 to serve as a hub organization to promote satoyama
management activities in the prefecture. In 2007, the CSC created a Satoyama Info Bank to
link groups interested in satoyama management with woodland owners unable to manage
their property. In northern Funabashi, 7 groups have formed contracts with woodland owners
under the SA. Although these groups receive support from the prefecture, they are similar to
satoyama restoration groups elsewhere. Interviews with government officials reveal the major
limitations of the SA. In the Toukatsu region in particular, high land prices and taxes make
The Chiba Satoyama Act
2 0 9
Poster Session
landowners unwilling to contract with volunteer groups. Since the SA offers little incentive
for landowners, the effectiveness of this act is limited.

The Forestry Law and Coppice Club
Landowners and citizen groups in the Toukatsu area are using other institutional frameworks
to expand the scope of management. A group of 43 landowners formed the Funabashi Forest
Owners Cooperative [funabashi-mori-no-kai] in 2005, assembling 96ha of fragmented
woodland. This cooperative then contracted with an NPOCoppice Clubunder the terms
of the Forestry Law to enact a forest management plan. The Forestry Law provides up to a
40% reduction in taxes to landowners who establish forest management plans. Funabashi
Forest Owners Cooperative funnels a portion of revenue gained from tax reductions to
support the activities of Coppice Club (Fig.6). Similar to other satoyama management
organizations, Coppice Club members are retirees who have taken interest in forest
management. However, there are many differences. Whereas other groups meet twice a
month and manage a small forest plot, Coppice Club meets twice a week and manages an
extensive 96ha of woodland. The activities of Coppice Club are also becoming oriented
towards forest production. The group is beginning to produce logs for shiitake production and
firewood which will be sold at the Prefectural Citizens Forest. It appears that this venue is set
to provide a hub for the group to interface with the public and promote their activities. In
addition, another groupFriends of Teganuma Forestshas recently contracted with
landowners under the Forestry Law to manage woodlands nearby in the well-forested
southwestern area of Kashiwa City.

Limitations of Forest Revitalization in Toukatsu
Participation in town meetings has revealed limits to woodland revitalization in the region.
First, the relationship between landowners and management groups is often ambivalent since
groups receive little input from landowners. The lack of input from landowners makes it
highly difficult to plan for the future of woodlands. Second, citizens have called attention to
the need for a local hub organization. Under the SA, the CSC was established as a hub for
satoyama activities in the prefecture. However, while this organization may serve as a hub for
many activities at the prefectural level, its distance from the Toukatsu region (Fig.3) makes it
difficult to serve as a hub at the regional level. Resultantly, volunteer groups in Toukatsu
remain disconnected. However, the Toukatsu Forestry and Agricultural Support Center is
beginning to serve as a hub between groups. Finally, groups have little means of using woody
biomass produced through their activities. Coppice Club is beginning to produce valuable
firewood and shiitake logs; however, for all groups the goal of woodland revitalization
remains in the distance. These limitations can be addresses by looking at community forestry
networks in England and New England.
2 1 0
Poster Session

Community Forestry Networks in New England and England
Community forests have a long history in New England, stretching back to European
colonization in the 1600s (McCullough 1995). More recently, community forests have been
used as a tool to conserve woodlands from suburbanization. In contrast to Japan, the primary
means of establishing community forests in New England is through outright purchase or
conservation easements. Although, most community forests are not used productively,
Donahue (1999) describes a suburban Boston community that has redeveloped working
woodlands (Fig.7). Beginning in the 1980s, the town government hired an NPO to conduct
forest management, primarily producing fuelwood utilized by local consumers. This small-
scale effort has partly inspired a statewide initiativeWildlands & Woodlandswhich aims
to protect 50% of the state as working woodlands. This is to be accomplished through the
amassing of small, fragmented plots into larger conservation easements to reduce transaction
costs. Plans are to then redevelop local production by establishing woodland councils to serve
as regional hub organizations in establishing productive forestry cooperatives (Foster et al.
2005). Community forestry strategies in New England, in particular the processes of securing
common property and the formation of woodland councils, have obvious relevance to
woodland revitalization in Japan.

In England, woodland conservation has not focused on land acquisition, but on conserving
and redeveloping working woodlands on private and public land (Kirby 2003). Similar to
Japan, many small-scale, local organizations formed to conserve and manage local woodlands.
These efforts were bolstered by the establishment of the Community Forest partnership in
1990. The Countryside Agency established hub organizations in 12 locations throughout the
nation to facilitate social, economic and environmental regeneration through reforestation and
forest management (Countryside Agency 1999). In the Sheffield area, the South Yorkshire
Forest partnership is bringing diverse actors together to revitalize greenspaces in the area.
This organization is pursuing the development of a wood-energy cluster which connects
rural and urban spaces through the development of biomass supply and demand (Fig.8). The
South Yorkshire Forest illustrates the importance of a hub organization devoted to woodland
revitalization as well as the potential generated by a well-funded community forestry network
willing to invest in developing local woodland supply and demand.

4. Conclusions

This paper illustrates the processes through which satoyama woodlands in peri-urban Tokyo
become common resources. The Chiba Satoyama Act and the Basic Forestry Law provide
institutional frameworks through which formerly private woodlands are communalized. In
2 1 1
Poster Session
these neo-common spaces, woodland revitalization is occurring. In particular, the NPO
Coppice Club goes beyond typical volunteer management and the Forestry Law may provide
an institutional framework to extend the scope of volunteer management. The limitations
detailed here exhibit the need for further communalization of woodlands and the development
of stronger community forestry networks. The cases studies of England and New England
briefly introduced illustrate the importance of hub organizations and the need for further
collaborative and comparative studies. These case studies illustrate that neo-commons are
important to woodland revitalization and suggest that neo-commons provides a means to
redevelop urban/rural interactions and establish alternative futures for extended urban spaces.

5. References

Countryside Agency. (1999). Regeneration around cities: the role of Englands Community
Forests. Countryside Agency, Cheltenham.
Donahue, B. (1999). Reclaiming the Commons: Community Farming and Forestry in a New
England Town. New Haven Yale University Press.
Foster, D., Kittredge, D., Donahue, B., Motzkin, G., Orwig, D., Ellison, A., Hall, B., Colburn,
B., & DAmato, D., (2005). Wildlands and Woodlands: A Vision for the Forests of
Masachusetts. Harvard Forest, Harvard University.
Kirby K.J. (2003). Woodland conservation in privately-owned cultural landscapes: the
English experience. Environmental Science & Policy, 6, 253-259.
McCullough, R. (1995). The Landscape of Community: A History of Communal Forests in
New England. Hanover, the University Press of New England.
Rotherham, I. (2007). The implications of perceptions and cultural knowledge loss for the
management of wooded landscapes: A UK case-study. Forest Ecology and
Management, 249, 100-15.
Takeuchi K. (2003). National planning of satoyama landscapes. In Takeuchi, K., Brown, R.D.,
Washitani, I., Tsunekawa, A. and Yokohari, M. (eds.). Satoyama: The Traditional
Rural Landscape of Japan (200-8). Tokyo: Springer-Verlag (pg.9-16).
Takeuchi, K., Brown, R.D., Washitani, I., Tsunekawa, A. and Yokohari, M. (eds.) (2003).
Satoyama: The Traditional Rural Landscape of Japan (200-8). Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.
Tsunekawa, A. (2003a) Transition of satoyama landscapes in Japan. In: Takeuchi K, Brown
RD, Washitani I, Tsunekawa A, Yokohari M (ed) Satoyama the traditional rural
landscape of Japan. Springer, Tokyo, pp 41-51.
Tsunekawa, A. (2003b). Strategic management of satoyama landscapes. In: Takeuchi K,
Brown RD, Washitani I, Tsunekawa A, Yokohari M (ed) Satoyama the traditional
rural landscape of Japan. Springer, Tokyo, pp 179-191.
Yokohari M, Terada T, Tanaka N (2006). Restoring the maintenance of satoyamas by
utilizing harvested organic materials as a biomass resource. In: Patterns and processes
in forest landscapes: consequences of human management. Academia Italiana di
Scienze Forestali pp 327-332.
2 1 2
Poster Session
Transformation of Pasture Landscapes on the Shimousa Plateau 1672- 1862

Mariko MIYAMOTO, and Makoto YOKOHARI

Department of Natural Environmental Studies, The University of Tokyo
Address: 5-1-5, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8563, Japan
e-mail (Miyamoto): mariko@nenv.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp
e-mail (Yokohari): myoko@nenv.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

In recent years, sustainable urban-rural interactions have become a topic of increasing
academic and practical interest. Accordingly the Edo period (1603-1867), an era when
sustainable exchanges between urban and rural constituted the basis of social reproduction in
Japan, is an important object of research. This research examines transformation of
pastureland landscapes of the Shimousa Plateau during Edo era. More specifically, the
following two points are examined; 1) the establishment of government-ruled pasture and 2)
the transformation of pasture landscape structure from 1672 to 1862. The results demonstrate
that pastureland landscapes were transformed during the Edo era in response to growing
demand for fuelwood and charcoal in Edo and a government policy shift towards promoting
the development of coppice woodlands in the middle of the Edo era.

Keywords: pastureland, coppice woodland, picture map Shimousa plateau

1. Introduction

In recent years, sustainable urban-rural interactions have become a topic of increasing
academic and practical interest. Accordingly the Edo period (1603-1867), an era when
sustainable exchanges between urban and rural constituted the basis of social reproduction in
Japan, is an important object of historical research. However, historical records are still
missing of this period and unable to elucidate full disclosure. Especially, land-use and
peoples living in outskirts of Edo have not been examined enough (Watanabe, 1983).

The city of Edo had a population of 150,000 at the beginning of the Edo era (1603). By the
end of the era (1867), the population had expanded to over 1,000,000. This population growth
spurred demand for both charcoal and fuelwood, woodland products used for heating and
cooking throughout the city (Higuchi, 1993). To meet the growing demand for fuel and
charcoal, many villages on the outskirts of Edo, and throughout the Kanto area, increasingly
oriented their forest activities towards supplying Edo with charcoal and fuelwood.

During the Edo period, the Edo government utilized pastures on the outskirts of Edo to train
military horses. These pastures were managed by farmers living adjacent to the pastures
(Education Commission of Kashiwa City, 1995). Due to the growth of demand for fuelwood
in Edo, as well as a persistent lack of finance, the Edo government decided to afforest pasture
areas to produce woodland commodoties that could be sold in Edo. Resultantly, many of the
former grassland landscapes of the Shimousa Plateau were gradually converted to coppice
woodlands.
2 1 3
Poster Session

This research examines processes behind the transformation of pasture landscapes on the
Shimousa plateau.


(1) Study Area
The Edo government established four pastures for training military horses outside of Edo.
This research focuses on Kogane-maki, the pasture located closest to Edo (20-30km) and the
most strongly influenced by Edo governmental power. This pasture was owned by the
government and utilized to train military horses.

(2) Materials and Methods
A. Archival Data Analysis
To understand the establishment of Kogane-maki and pasture management practices, local
historical collections and detailed city histories were surveyed.

B. Historical Pictorial Map Analysis
To examine the transformation of pasturelands during the Edo era (1603-1867), land use of
pasture was surveyed with the following pictorial maps. 1) Kogane-maki Shuhennoezu (1672),
2) Kogane-maki Jissokuzu (1722), 3) Kogane-maki Oezu (1787-1793) 4) Kogane-maki Ezu
(1862). I showed details of each historical maps in table1. Land-use types were extracted from
these maps and verified with local historical collections and previous research (Fig.4).

Fig.2 Location of government pasture
Fig.1 Location of Kanto area
Fig.3 Location of Kogane-maki
Table1. Historical Picture Maps
Name of Maps Year Brief Summary of Maps
Kogane-maki Shuhennoezu
(Kanbunzu)
1672
Kogane-maki Shuhennoezu (Kanbunzu) is the oldest map of Kogane-maki made for
promoting development of new field in the pasture. This map is made to clarify boader the
boarder between pasture and neighbor villages.
Nakano-maki Ipponkunugi-maki
Shimono-maki zu (Kyohozu)
1722
Nakano-maki Ipponkunugi-maki Shimono-maki zu (Kyohozu) was made by Mokunoshin
Komiyama who was local governor. He examined to grasp how many new fields were
developed inside of pasture.
Kogane-maki Oezu (Kanseizu) 1787-1793
Kogane-maki Oezu (Kanseizu) was made to grasp pasture land use for superintendents to
manage pasture easier and to promote to afforest Ohayashi [lord's woodland] in the pasture.
Kogane-maki Ezu (Bunkyu-zu) 1862
Kogane-maki Ezu (Bunkyu-zu) was found in recent years. The purpose of making this map is
not yet
2 1 4
Poster Session
3. Results and Discussion

(1) Establishment of Government-Ruled Pasture
Before the early modern era, vast grasslands covered the Shimousa Plateau. In the beginning
of the Edo era, the government established four pastures Kogane-maki (1596-1614),
Sakura-maki (1596-1614), Mineoka-maki (1716), Ashitaka-maki (1789-1800) to train
military horses in the suburban area of Edo city.

The government entrusted oversight of these pastures to superintendents who were required to
patrol and manage pasturelands. The superintendents ordered farmers living adjacent to
pasturelands to take care of horses and repair noumayokedote [banks] and noumayokebori
[mounds] which were used to prevent horses from coming into farm villages. In addition,
from the beginning of the middle of Edo period, farmers were also ordered to manage
woodlands inside the pastures. Through these responsibilities, neighboring villages and
pasturelands became more inter-connected.

Since Kogane-maki was located closest to Edo, it was strongly influenced by government
power as well as the resource demands of the growing urban populous (Shirai, 2004). Four
pictorial maps of Kogane-maki produced during the Edo period provided a means of
examining the transformation of pastoral landscapes during this period.

(2) Transformation of Pastoral Landscape and Government Policy
Table 2 details land-use types extracted from the four pictorial maps. Land cover and
utilization for land-use types was analyzed using local historical collections and detailed city
histories.

a) Kogane-maki land use in 1672
In 1672, Kogane-maki extended across much of the northwestern Shimousa plateau and was
bordered by several villages. During this era, there were three main land-use types in the
pasture; 1) grasslands, 2) grasslands with shrubs, and 3) woodlands. Noumatateba [horse-
standing-place] were used for grazing horses. Unjyono [temporary grassland] were used
both for grazing horses and by neighboring farmers for temporary meadows. While ohayashi
Table.2 Land use of Kogane-maki in 1672 to 1862
Name of map Year Name of land use pasture facility land cover utilization
Kogane-maki Shuhennoezu
(Kanbunzu)
1672 Noumatateba [horse standing place] grassland with shrub grazing land
Unjyono, Sosenba, Yasenba [temporal grassland] grassland with shrub grazing land and temporaly meadow
Ohayashi [Lord's woodland] woodland fuelwood forest
Uchino [inner temporal grassland] grassland with shrub temporary meadow in a village
Iriaichi [commons] temporary meadow between villages
Kaido [road] road
Nakano-maki Ipponkunugi-maki
Shimono-maki zu (Kyohozu)
1722 Noumatateba [horse standing place] grassland with shrub grazing land
Noumairiba [woodland allowing horses to rest] woodland rest space for horses and fuelwood forest for farmers
Hyakushorin [farmer's woodland] woodland fuelwood forest
Sosenba, Yasenba [tempiral grassland] grassland with shrub
Noumayokedote [bank] bank and moat
boarder between pasturelands and villages. These prevent
horses to come into farmlands and also fovernment manage
horses in the pasturelands.
Tokkome [bank] bank
Kaido [road] road
Kogane-maki Oezu (Kanseizu) 1787-1793 Noumatateba [horse standing place] grassland with shrub grazing land
Tokkome [bank] bank corral to turn in horses
Kido [gate] gate gate between pasture and villages
Mizunomiba [watering place] spring water place for horses
Kaido [road] road
Kogane-maki Ezu (Bunkyu-zu) 1862 Noumatateba [horse standing place] grassland with shrub grazing land
Tokkome [bank] bank corral to turn in horses
Kido [gate] gate gate between pasture and villages
Mizunomiba [watering place] spring water place for horses
Kaido [road] road

Poster Session

[Lords forest] had already been created by the government, they were not utilized as coppice
woodland. Until this time, the borders between pastures and neighboring villages were
obscure. Thus, the purpose behind making the making of the 167s pictorial map (Kogane-
maki Shuhen Noezu) was to set a firm border between governmental pastures and neighboring
villages (Amagai, 2003).

b) Kogane-maki land-use in 1722
By 1722, the total area of Kogane-maki had been reduced through the development of new
fields inside of the pasture. At this time, new land-use types appeared. Many mounds
[noumayokedote] and moats [noumebori] were constructed at this time to prevent horses from
coming into farm villages. Noumairiba [wooded-resting-places] were also constructed at
this time. The government allowed farmers to construct noumairiba on the pasture to create
coppice woodland. Thus, a secondary purpose of noumairiba was to create fuelwoods and
charcoal which could be sold in Edo (Shirai, 2004).

c) Kogane-maki land-use in 1787-1793
From 1787 to 1793, kido, gates used by farmers to enter from village into pasture, started to
be described in the pictorial maps. In addition, mizunomiba, watering places also began to be
described. We can also determine that the number of ohayashi [Lords forest] and noumairiba
were increasing during this era. At this time, demand for fuelwood and charcoal in Edo
started to increase and, since the government also faced financial pressure, the government
decided to afforest ohayashi in the pasture to sell wood products in Edo (Shirai, 2007).
Fig.4Land use diagram of Kogane-maki in 1672 (top) and Land use diagram of Kogane-maki in 1862 (bottom)
2 1 6
Poster Session

d) Kogane-maki land-use in 1862
In 1862, no new land-uses were added to Kogane-maki ezu; however, the area of ohayashi
[Lords forest] was increasing. Until the end of the Edo era, the government continued to
promote the creation of ohayashi in the pasture. From the mid-to-late Edo era, the government
continued to manage pasture as grazing land for horses and as a production site for fuelwood
and charcoal to sell in Edo (Shirai, 2007).

4. Conclusions

During the Edo era, the government established pastures to raise military horses on the
outskirts of Edo city. The closest pastureKogane-makiwas located right outside Edo on
the Shimousa Plateau. The landscape of this pasture was changed dramatically during the Edo
era as a result of growing demand for fuelwood and charcoal in Edo and the governments
policy shift towards promoting coppice woodland creation beginning in the middle of the Edo
era (Fig.4). This research elucidated the transformation processes of pastureland landscape
related to population expansion and growth of fuel wood and charcoal demand in Edo.

In the previous research, pasturelands were managed by superintendents nominated by
government and neighboring villages in general, however those researches have not focused
on secular change of pasturelands land-use. This research focused on transformation pastoral
landscape during Edo era and found that it had been changed from grasslands to coppice
woodlands dynamically.

5. References

Amagai M., 2003. Kogane-maki Ezu kara Miru Kamagayashiiki no Hensen, Education
Commission of Kamagaya City, no16, 1-26 (in Japanese)
Education Commission of Kashiwa City, 1995. History of Kashiwa City Ancient Period
Gyosei, Tokyo, 411-474 (in Japanese)
Education Commission of Matsudo City, 1978. History of Matsudo City Ancient Period
Matsudo City, 400-432 (in Japanese)
Higuchi K., 1993. Kinsei Mokutan no Seisan, Nihon Mokutanshi, Kodansha, 146-502 (in
Japanese)
Shirai Y. 2004. Kyohoki no Shimousa Daichi ni okeru Hayashibata Kaihatsu no Igi
Kogane-maki (Nakano-maki) wo Jireini- Annuals of the Geography, 45(2), 80-94 (in
Japanese)
Shirai Y., 2007. Shimousa Daichi no Maki to Shuhen ni okeru Shintanrinka Kanseiki ikou
no Henyo- History of Geography, 49(2), 1-21 (in Japanese)
Wanatabe Z., 1983. Toshi to Noson no Aida Toshi Kinko Nogyoshiron, Showado prints,
1-31 (in Japanese)

Poster Session
Woody biomass utilization in urban-rural mixed land-use areas:
Strategies to sustainably manage satoyama woodlands

Toru TERADA and Makoto YOKOHARI

Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8561, Japan
e-mail (Terada): tera@nenv.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp
e-mail (Yokohari): myoko@k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

Confronted with global climate change and steadily rising energy costs, the formation of a
low carbon society has become imperative. In this endeavor, utilization of biomass from
abandoned satoyama woodlands and other urban green spaces has an important role to play.
Maintenance of satoyama woodlands and other urban greenspace serves to fix carbon (CO2),
while also providing woody biomass, an essentially carbon neutral alternative energy source.
In this study, we estimate the amount of carbon fixation and reduction in Kashiwa city, a
suburban area of Tokyo based on three maintenance scenarios; a) carbon fixation, b)
biomass utilization and carbon fixation, and c) intensive biomass utilization. Since
various types of biomass resources are found in suburban areas, we assumed a mixed biomass
utilization scenario which takes advantage of scale and enables cost-savings. Our results
indicate that a total of 6,000-6,500 CO2-t could be fixed and reduced. In addition, we found
that the different maintenance scenarios had negligible effect on the outcomes. The results of
this research provide critical insight into how satoyama woodlands and other urban green
space maintenance planning might not only enhance carbon fixation, but also reduce carbon
emissions if appropriate woody biomass utilization methods can be implemented.

Keywords: woody biomass, Low Carbon Society , satoyama woodlands, urban green space

1. Introduction

Mitigating climate change has become essential for countries throughout the world. The
cabinet office of Japan authorized the kankyo-model toshi in 2008 which means advanced
cities for mitigating climate change. These model cities are envisioned as leaders that will
provide concrete examples of how can reduce carbon emissions. In this plan, some cities are
pursuing woody biomass utilization as a means of carbon reduction. In addition, woody
biomass utilization would contribute not only to carbon reduction, but also connect urbanized
areas with rural areas through urban heat demand and rural woody biomass supply.

Mosaic urban-rural land-use patterns are a common phenomenon in fringe areas of Asian
mega cities. This mosaic is often seen as the result of inadequate land-use control. However,
when compared with densely populated urban areas or depopulated rural areas, mixed land-
use desakota patterns are advantageous to the development of small-scale, low energy woody
biomass supply-demand systems. The development of effective biomass systems would
contribute to the reduction of carbon emissions.
2 1 8
Poster Session
Satoyama woodlands, a substantial woody biomass resource, are important landscape
elements in suburban areas (Takeuchi et al. 2003). Historically, agricultural villages [sato]
utilized woodlands [yama] to obtain firewood and green fertilizers. However, as a result of the
introduction of fossil fuels, satoyama woodlands were devalued and many developed into
residential areas. At present, remaining satoyama woodlands are simply abandoned, a
condition which results in the loss of scenic beauty, recreational potential, and bio-diversity
(ex. Ministry of environment 2008). Revaluing satoyama as a carbon-lean alternative energy
source would provide an incentive to manage these woodlands and, thus, also contribute to
the realization of diverse, multifunctional values stemming from management.

To effectively implement biomass utilization systems, the high cost of developing these
systems is a problem that needs to be resolved through cost-saving strategies. One important
strategy is to develop mixed various woody biomass utilization systems which, as Matsumura
et al, 2005 demonstrate, can enable cost-savings. In addition, other woody biomass, for
instance construction waste or biomass obtained from greenspace maintenance, is not
effectively used at present and presents another potential source of biomass and cost-savings
(Komiyama et al. 2003). Finally, urban-rural mixed land-use patterns also have potential to
increase the economic viability of developing comprehensive woody biomass utilization
schemes.

To provide evidence as to the viability of biomass utilization, we must first determine the
extent to which a comprehensive woody biomass utilization system would contribute to
carbon reduction. There is of course a trade-off between carbon fixation by green space
maintenance and carbon reduction through woody biomass utilization. Thus, to accurately
estimate carbon reduction, carbon fixation and carbon reduction have to be evaluated in
tandem.

In this study, we estimate the amount of carbon fixation and reduction in Kashiwa city, a
suburban city located approximately 30km northeast of central Tokyo (fig.1), through three
different maintenance scenarios; a) carbon fixation, b) biomass utilization and carbon
fixation, and c) intensive biomass utilization. This estimation is important to reply the
question; can comprehensive woody biomass utilization in suburban areas contribute to
carbon reduction and provide an incentive to manage satoyama woodlands?

fig.1 green space distribution and photo in the study area
2 1 9
Poster Session

The procedure for estimation is showed in fig.2. First, we classified green spaces in the study
area into eight categories. Satoyama woodlands were classified into four categories based on
vegetation. Urban greenspaces were also classified into four categories based on land-cover
(table.2). Next, we estimated canopy area for all green spaces by utilizing recent air photos
(City of Kashiwa 2007). We estimated the amount of carbon fixation and harvested biomass
for three different management scenarios as shown in table.1. Carbon fixation and harvested
biomass estimates for urban greenspaces were set using Nakamura et al. (2000) and Ichimura
(2006). For satoyama woodlands, Yokohari et al (2006) was applied. The total amount of
carbon fixation and obtained biomass for each scenario was then estimated based on the total
area of greenspaces and satoyama woodland.

To test comprehensive woody biomass utilization scenarios, we estimated the amount of
industrial woody biomass that is not effectively used at present by applying Murata et al.
(2006). Comprehensive scenarios were established as shown in fig.3. These scenarios aim to
enhance the efficiency of generating bioenergy by selecting different technologies according
to the percentage of water content and connecting appropriate energy demand in the area. The
energy transformation rate of each technology is cited from NEDO (2005), and carbon
emission reductions from the substitution of fossil fuels are set as 0.357kg-CO2/kWh for
electricity and 69.3g-CO2/MJ for heat energy (Ministry of Environment, 2002).

fig.2 diagram for estimation

table.2 basic units of obtained woody biomass and carbon fixation
A
carbon fixation
B
fixation and utilization
C
biomass utilization
deciduous broad-leaved forest 399 0.75 / 1.58 1.36 / 0.73 2.39 / 0.52
evergreen broad-leaved forest 402 0 / 2.70 0 / 2.70 0 / 2.70
cedar plantation 152 0.44 / 2.83 0.74 / 1.62 1.39 / 0.74
pine plantation 17.9 0.41 / 2.56 0.70 / 1.26 1.23 / 0.41
park and greenway 89.5 0.98 / 5.36 1.95 / 3.58 2.93 / 1.79
roadside tree 17.1 0.94 / 5.15 1.87 / 3.43 2.81 / 1.72
garden in facility 110 1.19 / 6.57 2.39 / 4.38 3.58 / 2.19
household garden 349 0.26 / 1.40 0.51 / 0.94 0.77 / 0.47
category
s
a
t
o
y
a
m
a
w
o
o
d
l
a
n
d
s
u
r
b
a
n

g
r
e
e
n
s
p
a
c
e
s
basic unit
obtained woody biomass dry-t/hayr/carbon fixation t-CO
2
/hayr
canopy
area
ha

A
(carbon fixation)
C
(biomass
utilization)
B
(fixation and
utilization)
satoyama woodlands urban green space
15% tree thinning
(20yr interval)
30% tree thinning
(20yr interval)
clear-cutting
(20yr interval for coppice
40yr interval for plantation)
25% pruning per year
compared to
one year growth
compared to
one year growth
compared to
one year growth
table.1 three maintenance schemes

area of each
green space
basic units for
obtained biomass
and carbon fixation
amounts of carbon fixation and
obtained biomass by maintenance
three maintenance
scenarios
total amount of carbon fixation and
carbon reduction by biomass utilization
comprehensive woody
biomass utilization

Poster Session

fig.3 diagram of comprehensive woody biomass utilization


table.3 generated energy and carbon reduction by mixed woody biomass utilization

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
CHP electricity
CHP heat
pellet (heat)
carbon fixation
t-CO
2
/yr
A
fixation
B
fixation and
utilization
C
utilization

fig.4 total carbon reduction based on three scenarios

Table.3 shows substantial generated energy and carbon reduction by mixed woody biomass
utilization. In total, approximately 2,500-3,900 dry-t/yr of woody biomass could be collected
and transformed into energy to meet the needs of approximately 1,800-3,300 households. In
addition, approximately 2,600-4,100 CO2-t/yr could be reduced if mixed woody biomass
utilization is implemented.

Fig.4 shows the total amount of carbon reduction. The graph indicates that a total of 6,000-
6,500 CO2-t/yr could be fixed and reduced. In addition, we found that the different scenarios
had negligible effect on the outcomes. These results support the hypothesis that
pellet
electricity heat heat
A 617 877 346 -
B 715 1,017 561 -
C 814 1,158 1,288 -
A 679 1,347 532 2,558
B 787 1,561 861 3,209
C 896 1,778 1,444 4,118
generated energy
households/yr
maintenance
carbon reduction
t-CO2/yr
total
CHP

Poster Session
comprehensive woody biomass utilization in suburban areas can contribute to carbon
reduction if carbon fixation is counted together.

4. Conclusions

The implementation of a comprehensive biomass management and utilization scenario would
allow the city of Kashiwa to surpass its recently set carbon reduction goals for the categories
of energy introduction and forest management (City of Kashiwa, 2008). Management and
utilization of woody biomass resources in Kashiwa would cover 240-430% of the goal for
new energy introduction and exceed the forest management goal by 130%-150%.

Thus, woody biomass utilization can effectively contribute to carbon reduction. Accordingly,
the development of comprehensive woody biomass utilization systems has potential to
promote the management of abandoned satoyama woodlands in mixed land-use suburban
areas. If we plan to develop sustainable futures based on the mosaic patterns found in fringe
areas of Asian mega cities, woody biomass utilization, and its potential to reduce carbon,
could play an important role in reviving sustainable management of fragmented woodlands.

5. References

City of Kashiwa. (2008). Strategic planning for the mitigating climate change, city of
Kashiwa, Kashiwa. (in Japanese)
Ichimura, K. (2006). Study of estimation of atmospheric CO2 storage of urban green spaces
based on tree-crown-covered area. In: Journal of the Japanese Institute of Landscape
Architecture vol.69 no.5, 613-616. (in Japanese with English abstract)
Komiyama, H., Sakoda, A. and Matsumura, Y. ed. (2003). Biomass Nippon for reviving
Japan, Nikkan industrial newspaper company, Tokyo, pp252. (in Japanese)
Matsumura, Y. et al. (2005). Utilization of Japanese forest Investigation of the local
economy system based on co-treatment waste of biomass. In: Journal of the Japan
Institute of Energy, vol.84, 985-989. (in Japanese with English abstract)
Ministry of Environment. (2002). The results in estimation method of GHG emission,
Ministry on Environment, Tokyo, pp44. (in Japanese)
Ministry of environment. (2008). The third national strategy for the conservation of biological
diversity. Ministry of the environment, Tokyo. (in Japanese)
Murata, K., Ikami, Y. and Tonosaki, M. (2006). Estimate of material recycling flow in the
Japanese wood industry. In: Bulletin of FFPRI, vol.5 no.1, 85-91.
Nakamura, Y., Nojima, Y., Okada, J., Yanai, S. and Maruta, Y. (2000). Estimation of CO2
sequestration in residential district in Matsudo city of Chiba prefecture. In: Journal of
the Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture vol.63 no.5, 539-542. (in Japanese
with English abstract)
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization. (2005). Guidebook for
the utilization of bioenergy, NEDO, Tokyo, pp252. (in Japanese)
Takeuchi, K., Brown, R.D, Washitani, I., Tsunekawa. A., and Yokohari, M. (2003). Satoyama
the traditional rural landscape of Japan. Springer, Tokyo, pp229.
Yokohari, M., Terada, T. and Tanaka, N. (2006). Restoring the maintenance of satoyamas by
utilizing harvested organic materials as a biomass resource. In: Patterns and processes
in forest landscapes: consequences of human management. Academia Italiana di
Scienze Forestali pp 327-332.

Poster Session
Evaluation of Environmental Burden in Cascade Recycling
of Plastic Containers and Packaging Wastes in Japan

Asako Okuno

Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
okuno@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
I calculated environmental burden in cascade recycling of plastic containers and packaging
wastes in Japan by using life cycle assessment (LCA). In particular, I compared
environmental burden of cascade recycling that is feedstock recycling or energy recovery of
recycled single resin produced by mechanical recycling to no cascade recycling that is only
feedstock recycling or energy recovery of plastic wastes. The results demostrated that energy
consumption and carbon dioxide emission on the cascade recycling is lower than that on the
no cascade recycling.

Keywords: plastic containers and packaging wastes, cascade recycling, life cycle assessment
(LCA)

1. Introduction
1-1. Containers and packaging recycling system
Law for Promotion of Sorted Collection and Recycling of Containers and Packaging
(Containers and Packaging Recycling Law) was enacted in 1995 in Japan. This law is an
epoch-making law in which Extended Producer Responsibility is taken and sets out for
businesses who make or use containers and packaging to recycle the containers and packaging
wastes. Before the law was enacted, municipalities had responsibility for treatment of the
wastes. This law shifted part of the responsibility from municipalities to businesses.
Figure 1 shows containers and packaging recycling system. In Japan, municipalities collect
containers and packaging waste; i.e., steel cans, aluminum cans, paper cartons, corrugated
fiberboard, glass bottles, PET bottles, paper containers and packaging, and plastic containers
and packaging. Businesses have to fulfill their recycling obligation of glass bottles, PET
bottles, paper containers and packaging, and plastic containers and packaging they made or
used. But they dont have to perform a
recycling obligation of steel cans, aluminum
cans, paper cartons, and corrugated fiberboard
because they are sold to recyclers. The major
recycling route is the route via the designated
body. The route is that The Japan Containers
and Packaging Recycling Association recycles
the containers and packaging wastes in place of
businesses when businesses pay the recycling
costs to The Association. Recyclers submit bids
for containers and packaging wastes collected
by municipalities. That is to say, recyclers
recycle the wastes collected by municipalities
Fig. 1 Containers and packaging
recycling system in Japan
2 2 3
Poster Session
with the money businesses pay.

1-2. Plastic contnainers and packaging wastes recycling
in Japan
Figure 2 shows ratio of recycling costs businesses pay in
2007. 95.3% of recycling costs businesses pay is paid for
the plastic containers and packaging wastes.
Plastic containers and packaging specified by this
containers and packaging recycling system are plastic
containers and packaging other than PET bottles and
foamed polystyrene trays. They include polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate,
and polyvinylchloride. In the plastic wastes recycling, the
system permits only mechanical recycle and feedstock recycle (coal materials substitute for
the coke oven, gasification, blast furnace reducing agent, and liquefaction), and mechanical
recycle takes precedence of feedstock recycle at closing bid. The mechanical recycling is
divided in two. The first is mechanical recycling producing mixed resin. In this recycling,
polyolefin (that is polyethylene and polypropylene) mixed resin is produced and among
registered mechanical recyclers in 2007, 92% recyclers produce the mixed resin. However,
this resin is bad quality and application is limited. The second is mechanical recycling
producing single resin. In this recycling, single resin, for example, high-density polyethylene,
low-density polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate is
produced and 8% recyclers produce the single resin.

1-3. Objectives
Mechanical recycling makes plastics from plastics, so it enables to use plastics as plastics
many times. A few recyclers produce single resin that is good quality, but there are no
research taking these into consideration. So this is my study objective; comparison of
environmental burden in cascade recycling of plastic containers and packaging wastes in
Japan. In this study, I use Life Cycle
Assessment.

2. Evaluation methodology
2-1. Scenarios setting
I compared environmental burden of two
pairs of four scenarios. One scenario is
feedstock recycling of recycled single
resin produced by mechanical recycling,
and the scenario is called single resin
MR+FR scenario. The other scenario is
feedstock recycling of plastic wastes,
and the scenario is called FR scenario.
In the same way, about energy recovery
I compared environmental burden of two
scenarios. One scenario is energy
recovery of recycled single resin
produced by mechanical recycling, and
the scenario is called single resin
MR+ER scenario. The other scenario is
Plastic
PET bottles
Glass bottles
Paper
Fig. 2 Ratio of recycling costs
businesses pay
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
Resource
FR(ER)
4)
100
77
Mechanical
recycling
Recycled
resin
Recycled
resin
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron, coke etc.
manufacturing
Residue
77
23
1)
2)
5)
3)
6)
7)
8)
Virgin
resin
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
FR(ER)
Plastic
manufacturing
9)
10)
11)
14)
13)
12)
100
77R
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Virgin
resin
Resource
77R
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
Resource
FR(ER)
4)
100
77
Mechanical
recycling
Recycled
resin
Recycled
resin
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron, coke etc.
manufacturing
Residue
77
23
1)
2)
5)
3)
6)
7)
8)
Virgin
resin
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
FR(ER)
Plastic
manufacturing
9)
10)
11)
14)
13)
12)
100
77R
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Virgin
resin
Resource
77R
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
Resource
FR(ER)
4)
100
77
Mechanical
recycling
Recycled
resin
Recycled
resin
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron, coke etc.
manufacturing
Residue
77
23
1)
2)
5)
3)
6)
7)
8)
Virgin
resin
Plastic
wastes
Collection &
compaction
FR(ER)
FR(ER)
Plastic
manufacturing
9)
10)
11)
14)
13)
12)
100
77R
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Pig iron,
coke etc.
Virgin
resin
Resource
77R
Single resin MR+FR scenario and single resin
MR+ER scenario
FR scenario and ER scenario
Fig. 3 Scenarios

Poster Session
energy recovery of plastic wastes, and the scenario is called ER scenario.
Figure 3 shows scenarios, and these on a dotted line are single resin MR+FR scenario and
single resin MR+ER scenario, and these under the line are FR scenario and ER scenario. In
single resin MR+FR scenario or single resin MR+ER scenario, plastic containers and
packaging wastes collected and compacted by municipalities are transported to factories for
mechanical recycling and recycled single resin is produced. Residue from the factories is
transported for feedstock recycling or energy recovery. The recycled resin after use is also
transported for feedstock recycling or energy recovery. In FR scenario or ER scenario, plastic
wastes are transported for feedstock recycling or energy recovery, no mechanical recycling.
And in order to match amount of plastic resin, in these scenarios virgin resin is produced from
resource. However, recycled resin is worse quality than virgin one. So in FR scenario or ER
scenario, virgin resin that is equal to amount of recycled resin multiplied by substitution
factor is produced. In order to match amount of products produced by feedstock recycling or
energy recovery, in single resin MR+FR scenario or single resin MR+ER scenario, they are
produced by resource.
Evaluation items are energy consumption, carbon dioxide emission, and fossil resource
consumption.

2-2. Recycled resin produced by mechanical recycling
Plastic wastes collected by municipalities include variety of plastics. In single resin MR+FR
scenario and single resin MR+ER scenario, five single resins are produced by mechanical
recycling, in particular, high-density polyethylene, low-density polyethylene, polypropylene,
polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate. They are respectively 15%, 16%, 16%, 21%, and
8%. In FR scenario and ER scenario, mixed resin of polyolefin is produced by mechanical
recycling.

2-3. Feedstock recycling & energy recovery
Feedstock recycling means four methods of coal materials substitute for the coke oven,
gasification, blast furnace reducing agent, and liquefaction. Energy recovery means two
methods of RPF and cement kiln. In coal materials substitute for the coke oven, blast furnace
reducing agent, RPF, and cement kiln, plastic wastes are used as coal, in gasification as
ammonia, and in liquefaction as oil.

2-4. Substitution factor of recycled resin
Substitution factor is defined as substitution ratio between virgin resin and recycled resin. For
example, when a plastic pallet is produced, virgin polypropylene needs 7.5 kg, but recycled
mixed resin needs 20 kg. That is to say, 1 kg of recycled mixed resin is equivalent to 0.375 kg
of virgin resin. So substitution factor of recycled mixed resin is calculated to be 37.5%.
I cannot obtain the data of the other resin related substitution factor, so I set three cases of
substitution factor. In the first case, the factor of all resin is 100% and it means the quality of
recycled resin is equal to that of virgin one. In the second case, when R is substitution factor
and x is recycled resin price divided by virgin resin price, relation between R and x is
represented by the
expression R equal
0.672 multiplied by x
plus 0.328. This is
straight line passing
through coordinates
(1.00, 1.00) and
HDPE LDPE PP PS PET
Virgin resin price[Yen/kg] 131 169 153 138 222
Recycled resin price(median)[Yen/kg] 45 30 30 55 22.5
=recycledreclo/vlrgloreclo) 0.34 0.18 0.20 0.40 0.10
Table 1 Virgin resin price and recycled resin price
Virgin resin price: Yearbook of Chemical Industry Statistics 2006
Recycled resin price: hearing with mechanical recycling factory

Poster Session
coordinates (0.07, 0.375). Coordinates (1.00, 1.00) mean the quality of recycled resin is equal
to that of virgin one when recycled resin price is same amount as virgin one. And in the last
case, R equal x. Table 1 shows virgin resin price, recycled resin price, and x. Figure 4
shows three cases of substitution factor of five recycled resin and point of recycled mixed
resin.

3-1. Energy consumption (MR+FR, FR)
Figure 5 shows energy consumption per kg-plastic
wastes on single resin MR+FR scenario and FR
scenario. Energy consumption on single resin MR+FR
scenario is lower than that on FR scenario. This is
mainly because energy consumption of mechanical
recycling of plastic wastes on single resin MR+FR
scenario is lower than that of production of virgin resin
from resource on FR scenario, blue squares. The
smaller substitution factor is, the smaller difference
between consumption of two scenarios is.

3-2. Energy Consumption
(MR+ER, ER)
Figure 6 shows energy
consumption per kg-plastic
wastes on single resin MR+ER
scenario and ER scenario. As in
the case of feedstock recycling,
energy consumption on single
resin MR+ER scenario is lower
that on ER scenario. The smaller
substitution factor is, the smaller difference between consumption of two scenarios is.

3-3. CO
2
emission (MR+FR, FR)
Figure 7 shows carbon dioxide emission per kg-plastic wastes on single resin MR+FR
scenario and FR scenario. Carbon dioxide emission on single resin MR+FR scenario is lower
than that on FR scenario. This is also mainly because carbon dioxide emission of mechanical
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x
R
Recycled
mixed resin
(0.07, 0.375)
R=100%
R=0.672x0.328
R=x
R=100%
R=0.672x0.328
R=x
PET
LDPE
PP
HDPE
PS
R: substitution factor
x: recycled resin price/virgin
resin price
Fig. 4 Three cases of substitution factor of recycled resin
0
35
70
105
140
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
[
M
J
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
14)
13)
11)+12)
10)
9)
7)+8)
4)+6)
3)+5)
2)
1)
Fig. 5 Energy consumption per kg-plastic wastes
14) FR of virgin resin
13) Transport of postconsumer recycled resin to FR factories
11)+12)Production of virgin resin from resource
10) FR of plastic wastes
9) Transport from compaction facilities to FR factories
7)+8) Production of pig iron, coke etc. from resource
4)+6) FR of plastic wastes
3)+5) Transport of postconsumer recycled resin to FR factories
2) MR of plastic wastes
1) Transport from compaction facilities to FR factories

Poster Session
recycling of plastic wastes on single resin MR+FR
scenario is lower than that of production of virgin resin
from resource on FR scenario. The smaller substitution
factor is, the smaller difference between consumption of
two scenarios is.

3-4. CO
2
emission (MR+ER, ER)
Figure 8 shows carbon dioxide emission on single resin
MR+ER scenario and ER scenario. As in the case of
feedstock recycling, carbon dioxide emission on single
resin MR+ER scenario is lower than that on ER scenario.
The smaller substitution factor is, the smaller difference
between consumption of two scenarios is.

3-5. Fossil resource consumption (Case 2)
Figure 9 shows fossil resource consumption, from the
left, coal consumption, oil consumption, and gas
consumption. About electricity, I added fossil resource
consumed by electricity production. Coal consumption
on single resin MR+FR scenario and single resin
MR+ER scenario is respectively 27% and 4% of that on
FR scenario and ER scenario. This is because in coal
materials substitute for the coke oven and blast furnace
reducing agent of feedstock recycling and energy
recovery plastic wastes are used as alternatives to coal.
Naphtha is not consumed on single resin MR+FR
scenario and single resin MR+ER scenario, because it is
consumed when virgin resin is produced from resource.
NGL (natural gas liquid) and city gas consumption on
single resin MR+FR scenario and single resin MR+ER
scenario are higher than FR scenario and ER scenario.
NGL is consumed when electricity is produced, and
electricity consumption on mechanical recycling is large.
City gas is feedstock of ammonia produced by
gasification.

0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
[
k
g
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
[
L
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
crude oil
heavy oil
light oil
naphtha
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
[
k
g
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
NGL
LPG
city gas
Fig. 9 Coal consumption & oil consumption & gas consumption
0
35
70
105
140
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
[
M
J
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
14)
13)
11)+12)
10)
9)
7)+8)
4)+6)
3)+5)
2)
1)
Fig. 6 Energy consumption
per kg-plastic wastes
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
M
R
+
F
R
F
R
[
k
g
-
C
O
2
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
14)
13)
11)+12)
10)
9)
7)+8)
4)+6)
3)+5)
2)
1)
Fig. 7 CO
2
emission per
kg-plastic wastes
Fig. 8 CO
2
emission per
kg-plastic wastes
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
M
R
+
E
R
E
R
[
k
g
-
C
O
2
/
k
g
-
p
l
a
s
t
i
c
]
14)
13)
11)+12)
10)
9)
7)+8)
4)+6)
3)+5)
2)
1)
2 2 7
Poster Session
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, on cascade recycling scenarios of feedstock recycling or energy recovery of
postconsumer recycled resin produced by mechanical recycling, energy consumption, carbon
dioxide emission, and oil consumption is lower than on no mechanical recycling scenario.

5. References

Japan Environmental Management Association For Industry (2008). JLCA-LCA database

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2006). Yearbook of Chemical Industry Statistics

Plastic Waste Management Institute (2006). Plastic containers and packaging no syori ni
kansuru eco kouritsu bunseki

The Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association HP
http://www.jcpra.or.jp/recycle/recycling/recycling04/pdf/h19/ralusatsu_pla.pdf

Plastic containers and packaging saisyouhinka syuhou ni kansuru kankyouhukatou
kentouiinkai (2007). Plastic containers and packaging saisyouhinka syuhou ni kansuru
kankyouhukatou no kentou

Oh G. (1998). Toshigomi no sougoukanri wo shiensuru hyoukakeisan system no kaihatsu,
PhD thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University

Poster Session
Toxicity characterization of road dust and urban river sediments using
bioassay with ostracod

Haruna Watanabe

Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-
8656, Japan
e-mail: h_watanabe@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

For the effective remediation of contaminated sediments in urban water environment, the
identification of chemical compounds responsible for the toxicity is needed. In this study, we
aimed to identify the principal toxicants of road dust as a nonpoint source of sediment
pollution and urban river sediments in Tokyo, applying the whole-sediment toxicity
identification evaluation (TIE) method to the toxicity test with an ostracod (a benthic
crustacean). According to the US-EPAs guideline of TIE, the toxicity test was conducted
using samples amended with three adsorbents: Ambersorb-572, Chelex-100 and natural
zeolite. Road dust caused high mortality of the ostracod and addition of Chelex-100 which
removed cationic metals from road dust significantly reduced both mortality and growth
inhibition. It indicated that the cationic heavy metals were supposed to be as the primary
toxicants of road dust. In the case of river sediments, three of the eight urban river sediment
samples showed lethal toxicity to the ostracod, but none of the three adsorbents reduced the
mortality. On the other hand, the growth inhibition was observed in all the samples, and
addition of Ambersorb significantly reduced the growth inhibition in the five samples
suggesting that hydrophobic substances were suspected as the cause of the growth inhibition.

Keywords: sediment, road dust, Toxicity identification evaluation, bioassay, ostracod,
adsorbent

1. Introduction
Sediments which settle on the bottom of water areas serve as a reservoir or source of
contaminants discharged by the human activities. At the same time, sediment also serves a
habitat of benthos which has the important roles in aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, it is
necessary to evaluate the adverse effect of contaminated sediment on benthos by using
bioassay (Burton, 1992).
A sediment toxicity test is one of bioassays which can evaluate sediment toxicity by response
of benthos directly exposed to whole-sediment (Chial et al., 2002). It is effective tool for
evaluating the toxicity; however, for the effective remediation of contaminated sediments in
urban water environment, the identification of chemical compounds responsible for the
toxicity is also needed (Ankley et al., 1995). In response, United State Environmental
Protection Agency (US-EPA) had developed a biologically-based fractionation approach
called Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE) to identify the cause of toxicity in the aquatic
samples such as effluent, interstitial water and whole-sediment. The basic concept in TIE is to
use physical/chemical manipulation of a specific group of toxicants present in the sample. The
2 2 9
Poster Session
manipulated and unmanipulated samples are subjected to toxicity test in order to determine
whether the manipulation changes toxicity (US-EPA, 2007).
Although US-EPA published the guideline of TIE for whole-sediment in September 2007,
there are a limited number of reports on successful application of TIE to field sediments (Ho
et al. 2002). In this study, we aimed to identify the principal toxicants of road dust as a
nonpoint source of sediment pollution and urban river sediments in Tokyo, applying the
whole-sediment TIE method to the toxicity test with an ostracod (a benthic crustacean).

2.1. Samples
Road dust is fine particle collected on the surface of road. It is derived from exhaust gas, road
paint, bits of asphalt and soil, and so on. Because road dust contains much toxic substances
and is flushed out into water area through the road runoff, it is considered to be one of the
non-point sources of sediment contamination. Road dust was collected using vacuum cleaner
from road gutter surface in the heavy traffic areas in Tokyo, Japan. Collected road dust was
air-dried at room temperature and homogenized after being sieved through 106m-mesh to
remove larger particles and stones. The details of sampling conditions, heavy metal contents
and ignition loss in the road dust were reported by Murakami et al. (2008). The road dust was
diluted by fine quartz (Merck) at the ratio of 1:1 (v/v) prior to the TIE manipulation because it
has the high toxicity to the ostracod (Watanabe et al., 2006).
Urban river sediments were collected at eight sampling stations (St.1 to 8) in Koto Rivers
consisting of 11 creeks in Tokyo. It was reported that sediment in these rives were highly
contaminated by heavy metals, dioxin, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Koto city,
2005; Watanabe et al., 2008). Sediment samples were collected at each station by a small grab
sampler (volume: 0.5 L, DIK-190A) in December 2007 to January 2008. Collected sediments
were homogenized well by a plastic spoon and wet-sieved through 2mm-mesh to remove
coarse particles.
All samples were stored in a refrigerator prior to the test.

2.2. TIE methods
According to the EPAs guideline of sediment TIE (USEPA, 2007), one of the preconditioned
adsorbents (Ambersorb-572, Chelex-100 and natural zeolite) was mixed (20% (v/v)) with
sample in each test well. Ambersorb-572 is a carbonaceous resin which removes hydrophobic
substances from samples. Chelex-100 is a cation exchange resin for addressing cationic
metals, and zeolite is a hydrated aluminosilicate mineral which absorb ammonia. In the
baseline toxicity test, fine quartz was mixed with the sample at the same volume of adsorbent.
Synthetic freshwater was added to the sample (liquid/solid=2:1) and the slurry was mixed
well by a plastic spoon. This mixture was kept still for 24h at 25C in darkness and then
subjected to the toxicity test (section 2.3).

2.3. Toxicity test
Whole-sediment toxicity test using the ostracod (Heterocypris incongruens) was conducted
according to the manufactures instruction (Ostracodtoxkit F
TM
, MicroBioTests Inc.). Cysts of
the ostracod were hatched before every test, and 10 neonates were added to each of triplicated
wells containing mixture of 1ml of manipulated sample and 2ml of synthetic freshwater
(section 2.2), and 2ml of algal food suspension included in the test kit. After 6 days of
exposure at 25C in darkness, toxicity was evaluated as mortality and growth inhibition which

Poster Session
was determined by the length increment of live ostracods in comparison to the results
obtained with (non-toxic) reference sediment provided in the kit.

3.1. Road dust
The road dust caused high mortality of the ostracod, and all of three adsorbents (Ambersorb,
Chelex, and zeolite) could reduced the mortality (Fig.1). Therefore the toxicity of road dust
was assumed to be due to the hydrophobi substances, cationic metals and ammonia. Zeolite
can absorbs not only ammonia but also cationic metals. In addition, the concentration of
unioized ammonia in the overlying water was 1.0 mg/l. Because it is lower than the NOLC
(no observed lethal concetration) and NOEC (no observed effect concetration) of unionized
ammonia to the ostracod (about 1.4mgN/l, Watanabe et al., 2008), ammonia might not be the
primary toxicant of the road dust. Moreover growth inhibition was only reduced by the
addition of catio exchange resin Chelex. It suggested that the cationic metals were the major
causes of road dust out of the three groups of toxicants.

-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Baseline Ambersorb Chelex Zeolite
M
o
r
L
a
l
l
L
y
C
r
o
w
L
H
l
o
H
l
b
l
L
l
o
o
** **
**
*
*
Mortality (%) Growth inhibition (%) Mortality (%) Growth inhibition (%)

Fig. 1. Results of toxicity test of road dust manipulated with whole-sediment TIE method:
MeanS.E.(n=3). Growth inhibition was determined by the length increment in comparison to the results
in Baseline (not the reference sediment). * and ** indicate significant difference between adsorbents
treatment and Baseline (t test, *: p<0.05, **: p<0.01).

3.2. Urban river sediment
Three of the eight urban river sediment samples showed lethal toxicity to the ostracod (Fig.
2(a)), but none of the three adsorbents reduced the mortality. Growth inhibition was observed
in all the eight samples, and the addition of the carbonaceous adsorbent Ambersorb-572
suppressed the growth inhibition in the five of the samples (Fig. 2(b)). This indicates that
hydrophobic substances in these sediments might inhibit the growth of the ostracod. However,
in the samples at St.1, 2 and 6, the adsorbents reduced neither the mortality nor the growth
inhibition. Therefore we could not identify the major cause of the toxicity in these sediments
and needed a modification of the procedure of TIE.

Poster Session
0
20
40
60
80
100
St.1 St.2 St.3 St.4 St.5 St.6 St.7 St.8
M
o
r
t
a
l
i
t
y

(
%
)
**
**
*
**
* *
0
20
40
60
80
100
St.1 St.2 St.3 St.4 St.5 St.6 St.7 St.8
G
r
o
w
t
h

i
n
h
i
b
i
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
** * **
**
**
** *
** **
*
*
(a) Mortality
(b) Growth inhibition
Baseline Zeolite Ambersorb Chelex Baseline Zeolite Ambersorb Chelex

Fig. 2. Results of toxicity test of urban river sediments manipulated with whole-sediment TIE method:
(a) Mortality. (b) Growth inhibition: MeanS.E.(n=3). * and ** indicate significant difference between
adsorbents treatment and Baseline (t test, *: p<0.05, **: p<0.01).

4. Conclusions
The road dust caused high mortality of the ostracod, and whole-sediment TIE method
using Ambersorb, Chelex, and zeolite could reduced the mortality. Growth inhibition was
only reduced by the addition of Chelex. It suggested that the cationic metals were the
major toxicants of road dust.
Three of the eight urban river sediment samples showed lethal toxicity to the ostracod, but
none of the three adsorbents reduced the mortality of the ostracod. On the other hand, the
growth inhibition was observed in all the samples, and hydrophobic substances were
suspected as the cause of the growth inhibition in the five samples. But the guideline
procedure of TIE did not give a successful result in the other three samples.

5. References

Ankley G. T. and Schubauer-Berigan M. K. (1995). Background and overview of current
sediment toxicity identification evaluation procedures. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress
and Recovery (Formerly Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health), 4(3). 133-149.

Belgis Chial, Guido Persoone (2002). Cyst-based toxicity tests XIV - Application of the
ostracod solid-phase microbiotest for toxicity monitoring of river sediments in Flanders
(Belgium). Environmental Toxicology, 17(6), 533-537.
2 3 2
Poster Session

Burton G A Jr (1992) Sediment Toxicity Assessment, Lewis publishers inc.

Ho K. T., Burgess R. M., Pelletier M. C. et al (2002). An overview of toxicant identification
in sediments and dredged materials. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(4), 286-293.

Koto city (2005). Environment of Koto city (text in Japanese).

MicroBioTest Inc., Ostracodtoxkit F
TM
. http://www.microbiotests.be/product.htm

Murakami M., Nakajima F., Furumai, H. (2008). The sorption of heavy metal species by
sediments in soakaways receiving urban road runoff. Chemosphere, 70(11), 2099-2109.

US-EPA (2007) Sediment Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE) Phase I, II, and III
Guidance Document. EPA/600/R-07/080.

Watanabe H., Nakajima F., Furumai H. (2006). Toxicity assessment of urban river sediment
contamination using bioassay with ostracod. Abstracts, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, The
43
rd
environmental engineering forum, Hakodate, Japan, pp.148-150 (text in Japanese).

Watanabe H., Nakajima F., Kasuga I., Furumai H. (2008). Toxicity characterization of urban
river sediments using bioassay with ostracod. Journal of Japan Society on Water Environment,
31(11), 671-676. (abstract in English, text in Japanese).
2 3 3
Poster Session
Examination of Maintaining Method of the Gravel Bed River Channel

Hiroaki FUJIMORI
1)
and Takeyoshi CHIBANA
2)

e-mail: fujimori@hydra.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
e-mail: chibana@hydra.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

Due to overgrowth of exotic plants, indigenous plants on gravel riverbank such as Aster
kantoensis are in danger of extinction. Originally, gravel riverbank which is suitable for
Aster kantoensis had been sustained by flood, but the change of flow regime and
channel morphology altered the riverbank condition. However, the method how to
restore the sustainable gravel riverbank is not well clarified. In this study, by referring
physical environment of the trace of main (or sub) stream line, I call it water pass trace,
in different sites, we examined the suitable condition of riverbank which can be utilized
by Aster kantoensis and be sustained by natural flood. At first, water pass trace can be
classified into several types based on their forming process. Consequently, we clarified
that the sustainable gravel riverbank can be created even on a flood plain that is densely
covered with exotic tree. In the riverbank, gravel river bed with some silt underneath
open work gravel layer that is a good habitat for Aster kantoensis can be created on the
riffle of the water pass trace without too big gravel.

Key Words: water pass trace, gravel riverbank, Aster kantoensis

1. Introduction

In an alluvial river, typical scenery is alternate gravel bars or multi gravel bars. Nowadays,
however, due to invasion of exotic species, gravel banks have lost bare gravel land and habitat
for indigenous species on them. It is said that this change happened because of human impacts
in a river channel; extraction of gravels for the use of construction material in 1960s,
construction of dams and embankments for flood control etc.

Aster kantoensis is one of sacrificial indigenous species which originally inhabited gravel
bank of only some parts of alluvial rivers (for example, the Tama-river) in Kanto area or the
Abe-river in Tokai area. Now Aster kantoensis is listed as endangered species in Red-Data
book, because their habitat has been invaded by exotic plants.

In the Tama-river basin, administrator, academic experts, and residents who are interested in
Aster kantoensis perform voluntary conservation activities to conserve it
1)
. This activity has
increased the number of Aster kantoensi. That is not only for Aster kantoensis but also for
original tama-rivers environment. Because Aster kantoensis is the Tama-rivers indigenous
plants, existence of Aster kantoensis in the river prove the soundness of the river. Aster
2 3 4
Poster Session
kantoensis can be the symbol and the characteristics of the Tama-river. However, it is difficult
to continue and expand this activity because of the limitation of human resources and budget.

Before recovering the soundness of whole river basin, first thing to do as emergency measure
is retaining the habitat of Aster kantoensis with little human effort. Therefore, restoration of a
part of river bank was started to be examined.


On an alluvial fun which provides habitat for Aster kantoensis, there are various types of
gravel bar environment. In some parts, the river bed is covered with silt, but in some other
parts, plants propagate, and in some other parts, bare gravel riverbed is retained. During field
observation to understand the outline of river banks, we found there are some traces of main
streamline, hereinafter called WPT (water pass trace), during previous flood on the river bank
of low flow channel. It can be assumed that the flood stream must have concentrated there.
On surface of the WPT, there is bare gravel surface without any plants. But some of that have
silt-covered surface, which exotic species easily invade in. And also, even on flood plains,
sometime we can see the WPT.

As mentioned above, we examined the method how to remain the habitat of Aster kantoensis
first. To remain the bare gravel surface with little human effort, it is important to use the
power of flood event effectively. Thus we considered that this WPT should be referred as the
measure to retain bare gravel riverbed.

Fig 1. five type of WPT From Left to right, A,B,,E
A: Kanna-river Sta.1 B: Aki-river C:Asa-river D: Kannariver Sta.2 E: Kannariver Sta.3
Kanna-river belongs to Ara-river basin. Aki-river & Asa-river belong to Tama-river basin.

Fig.1. shows the target sites. There seemed to be some types of WPT. Fig.1.A is multiple bar
type. During recession period of flood, stream pattern sifts from multiple flows to alternate
flow, and then one flow trail of multiple flows dried up to be WPT. Longitudinal length tends
to be long because it corresponds to the length of the gravel bar. B type is drop structure type.
On a drop structure, flow is dispersed and in lower reach, multiple stream paths are made.
One of the stream paths dried up after flood to be WPT. C type is riffle-side type. This type is
one of some stream paths of a riffle and is dried up when the water level is low. Longitudinal
length is relatively short, which corresponds to the length of a riffle. D type is embankment-
convergence type. During flood, stream line concentrates the side of the embankment or the
side of flood plain to erode the riverbed. E type is irrigation channel. It was made on flood
plain for the agricultural use.

2 3 5
Poster Session
We performed field observations on A-E sites with the exception of D and one unclear WPT
on a flood plain (F type: Trace of stream line inside exotic forest on a flood plain) in the
Tama-river. A, B and C are inside low flow channel, E and F are on flood plain.

Comparing five WPTs, we tried to gain the knowledge how to remain bare gravel riverbed.
Our observation contents are following four factors.
*Longitudinal profile along the center of trace of main stream line
*Cross sectional shape
*Bed material (silt or gravels)
*Weight of open work gravel layer per unit area


In this chapter, first half elucidates the characteristics of WPTs on low flow channel, and last
half elucidates the characteristics of WPTs on flood plain.

A type: multiple bars type
The average slope, 1/105, was little
steeer than river bed slope around here,
1/250. There are nick points in the Fig 2.
showing the longitudinal profile. These
changes of slopes show the existence of
the riffle-pool structure even in a dried
water course on the dry riverbed. The
slopes of steep part (sect6-sect5 and
sect4-sect3) are about 1/53-1/100, which
corresponds to average slope of riffle.
Based on the longitudinal profile and on-site observation, sect 7 and sect 4 are considered to
be a flat riffle that is a flat and shallow
area. And at sect 6, which correspond to
a riffle, surface was covered by silt
trapped by plants. Although Sect 5 is
the transition from a riffle to a pool and
its surface is covered by gravels. Lower
reach from sect 3 was under water
(rhombus marks show the water level).

B type: drop structure type
Slope of upper, steep side is 1/25(sect 8-
sect5). Sect 5-sect4 is -1/40. Lower
reach is 1/5018, almost flat. This trend is
similar to that of topography which is
made just lower side of a drop structure.
That mean just lower side of a drop
structure, there continues a very steep,
short riffle and, after that, wide, deep
pool appears
2)
.
Bed material of the upper reach (sect8-
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
longitudinal distance[m]
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]
sec1
sec7
sec5
Fig 2. longitudinal profile of A type WPT
Fig 3. panoramic view
of A type
Fig 4. panoramic view of
B type
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 50 100 150
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]
sec1
sec8
sec5
Fig 5. longitudinal profile of B type
2 3 6
Poster Session
sect5) was coarse. On the other hand,
surface of lower reach was covered by
silt. Silt accumulated because flow
dispersed there and silt was trapped
among gravels. Another reason of the
silt deposition here is that flood water
submerged to undersurface. And at
surface, silt accumulated (Fig 8. White
circle shows the place of silt
accumulation.).

C type: riffle type
Average slope, 1/100, is relatively
steeper than avarage river slope around
here. Slope becomes gradually milder in
the downstream direction. This shape is
like a riffle.
Surface was covered by gravels all over
the WPT. Open gravel layer is not
thicker than that of water course
because, during low flow period, there is no flow which can remove silt away
3)
.
Especially side of this WPT, poaceae plants existed. This was because of the effect of trap by
large gravels of riffle
4)
.

From above three types of WPT, WPTs have riffle-pool structure. And the surface of riffles &
pools is covered by gravels. A flat riffle is covered by silt.That means, during decreasing
period of flood, on pool & riffle, flow goes parallel with riverbed and do not accumulate silt.
On the other hand, on a flat riffle, flow
submerges under the surface of riverbed
and surface gravels trap the silt
suspended in water. During period of
normal water level, because of no flow
which can covey silt, silt on flat shallow
does not decrease the thickness. And
open gravel layer on riffle does not
become so thin.
Surface of riffle can be suitable habitat
for Aster kantoensis
5)
if there is not
seeds trap by the gap of gravel.

E type: agricultural channel
This long channel which has 1014m
length was used for irrigation and
abandoned. Slope is 1/194, relatively
milder than surrounding river bed slope.
Because of the mild slope, surface was
covered by finer gravels (not silt).
However, silt was hardly seen. Because
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0 50 100 150
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]
sec1
sec5
sec10
sec11
Fig 6. longitudinal profile of C type
of C type
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 250 500 750 1000
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]
sec5 sec10
sec15
sec20
sec25
sec30
sec34
Fig 9. longitudinal profile of E type
2
3
4
5
6
0 5 10 15
|m|
|
m
|
cross
distance[m]
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]

Fig 10. cross profile of E type
Fig 8. submerging
during flood decreaseing
period on flat riffle

Poster Session
this WPT is artificial channel, width is
narrow and both shoulders are sheer as
Fig 10. shows, flow which can convey
finer gravels did not disperse.

F type: WPT with remaining plants on a
flood plain
Slope is 1/196 and is not so mild,
comparing to average river slope
around there.
In this WPT, fine sand is trapped thickly
on surface (thickness is shown in Fig.13.
as lines connected below to longitudinal
profile). However, this sand is relatively
coarser than silt accumulating on the flat
riffle of WPT in low water channel. So
the reason why coarser sand was trapped
is because of plants trapping and wide
and shallow cross-sectional shape.
There are many studies about trap of silt
by vegetations
6)
. As Fig 14. shows,
cross-sectional shape was shallow and
wide. That means flow dispersed and
traction force weaken.

From above two WPTs, it can be said
that gravel riverbed can be retained
even on a flood plain that is much
higher than the low flow channel.
Furthermore, from the view point of
sustainability, it can be said gravel riverbed on flood plain is more stable than that on low
flow channel which is dynamically changed by flood.

4. Conclusions

WPTs have riffle-pool structure. On surface of riffles, thin open gravel layer which is suitable
habitat for Aster kantoensis is created. However, if the slope is too steep, poaceae seeds are
trapped in the gap of big gravels. Inside pools in such WPT, open gravel layer is created.
However, silt accumulates thickly in flat riffles.

Even on a flood plain, bare gravel riverbed can be retained. In such case, if WPT has
longitudinally line shape and enough depth about 1 to 2m, good habitat can be created. Slope
of the channel need not to be too steep.

From these points, gravel riverbed can be restored on flood plain by referring natural WPT.
The slope should not be too mild (that induce silt accumulation) nor too steep (that induce
poaceae propagation).

of E type
of F type
-1
0
1
2
3
-50 50 150 250 350 450
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]
sec1
sec5
sec9
Fig 13. longitudnial profile of F type
Fig 14. cross profile of F type
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
|m|
|
m
|
cross
distance[m]
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
[
m
]

Poster Session
5. References

1) Study group of Tama-river in Society for the study of River Ecosystem, overall study of
Tama-river, 2006. (in japanese)
2) Chibana T., Mieno T., Tujimoto T., Charasteristic of Fish Habitat in a Pool Formed In
Front of A Drop Structue, Advances in RivereEngineering,VOL.11, pp.465-470, 2005.
3) Chibana T., Hayashi T., Miyake M., Relationship Between Characteristics of Sediment
Transport and Physical Environment in Riffles, Journal of Japan Society of Hydrology
and Water Resources, VOL.20, No.4, pp.362-372, 2007.
4) Tadokoro M., ChibanaT.,Mechanism of the settlement of vegetation seed on gravel bars,
Advances in RivereEngineering,VOL.12, pp.465-470,2006.
5) Ichizawa A., Haseoka S., Hatase A., Wada M., Abe S., Okuda S., A Study of restoration
and management of the floodplain vegetation in the Middlecourse of the Tama River,
Tokyu Foundation for Better Environment Report, TextNo.261, 2006
6) Tujimoto T., Kitamura T., Deposition of Suspended Sediment around Vegetated Area and
Expansion Process Vegetation, Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE, VOL.
40,pp.1003-1008,1996.

Poster Session
Industrial solid waste flows and recycling patterns of China: a case study in
Suzhou

MO Hongpin, WEN Zongguo and CHEN Jining

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University
SIEEB 1015 Tsinghua Univ., Beijing, 100084, China
E-mail: mhp02@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn

Abstract
China has launched a new strategy named circular economy in the face of resource
shortages related to fast industrialization, and reforming the currenet recycling patterns for
industrial solid waste and solving existed problems are important issues in this strategy. This
paper try to character the current industrial solid waste flows and their recycling pattern by
case study, a detailed field survey was carried out in Suzhou city of China, typical actors
throughout waste flow including generation, collection and recovery process and all related
local government bureaus were surveyed, waste flows of 3 typical wastes including copper
waste, E-waste, and textile waste were studied in detail to identify the impact factors to
recycling patterns. The main factors were found to be recovery value and waste generation
scale, which impact the recycling patterns and main actors of each industrial solid waste.
Furthermore, the problems of currenet waste flows were reviewed, and policy suggestions
were given according to the characteristics of different recycling patterns, including
establishment of an ERP system for potential dangerous waste, creating tax incentives to cut
down the value-added tax burden for recovery enterprises producing raw material, and
promoting R&D for more profitable recycling technologies for low profitable wastes.
Key wordsIndustrial solid waste, Copper waste, E-waste, Textile waste, recycling,
China

1. Introduction
Resources conservation and waste recycling is one of the most important issues in realizing
sustainable development. Because industries concentrate most of material cosumption,
industrial solid waste (ISW) plays the most important role in recycling. Developed countries
and regions have established their recycling pattern for various ISWs (Yoshida, 2007; Wei
and Huang, 2001; Tsai and Chou, 2004). After the past 3 decades of fast industrialization and
urbanization, China has become the world factory with tremendous resources demand and
ISW generation through production process, the ISW volume increased fast and reached
1515.41 million tons in 2006. (NBSC, 2008) (see Table.1).
Table.1 Solid waste generation situation
Million metric ton
Year 2003 2004 2005 2006
Industrial Solid Waste 1004.28 1200.30 1344.49 1515.41
Source: NBSC, 2008.

Meanwhile, because of the large demand for resources and potential profits for recycling,
recycling business has been developed for these ISWs. In 2007, 88.843 million tons of

Poster Session
recyclable waste were traded and recycled at a total value of 34.85 billion USD
[1
Table.2
]
(CNRRA,
2008), and detailed volume of each resource in 2007 are shown in .
Table.2 Main wastes recycling trade volumes of China in 2007
ISW Related waste Recycling volumes /million tons
Ferrous metals
Iron and steel Iron and steel waste generated from ferrous industry 43.1
Scrapped ships Scrapped ships 0.113
Scrapped automobiles Scrapped automobiles 1.68
Nonferrous metals
Copper Scrapped cables, E-waste, etching fluid 0.72
Aluminum Shattered aluminum, scrapped aluminum cables 0.96
Lead Shattered lead 0.46
Zinc Shattered zinc 0.54
Plastic packing waste, 10.23
Paper packing waste, office waste 27.65
Rubber
Renovation of tires Scrapped tires 0.285
Reclaimed rubber Scrapped tires, waste rubber shoes, waste latex,
waste butyl rubber, and etc
2.2
Renewed rubber powder Scrapped tires, waste rubber shoes, waste latex,
waste butyl rubber, and etc
0.25
Source: CNRRA, 2008
Basically, the current recycling patterns for ISW of China is essentially a free market
system operating with little government oversight, only cataloged hazardous wastes (HWs)
considered directly dangerous to human health and environment are well-supervised by
environmental protection bureaus (Duan et al., 2008). However, many other kinds of ISWs
are potentially dangerous and informal recycling treatment has caused serious environmental
and health problems in China (Leung et al., 2007; Huo et al., 2007). China is striving towards
a resource-conserving society and promoting circular economy, related laws and policies
are entering an accelerated legislative process as exemplified by the groundbreaking passing
of the Circular Economy Promotion Law in August, 2008. The current wastes flow of ISWs
should be carefully studied and reorganized to solve existed problems and promote resources
recycling.
This paper aims to character different ISW flows, and identify impact factors of the
patterns and current problems, some policy suggestions were given for further policy making.
Because of the large scale of China and variety of recyclable wastes, case study is adopted in
our study, Suzhou city is chosen as our case as a well-known manufacturing center in Chinas
Jiangsu province with a per capita GDP exceeding 12,200 USD. Due to well-developed
industries, tremendous ISWs in Suzhou and the local recycling business is correspondingly
mature, and will be more representative than those of other cities in China.
2. Methods
The studys research instruments included structured questionnaires, structured
interviews, and unstructured interviews. Structured questionnaires were completed by
supervisors at most enterprises surveyed. Within the collection system there are a great many
individual collection businesses which tend to be run by rural people, in many cases the lower
average educational attainment level of these people necessitated the questionnaire be
administered orally by an interviewer the structured interview. Lastly, for situations with

[1] The rate of exchange used in this study between USD and RMB Yuan is 7.5215, which was the
average exchange rate in 2007
241
Poster Session
respondents who could obviously provide significant information above and beyond that
collected by the questionnaire, such as with government supervisors, an unstructured
interview was also applied. The research respondent pool consisted of government
supervisors, manufacturing industry enterprises that generate waste, collection enterprises,
recovery enterprises, and individual collection businesses such as waste-pickers, itinerant
waste buyers and collection shops.
3 typical recyclable wastes were selected in this study for detailed analysis: copper waste,
textile waste, and E-waste, because these items have various characteristics, so that
charactering their waste flows is useful for analysis to the current problem, meanwhile, the
total generation volumes of these items in Suzhou are large because they are produced by the
main industries of the city.
3.1The main actors in waste flow and recycling
The current waste flow is shown in Figure.1. The most important actors are collection
enterprises and recovery enterprises, which act as waste filters between industrial enterprises
and waste disposal systems. For the recyclable waste generated through consumption process,
collection shops and individual collection business collect and classify the recyclable wastes
contained in MSW and then sell them to the collection enterprises. HW is collected and
managed separately by qualified enterprises under government supervision and is not
discussed in this paper.

Waste Disposal System
Recycling System
Producing Process Sources
Industrial
Enterprises
Collection
Enterprises
HW
management
system
MSW
management
system
MSW HW
Recyclable
Waste
Recovery
Enterprises
Recyclable
Resources
Consumption Process Sources
Residents
MSW
Recyclable
Waste
Collection System
Individual
collection business
collection
shops
Unrecyclable
Waste

Figure.1 General waste flows in current recycling pattern
Detailed information of each actor are shown in Table.3 and Table.4.
Table.3 The information of relatively small actors
Actor
Individual Collection
Businesses
Collection Shops Small Recovery Enterprises
Main
Characteristics
Distributed in residential
areas, use human carriers such
as tricycles to collect the
recyclables from residents
Possession of relatively fixed
place of business, mostly in
residential areas, Majority own
small vehicles as a means of
transportation
Own some simple waste-
processing equipment, recover certain
type of wastes acquired (mostly
textile, plastic) to produce recyclable
wastes
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Poster Session
Recycling
Range
According to the
recycling range and price of
collection shops
According to the recycling
range of collection enterprises
usually only recycle a specific
type of waste with certain materials,
colors, specifications
Storage usually not
own small storage sites, usually
along with living area
own storage sites
Classificati
on
simple classification
relatively detailed classification
according to the recycling value
The classification is very strict
and often only recycle a specific type
of waste with certain materials,
colors, specifications
Scale/perso
ns
1-2 5-10 2-30
Supervisio
n
rarely rarely rarely

Table.4 The information of relatively large actors
Actor
Collection enterprises Recovery enterprises
producing raw materials
Recovery enterprises
producing new products
Main
Characteristics
active management mechanism,
with clerks in charge of looking for
sources of waste, usually get ISW
from industry enterprises, and sell it to
recovery enterprises
Large-scale enterprises
with professional waste-
processing equipment, usually
combined with raw material
producing enterprises
Large-scale enterprises with
professional waste-processing
equipment, production including
recyclable wastes and high value-
added products
Recycling
Range
usually focus on one or several
kinds of recyclable wastes
Only recycle a specific
type of waste
Only recycle a specific type
of waste
Storage
With a number of storage sites,
some big enterprises even have their
own terminal
own large storage sites to
maintain continuous production
own large storage sites to
maintain continuous production
Classificati
on
First classification for reuse,
remaining resources can be dismantled
and classified in accordance with
materials, colors, specifications
carefully
Different classification
according to material, but
usually only recover one
specific kind of waste
The classification is very
strict and often only accept a
specific type of waste with certain
materials, colors, specifications
Scale/perso
ns
20-100 more than 50 more than 50
Supervisio
n
Supervised by commercial
bureau, mostly tax registration
Tax registration and
Special permission for recycling
industry
Tax registration and Special
permission for recycling industry
3.2Typical ISW flows
ISW flows differ across wastes, to estimate the impact factors to recycling patterns, 3
typical kinds of recyclable wastes were analyzed in detail.
3.2.1 Copper waste
The waste flow of copper in Suzhou city is shown in Figure.2. The main sources of
copper waste are copper wiring and abandoned motors. Another significant but small source
is the copper waste from disassembled home appliances collected by collection shops and
individual collection businesses. Suzhou is a copper wire production hub and local production
resource demands greatly exceed supply. As a result, collection enterprises in the market also
operate branches in other regions to collect copper waste from neighboring provinces.
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Poster Session
residents
Copper waste
Collection shops
Disassemble &
classification
Copper waste
Industrial enterprises
different copper
waste
Collection enterprises
Re-smelting and
purification
Copper products
plants
Individual collection
business
Copper products
producing
Disassemble &
classification

Figure.2 waste copper flow in Suzhou city
Collected copper waste is classified primarily by quality. Copper cables and enameled
wire must be separated from insulating materials such as plastic. Most collection companies
have purchased special machinery to separate the copper by physical means, which also
allows the plastic to be recycled. After separation, pure copper waste is sold to the recovery
enterprises where it is re-smelted to produce copper material, and then sold to cable plants
where it is processed into new copper wires or strips.
3.2.2 E-waste
The recycling route of appliances in Suzhou city is shown in Figure.3, and can be divided
into two parts: residential home appliances are mainly collected by individual collection
businesses and shops; office equipment used in enterprises, government, and other various
institutions is primarily collected by collection enterprises.
Enterprises
Scrapped office
equipment
Collection
enterprises
Reusable office
equipment
Unreusable waste
classification
Damaged components
Residents
Scrapped appliance
Appliance repairing
shops
Collection shops
Individual collection
business
Repair & assemble
Second-hand
appliance
Reuse

Figure.3 E-waste flow in Suzhou city
Reuse is an important destination of used appliances in China as rural areas and low
incoming people are willing to buy or accept donated secondhand appliance. The majority of
the used appliances only need minor refurbishment before being sent to the secondhand
market. Those that are irreparably damaged are disassembled and recycled according to their
individual components.
3.2.3 Textile waste
The main route of textile waste recycling is shown in Figure.4.
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Poster Session
Small recovery
enterprises
High-tech
reproducing
High value
products
Textile waste
Individual collection business
Simple processing
Profession recovery
enterprises
non-woven fabrics
Polypropylene
classification
Cotton wastes
Polypropylene
granular
smelting
Small recovery
enterprises
Certain kinds of
textile waste

Figure.4 Textile waste flow in Suzhou city
The contents of textile waste are very complex including cottons, silk, various chemical
fibers, and mixed materials. For most textile industries, these raw materials are used together
and the wastes are mixed requiring labor-intensive classification work before recycling,
meanwhile, most sources of textile waste are small in scale. Because of these 2 reasons,
individual collection businesses and small recovery enterprises become the most important
actors because of its relatively low running cost. Various textile wastes are classified into
detailed groupings according to their materials, colors, and average piece size and recycled.
Cotton waste is converted it into cotton fibers and then produce non-woven fabrics.
Polypropylene fibers are classified according to color by individual collection businesses, and
then sent to small recovery enterprises and recovered into granular polypropylene through
washing and smelting. Generally, textile waste recycling has low profit margins with an
average profit rate lower than 0.01 USD per kg waste recycling, so that many recyclable
textile wastes were treated as MSW. However, this situation is changing with the market entry
of several professional recovery enterprises utilizing advanced technologies to produce high
valued-added products. For instance, Changshu Automobile Interior Parts Factory has
developed a technology which transforms fine cotton and polypropylene fibers into
automobile interior parts, such as the inner surfaces of doors. The arrival of these enterprises
and their higher profit margins enhanced the local recycling sector and some foreign textile
waste is now also being drawn into this recovery route.
3.3 Discussion and policy suggestions
3.3.1 The main impact factors of the recycling patterns
The impact factors of recycling patterns include value, variety, sources of waste
generation, batch scale, recovery technologies, density, labor cost, etc. The main
characteristics of 3 kinds of selected recyclable wastes are shown in Table.5.
Table.5 main characteristics of selected wastes
value variety main sources batch scale recovery process recycling pattern
copper waste high low production large simple Mostly formal
E-waste high high consumption medium complex Mixed
textile waste low high production small complex Mostly informal

However, according to our survey, the most important impact factors to the recycling
patterns are: 1) recovery value, 2) waste generation scale. Other factors affecting the recycling
patterns and system structures can be considered to interact with these 2 factors. For instance,
2 4 5
Poster Session
complex variety will generate relatively small batch scale of recyclables, and high labor cost
will low down the values of recyclables.
High recovery value is conducive to establishing a sound market mechanism, especially
for wastes which can be easily recovered into industrial raw material such as copper and iron.
On the other hand, the value variation range is also an important factor for establishing a
market mechanism. For example, the value of E-waste varies according to type, quality, and
complexity as mentioned, so intensive classification work is needed to identify the detailed
value of each batch of waste. These values are often empirical and artificial, and this limits
the generation of large collection enterprises. Textile waste recycling suffers from similar
problems of complexity. In a word the recovery value acts as a key factor in shaping the
recycling pattern structure.
Waste generation scale is also an important recycling pattern factor. It is clear that large
generation scale fosters a large recycling market, which in turn leads to establishment of big
enterprises and overall development of recycling pattern. Even so, the underlying factor is the
detail scale of each specific type of recyclable resource intended for recovery. When detail
classification is simple, such as that of copper waste, the collection enterprises tend to be
large in scale, while for the recyclable wastes that require complex classification, the labor-
intensive classification work limits the scale of collection enterprises. For example, compared
with the metal recycling patterns for copper and iron, waste textile recycling is less developed
with individual collection businesses as the main actors and small manual disassemble and
recovering workshops as main recovery actors.
3.3.2 Suggestions for improving the current recycling pattern
As mentioned, China is building its policy system to promote resources recycling. It is
important to make use of the current recycling pattern, and to make necessary changes to
solve existing problems. Just as the recycling patterns differ among different types of
recyclable wastes, improving suggestions were given according to the characteristics of
different recycling patterns.
1) Establishing Extended Responsibility of Producer (ERP) system for the ISWs with
small generation scale and low recovery value but potential environmental risk
The recycling patterns for this kind of wastes are mostly informal and less developed,
lead to potential danger to environmental and human health, and various social problems. The
recycling of E-Waste is a typical example: rather than utilize environmental-friendly recovery
technologies, the current preferred recycling approach uses incineration and acid-treatment
despite serious environmental impacts and high health risks to the workers. The most practical
method is redistributing the responsibility of recycling. TheERP system may be the best
practical means for improving these problematic recycling patterns and avoiding the problems.
The producers should shoulder the responsibility for recycling their goods after lifecycle,
whether by directly recycling the waste or by subsidizing the resources recycling business,
and we suggest that the government needs to shift away from direct intervention with high
administrative costs, and supports the growth of an environmentally-friendly recycling
pattern.
2) Tax incentives to balance the ISWs recovered as raw material with high recovery
value and large scale
For the ISWs recovered as raw material, the most important limitation for resources
recycling is the misapplied value-added tax (VAT), especially for the metal recycling. This
kind of recycling is usually run by the raw material producing enterprises, these enterprises
can either get raw material from mining enterprises or recycling. The VAT burden is shared
by the mining enterprises if mine is adopted.but for the recycled wastes this burden is borne
by the enterprises alone, the reason is that, due to method of collection and small scales it is
2 4 6
Poster Session
impossible to charge the VAT from residents, while for industry sources, recycling is
regarded as a waste management way, and most enterprises are unwilling to pay the VAT for
waste. Because of the high recovery value and large scale, VAT burden can be very huge,
to promote this kind of resources recycling, tax incentives should be introduced, and yet, as
raw material producing enterprises can utilize sources from both mining and recycling, a
reliable and accurate system is needed for calculating the detailed volume of each source.
3) Encouraging R&D for the ISWs with low recovery value
For the ISWs with low recovery value, traditional recycling technologies and methods
are not profitable, some resources are even treated as MSW. It is important to involve R&D
programs for these kinds of wastes, and most useful technologies include high added-value
products producing tech directly using wastes, energy saving tech in classification and
purification resources, trading system to overcome the information asymmetry.
4. Conclusions
The current ISW flow and recycling patterns in China is typical profit-driven. It has been
created wholly by market mechanisms with little government intervention. The development
level and main actors vary across different ISWs as the characteristics changes, the most
important impact factors are recovery values and generation scale.As China shifts from a high
resource consumption production mode to a circular economy mode in which resources are to
be reused and recovered to the maximum possible extent. Policy systems related to recycling
must be amended according to the characteristics of different ISWs, ERP system, tax
incentives, and R&D program will all play important roles in achieving this transformation.
5. Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the National Key Technologies R&D Program of China (No.
2006BAC02A18 and No.2006BAK04A13). The field work was supported
by www.5Rchina.com.
6. References
China National Resources Recycling Association (CNRRA). (2008) China recyclable wastes
recycling yearbook. Economic Daily Press, Beijing [in Chinese].

F Yoshida. (2007). The Cyclical Economy of Japan.. Hokkaido University Press, Hokkaido.

H Duan, QF Huang, Q Wang, BY Zhou, JH Li. (2008). Hazardous waste generation and
management in China: A review. J. Hazard. Mater., 158(2008), 221-227.

Huo X, Peng L, Xu X, Zheng L, Qiu B, Qi Z, Zhang B, Han D, Piao Z. (2007). Elevated
blood levels of children in guiyu, an electronicwaste recycling town in China. Environ. Health
Perspect., 115(7), 11131117.

Leung A, Cai ZW, Wong MH. (2006). Environmental contamination from electronic-waste
recycling at Guiyu, Southeast China. J. Mater. Cycles and Waste manage., 2006(8), 21-33.

National bureau of statistics of China (NBSC), (2008). China Statistical database.
<http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj> [accessed 12.01.09].

Tsai WT, Chou YH. (2004). A review of environmental and economic regulations for
promoting industrial waste recycling in Taiwan. Waste manage., 24(2004), 10611069.

Wei MS, Huang KH. (2001). Recycling and reuse of industrial wastes in Taiwan. Waste
manage., 21(2001), 93-97.
2 4 7
Poster Session
Analysis of Climate Change Impact for sustainable development on
Citarum River Basin, Indonesia

Yutaka Araki
1)

1) Civil Engineering Department, The university of Tokyo
7-3-1 Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
e-mail: araki@hydra.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

Citarum River Basin (CRB) is located in West Java (fig.1) and most strategically important
river in terms of hydro-electricity, drinking water and irrigation. In addition to several
problems already existing such as acute water stress, Climate Change impact on water
resource management has to be concerned to achieve a sustainable development in this region.
Today, discussion of Climate Change is largely affected by Climate Model output. Many
Global Climate Models (GCMs) have already simulated future climate until 100 years later.
However, since Climate Model is still on the long way of developing and improving, the
projection results of Climate Models varies from model to model. Therefore it is not enough
to look 1 model projection result but it is much more reliable to analyze several models
projection results.
In this context, this study has focused on analysis on rainfall in CRB from the various model
projection results. Rainfall data is obtained from CMIP3 data set (Coupled Model
Intercomparison Project phase 3) which is archived in the University of Tokyo.
In addition to rainfall analysis, flood simulation in Citarum Upper Basin was carried out for
10-year-return-period flood under current climate and future climate 50 years later based on
the result of probable rainfall analysis.
From both analysis, it was confirmed that rainfall intensity will be severer and flood risk
will increase in the future in CRB in indonesia.

Keywords : Climate Change, Water Resource Management, Global Climate model, Rainfall,
Flood, Multi Model Comparison

1. Introduction

Citarum River Basin (CRB) is located in the province of West Java and covering a total of
about 13000km^2. CRB is the most strategic river basin in the Indonesia, with a population of
almost 28 million people in 2004. There are three hydroelectric dams located at irrigated
agricultural land is over 400,000 ha, producing 5% of the nations rice. The CRB also
supplies 80% of Jakartas raw water.
Citarum River has already several problems such as acute water stress, depletion of aquifers,
increased exposure to flood risk pollution due to rapid urbanization. In addition to that, there
are predictions that climate change could lead to more frequent and more severe flooding, and
raise sea levels at the mouth of Citarum River. Change in rainfall distribution and rainfall
intensity due to Climate Change may impact local flooding particularly in the upper CRB, the
occurrence of drought events, and water management of the reservoir systems.
Therefore the likely impacts of climate change should be assessed based on current best
available projection result of Climate Model. This study is going to focus on Climate Change
impact on rainfall and flood in CRB.
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Poster Session

Fig.1 Fig.2

In this study, 2 kinds of analysis are carried out, one of which is rainfall analysis for whole
basin and the other is flood simulation for upper basin. The rainfall analysis is based on the
result of CMIP3 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase3) where the output of 25
world-selected Global Climate Model are collected. PCMDI (Program for Climate Model
Diagnosis and Intercomparison, California, USA) volunteered to collect model output
contributed by leading modeling centers around the world. CMIP3 is meant to contribute
preparing the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC).
Concerning Climate Change impacts, it is not enough to get a conclusion from 1 or 2
model, because Climate Model has still uncertainty in the structure. This study analyzed the
outputs of 17 GCMs out of 25 in CMIP3 to reduce potential uncertainty and increase
reliability. The rest of 8 models were excluded due to data availability.
In the CMIP3, there are so called Scenario which defines how Green House Gases
increase in the future. This has very important role because how climate changes is directly
affected by how Green House Gases varies. Accordingly, it is not only multi-model-
comparison but using several scenarios that contribute to more accurate and comprehensive
analysis of Climate Change. There is actually no telling that how the world is going to shift in
terms of technology innovation, population, etc. 1 scenario of Green House Gases is just
showing the 1 direction of future world. In this research, 2 scenarios of SRES A1B and SRES
B1 are applied for future analysis and 20C3M is utilized for current condition. In each model,
the results of A1B and B1 are compared to result of 20C3M.
When utilizing GCM, major problem would be grid size or resolution. The grid size of
GCMs in CMIP3 ranges from 1to 2.5in latitude and longitude or even bigger. In the real
world, rainfall distribution is heavily affected by geographical condition such as mountain. In
the Citarum river basin, for example, heavier rainfall is observed in upper basin, whereas
downstream basin tends to have smaller rainfall. However, those geographical effects cannot
be expressed from the current GCM resolution because the grid size is too big to take
geographic feature into account. One reasonable way to solve this problem is downscaling.
Ideally, analyzing as many as downscaled results is desirable. However, it is very time-
consuming and needs lot more high techniques. In this research, downscaling method was not
applied and, instead of that, analysis of 17 GCMs was carried out.
In this research, 20 or 19 years of daily rainfall data from 1979-2000, 2044-2065, 2078-
2100 are analyzed in each model output.
Analysis items are as shown Table.1. Each analysis item is deeply related to several issues
such as flood, irrigation management, etc. Each item was analyzed from the following 2
points of view.

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Poster Session
1. How many models out of all showed the same (increase/decrease) trend in the future
compared to current condition?
and
2. How much percentage of increase/decrease can be estimated by averaging result from all
models?

Table.1

As for flood analysis, based on the result of probable rainfall analysis done in the rainfall
analysis, 10 year-return-period flood for current climate condition and Climate Change 50
years later were simulated about upper stream of Citarum River Basin where floods
frequently occur. Simulation tool was combination of Snyder Unit Hydrograph Model,
MIKE11, MIKE11 GIS and Arc View GIS ver.3.1.


Firstly, rainfall analysis found the following trends in the target area.
Annual rainfall& Seasonal rainfall will not change significantly in the future
No rainfall days will likely increase within 50 years, and more likely increase in 80 years.
Longest consecutive no rainfall days will more likely increase than not.
Heavy rainfall days will very likely to increase 50 years later, and likely to increase 80
years later.
Probable daily rainfall will increase with respective scenario.

Especially, probable rainfall analysis showed a clear trend of increasing. Table.2 shows
average incremental ratio of each probable rainfall. It showed a clear trend of increasing
especially under A1B scenario.

Table.2

As for flood analysis, 2 kinds of 10-year-return-period flood were simulated, one is under
current climate (Simulation 1) and the other is under the climate 50 years later considering
Climate Change based on SRES A1B (Simulation 2).

Flood/City
drainage
Irrigation/Drought
management
Water Management
Rainfall days over 50 mm/day
No rainfall days / consecutive no rainfall days
Annual rainfall
Seasonal rainfall (dry and rainy)
Probable daily rainfall (5,10,100 years return)

20C3M A A1 1B B B B1 1
1980-
2000
2046-
2065
2081-2100 2046-2065 2081-2100
Number of models which show more
severe distribution than 20C3M
82% 94% 76% 53%
14(/17) 16(/17) 13(/17) 9(/17)
5-year probable rainfall 1 1.18 1.31 1.14 1.18

Poster Session
The flood analysis showed that inundated area and depth of 10 year-return-period flood 50
years later concerning Climate Change (A1B) is bigger than that of current climate condition
(see Fig.3s right picture where inundated area under current climate is shown in red whereas
inundated area under future climate is purple)

Fig.3
(left ; current climate, center ; 50 years later (A1B), right ; comparison)

4. Conclusions

This study is including 2 important elements, one is to the effort to look the climate
change impact at the river basin scale, and the other is multi-model comparison.
In the field of Water Resource Management, climate change problem has been getting more
and more actively discussed today in terms of sustainable development of the river basin area.
This study showed the example of how Climate Model output can be taken into the river basin
scale with combination of hydro/hydraulic Model such as MIKE11. However, this study also
showed that it is impossible to take the small geological feature within the basin into account
with present Global Climate Model resolution. The problem of climate model resolution
clearly remained.
Besides, climate models still have uncertainty and this makes the multi-model comparison
valid compared to single model analysis.
This comprehensive 17 model comparison analysis showed several rainfall trends and
especially increasing probable rainfall trend, which lead to flood simulation showing future
flood with same probability will be severer.

5. Acknowledgement

This study is financially supported by River and Environmental Engineering Laboratory
in Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering.

6. References

Shuichi Ikebuchi, Michiharu Shiiba, Kaoru Takara, Yasuto Tachikawa (2006) Ace Hydrology,
pp. 93-177
http://www-pcmdi.llnl.gov/ipcc/model_documentation/ipcc_model_documentation.php
IPCC Working group1, (2007) Fourth Assessment Report (full report)
Pacific Consultants International (2007) REVIEW OF FLOOD CONTROL PLAN
AND DETAILED DESIGN PREPARATION UNDER UPPER CITARUM BASIN URGENT
FLOOD CONTROL PROJECT (II) (JBIC Loan No. IP-497) Subject Report - I
2 5 1
Poster Session
The comprehensive concept planning of urban greening; case study
Bangkok metropolis, Thailand
The review of green space management policy

Mr. Arthit Limpiyakorn, Prof. Takashi ONISHI, Assoc. Prof. Tetsuo KIDOKORO
3

International development & Regional Planning Unit
Department of Urban Engineering
Graduate School of Engineering
University of Tokyo

Introduction

In Bangkok metropolis, the capital city of Thailand, there has recently been a growing
awareness about the roles and benefits of greening in urbanized areas. In the resent five years,
Thai government released 7 green space management projects. The main concepts of six
projects in seven projects are the provision the service green space to resident, or it can say
that the projects focus only in urban area and only for humans need, not much concern in
other issues. The aim of this paper is to review the development of green space planning in
Thailand.

Review of green space development
Unlike many developed countries such as Germany and UK, Thailand does not have the
comprehensive green structure plan; and the management of green structure of Thailand is
fragment. Due to Thai government system, Fragmented Centralization, each government
organization responses and focuses only on their responsible area without coordinate with
other organizations or develop under the same guideline. Each law and policy depends on
different organization. There are mainly three groups of organization response to green space
preservation and development; urban planning organization, agricultural organization, and
forest organization. The policy and law relate to green space show as follow.

Table1. Act relate to green space management
Local scale Province scale Regional scale National scale
Act of legislations of
urban planning 1975
The royal act of agricultural land reform 1975
The royal act of
building control 1979
The royal act of consolidation 1974
The royal act of forestry plantation 1992
The royal act of watershed preservation 1987

1. The Act of legislations of urban planning 1975 (The Department of Public Work Town &
Country Planning)

In the act of legislations of urban planning 1975, green space was classified into 2 classes: 1)
the urban open space, 2) the agricultural area.
1. The urban open space was indentifies into 2 functions.
1. The open space for recreation (both private and public open space)
2. The open space for flood prevention (detention pond)
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Poster Session
In this plan the location and size of recreation open space are proposed.
District Park (Park size 480000 m2)
Sub district Park (Park size 160000 m2)
Community Park (Park size 80000 m2)

Figure1. Open space plan

2 The agricultural space
The land use ordinance identified the area for agricultural area into 2 terms.
Agricultural area
Agricultural area for flood prevention

2. The royal act of land consolidation 1974 (Land Consolidation Office) and The royal
act of agricultural land reform 1975(Agricultural Land Reform Office)
The purpose of the royal act of land consolidation is to increase yield per area by improving
the agricultural infrastructure. As well as the aim of the royal act of agricultural land reform is
to provide land to poor agriculturalists that have no land. Most of the land is the land that is
identified as the degenerative forest (according to the royal act of national forestry
preservation 1964).

3) The royal act of forestry 1941, The royal act of forestry plantation 1992, and The
royal act of watershed preservation 1987
The aim of these laws is to preserve human resource, natural environment, natural beautiful
scenery, ecological system, wild life, and wild life habitat. These laws are under the
responsibility of The National Park, Wild life, and Plant Conservation Department and The
Royal Forest Department.

Around 2001 Urban Environment and Area Planning Division was established under the
Office of Natural Resource and Environmental Policy and Planning. The responsibilities of
this division are:
1) Propose the preserve green space and recreation space policy and plan in order to protect
good environment and manage high productive area both in regional scale and national scale.
2) Screen, comment and suggest the government and private sector project and activity relate
to environmental quality, green space, recreation space, and preserve environmental area
3) Coordinate, and response to environmental impact assessment in the community area and
preserve area

The Urban Environment and Area Planning Division released 4 project within the last 4 years;
3 national scale projects and 1 local scale project. At the same time Department of City
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Planning Bangkok Metropolis Administrator release 3 projects relate to green space in their
responsible area; 1 province scale project and 2 local scale projects. The details of each plan
are as follow

Table2. Green space management plan
Scale Project name Objective Concept
National Sustainable green area
management plan, 2005
- To maintain the existing green area and increase effective new
green area
Provision of
services green
spaces
Green area management
plan for sustainable
ecosystem: ONREPP,
2006
- Create the sustainable ecosystem green area plan
- Create the implementation framework of this plan
- Create green area standard for municipalities in order to use
as a goal for their green area plan
Provision of
services green
spaces
The pioneer project of
new green concept, case
study Chaing Mai
province: ONREPP,
2005
- Provide the new concept of green city. The concept should be
developed according to the green area type from urban
planning law and emphasize on the process of human
participation.
- To develop strategy to manage green area
- Develop the indicators and the assess system of green area
Water Sensitive
Design concept
Regional - - -
Province The green area master
plan of Bangkok: DCP-
BMA, 2003

- To identify location, number, and size of green area which
should be preserved and established
- To create the management system of the organization relate to
green space management
- To assess the expenditure in the green space project and
propose fund resource
- To identify to role of private sector and people to
management, maintenance, and development of green space
Provision of
services green
spaces
Local Green space master plan,
study area Bang Gajao;
Samut Prakan: ONREPP,
2003

- To preserve natural environment and eco-system in the study
area.
- To develop and improve the community in term of sustainable
development and co-exist with natural environment
- To provide the land use management plan including
government organization authority
- To raise the awareness and potential of community in term of
participation to maintain and manage green space in the study
area
Environmental
preservation

Garden city, study area
Nong Joke (east of
Bangkok) : DCP-BMA,
2007
- To development master plan
- To solve flood plain problem
- To guide the direction of Infrastructure investment
- To provide land use plan and plan implementation; emphasize
on sustainable agriculture, sustainable urban community
Coexisting
between urban
and agriculture

Open space development
along canal in Bangkok:
DCP-BMA, 2006
- To provide the development framework of open space along 3
important canals in Bangkok in order to improve canalscape, to
improve the tourism and marine transportation, to increase
green space.
- To provide the development plan of open space along the
canals.
- To provide the conceptual plan and design guidelines for the
development along the canals
Provision of
services green
spaces

In the last 5 or 6 years, Thai government, especially government organization in Bangkok
metropolis, has tried to protect and paid high attention to green space. 3 national scale
projects and 4 local scale project were released in order to protect and increase green space in
Thailand mega cities. Bangkok is focused as the target area in many projects because the large
amount of environmental problem, high population and built-up area density, and lack of
open space. Six in seven project were aim to increase green space and pay high attention to
the provision of services green space to people. Only the pioneer project of new green
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concept, case study Chaing Mai province, use the different concept, Water Sensitive Design
concept, to create green space plan.

5. Discussion and conclusion
Looking at the detail in each green space development plan, five in seven plans emphasize to
increase green space in urban or built-up area. It is exactly that almost all or all of green space
in urban area will be developed as the recreation area such public park or golf club, and it
causes the increment of public park area in Bangkok (see figure2.). Another plan emphasize
on develop the implementation framework for green space management and guideline for
local governments to develop green space by themselves. The last plan emphasizes to propose
the new concept of green space management; Water Sensitive Design concept, together with
proposes the new area for green space by using GIS.

Figure2. Area of Public Park

From the above, it can be said that Thai government success in increasing recreational green
space for urban resident but fail to develop green space for other aspect. All of 7 green space
management projects are not a law. The success of the project depends on each local
government. Lucky for Bangkok resident, the Bangkok administrator understands the
importance of green space; and bring the green space development into Bangkok development
strategy; healthy city. Together with the boom of golf activities at the same time, many golf
clubs occur in the Bangkok metropolis area.

The green space projects focus only in urban area and only for human. It is not much concern
about other issues, such as flood problem, lost of mangrove forest, etc. If Thai government
need to success in development of green space, it should give high attention not only to
human but also environment, historical area, ecological system, and wild life.
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Poster Session
The development review system and the application in the inner city area
-The case studies on the design review in North America -

Hirofumi HORI
1)

7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8654, JAPAN
hori@up.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract

Recently, also in urban planning field, The concept of sustainability becomes a popular and
important factor. And there are many indicators to evaluate the sustainable. So, this time, I
focused on the development review as a tool to accomplish the sustainable development, and
identify the effective development review system. In this paper, I focused on development
review systems of Japan and North America. As a case study city located in the Urban fringe
area, I chose the city of Kokubunji in Japan, after that I considered the Design review system
in Seattle city, Washington, USA as an advanced example. The conclusions are, by
Kokubunji way, cant discuss about the design of the building itself, and that if the
development pressure is serious, the small developer cant have afford to create the good
environment. In Seattle, it has the clear design guidelines to discuss the design of the
development, and the guideline is approved by the city council, and zoning code relaxation is
available when the development meets or exceeds the intent of the adopted design guidelines.
In the review meeting, many organizations are involved and the meeting is open to the public,
has appeal system, the minutes and the report is available, has the 2 stages of the review
(Early design guidance and Design review meeting). From the case study of Seattle city, it is
granted that design review system is good tool for the neighborhood. However, for the
architect it is time and money-consuming process and it is hard to make the creativity of the
architecture itself. The finding is the importance to decide what elements have to be discussed
in the design review meeting .

Keywords: development review, design review, land use review, growth management

1. Introduction

Recently, also in urban planning field, The concept of sustainability becomes a popular and
important factor. And there are many indicators to evaluate the sustainable. For example,
there are sunlight, ventilation, density, bulk control, amenity, and well-designed architecture.
So, this time, I focused on the development review as a tool to accomplish the sustainable
development, and identify the effective development review system.

I begin with a brief review of Japanese development review system by the literature and the
case study of Kokubunji city, after that, I examine the Design review system in Seattle city,
Washington, USA as an advanced example.

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Poster Session
2. The issues of Japanese development review system
In many papers, the issues of Japanese development review system are identified. Akita
(2004) pointed out the lack of the flexibility and the openness in the review process, and that
Japanese Urban planning system is the combination of Area Division system (Urbanization
Promotion Area and Control Area) and Zoning system in general. The implementation is just
a zoning check. So, she pointed out the necessity of the public participation and the appeal
system. Fujii (2005) pointed out the guideline with a clear vision to discuss about the
development planning is necessary.

3-1. Machizukuri ordinance of Kokubunji city (Development review process ordinance)
Kokubunji city is located 25km away from the center of Tokyo (figure 1). It takes 40minutes
from Tokyo station by train. The population is 117,000. There still remain the agricultural
lands (figure 2). This area are so-called Urban fringe area located between urban and the
rural area. In 2006, Machizukuri ordinance is approved by the city council. Based on the
ordinance, the staffs of city office check the plan and advice to the developer over the 500m
2
development (300m
2
in conservation area). But the ordinance is not based on national
planning Law, so developer do not have to listen to the advice. It is the problem of this kind
of ordinance.

3-2. Good example and Bad example
I choose the 2 cases, which have gone through the development review by the city office. The
first one is well-designed and landscaped development as the figure 3 shows. On the other
hand, as the figure 4 shows, in another development site there is no space between the houses
and few landscape, and the floor area is full used. The first one is developed by a large
developer and the second one is by a small developer. It means if the development pressure is
serious, the market mechanism makes decisions. It is the difficult problem to solve. The
findings are, by Kokubunji way, they cant discuss about the design of the building itself, and
the small developer cant have afford to create the good environment.
Figure 2. landscape in the city Figure 4. Bad example
Figure 3. Good example
Figure 1. Kokubunji
city is located between
the central Tokyo and
the Rural Area. There
still remain the good
aglicultural land.
Kokubunji city
Center of Tokyo
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Poster Session
4-1. Seattles Design review

Seattle city is surrounded by beautiful natural scenery like Mt. Rainier, Puget sound and the
lake Washington (figure 5), and has good neighborhoods. The population is about 500,000.
The features of Seattles design review are, citizen-led design review system, having the clear
design guidelines to discuss about the design of the development, and the guideline which is
approved by the city council, and zoning code relaxation is available when the development
meets or exceeds the intent of the adopted design guidelines. In the review meeting, many
organizations are involved in it and the meeting is open to the public, has appeal system, the
minutes and the report is available, has the 2 stages of the review (Early design guidance and
Design review meeting), The developer cant submit the
building permit unless they get the land use permit. The Design
review process is indicated in the figure 6.

4-2. The case study of Seattles Design review

As a good example in terms of well-fitting to the character of
the area, I choose a development which is well-discussed and
greatly changed by the citizens comments (figure 7, figure 8,
figure 9). In the early design guidance, discussed about Height,
Bulk and Scale, Architectural Concept and Consistency,
Pedestrian Environment, Landscaping etc. and then, The
developer changed the plan at the next Design review meeting.
But, it took so long time (943days) so that the developer get
the building permit include the appeal from the neighborhood.
It is granted that design review system is good tool for the
neighborhood. However, for the architect it is time and money-
consuming process and it is hard to make the creativity of the
architecture itself. The finding is the importance to decide what
elements have to be discussed in the design review meeting .
Figure 6. Design review process

Figure 9. The change of the plan from the Early design guidance to Design review meeting.
Figure 5. Seattle city Figure 7. Example development Figure 8. Around the development
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Poster Session
5. Conclusions

The conclusions are, by Kokubunji way, cant discuss about the design of the building itself,
and if the development pressure is serious, the small developer cant have afford to create the
good environment. In Seattle, It has the clear design guidelines to discuss the design of the
development, and the guideline is approved by the city council, and zoning code relaxation is
available when the development meets or exceeds the intent of the adopted design guidelines.
In the review meeting, many organizations are involved in it and the meeting is open to the
public, has appeal system, the minutes and the report is available, has the 2 stages of the
review (Early design guidance and Design review meeting). From the case study of Seattle
city, it is granted that design review system is good tool for the neighborhood. However, for
the architect it is time and money-consuming process and it is hard to make the creativity of
the architecture itself. The finding is the importance to decide what elements have to be
discussed in the design review meeting .

6. Acknowledgement

This research was funded by a grant from JSPS(Japan Society for the Promotion of Science)
COE program entitled "Center for Sustainable Urban Regeneration"

7. References

Akita N. (2004) The effectiveness of Machizukuri Ordinance in the rural area. Ph.D thesis,
Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo.

Fujii S. (2005) The structure of the occurrence of condminium conflicts and the control
system of the renewal in the inner city area, Ph.D thesis, Department of Urban Engineering,
The University of Tokyo.

Hori H. (2006) A Study on Building Volume control with Design Review -A Case study of the
Design Review system and its Application in Seattle, Washington-, Master thesis, Department
of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo.

Hori H., Koizumi H., Okata J. (2007), A study on Design Review System and its application in
Seattle, Washington-Evaluation in terms of Building Volume Control-, journal of the planning
Institute of Japan, No.42-3, pp..241-246

Nozawa C., Hori H. (2008) A Study on the Residential land development Control through
Machidukuri Ordinance as Local rules - Case Study on Machizukuri Ordinance of Kokubunji
City journal of the planning Institute of Japan, No.43-3, pp..373-378

Department of planning and development, the city of Seattle (2008) Client assistance memo
238 Design Review - General Information, Application Instructions, and Submittal
Requirements -

The City of Seattle web pages (http://www.cityofseattle.net/)
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Poster Session
BUILD BACK BETTER: Facts from the Evaluation of Village Planning
Process in Aceh Post-Disaster Recovery

Togu Santoso Pardede
1
, Kidokoro Tetsuo
2

1
Doctoral Student, International Development and Regional Planning Unit, (Onishi and Kidokoro Lab),
Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo, togupar@urban.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Associate Professor, Department Urban Engineering, the University of Tokyo

Abstract

This paper try to explore the planning process in the community after disaster using a case
study an urban village in Banda Aceh City and try to get lesson learned from it. A document
review on village plan, interview and field observation conducted to get insight to the
planning process and implementation that has been done. Evaluation on village planning
performance conducted based on three essential aspect of post disaster recovery planning,
namely: reconstruction, community participation and disaster risk reduction aspects. In what
ways village planning can contribute to the three aspect to achieve build back better and
sustainable reconstruction.

Post Disaster Recovery Planning

Many scholars refer to disaster planning theory by Hass (1977) from his book
Reconstruction Following Disaster. It was the first study to take a comprehensive view of
the recovery process. Haas stated that reconstruction process is ordered, knowable, and
predictable (p. 261). It was countered by Rubin et al (1985). They argued that recovery is
more complicated than Haas sequential model. It is related with the importance of
organizational, leadership capacity, resources, vision, and commitment, the complexities of
local planning implementation, mitigation and sustainability (Berke,1998; Burby et al, 1994;
Dalton, 1989; May and Bolton, 1986, Johnson,1999, Milleti, 1999). Berke et al (1993),
observe that active local involvement is critical to success of recovery. Participation offers
several advantages, the most important of which may be sustainability: by involving citizens,
recovery can build community capacity to sustain success in the long run. Disaster recovery is
a decision process which works best when citizen participation and local decision-making is
facilitated (Olshansky, 2005).
Recovery processes are complex and unique to location, time, and context. A complex
process, since it involves many tasks and actors, compresses all aspects of urban development
into a short time period (time pressure). It is not possible to measure the length of the process
or to identify the endpoint of recovery. People are not in ideal condition both physically and
mentally. It is difficult to respond the real need of those people, in such condition. Thus, post
disaster planning is different from normal planning because in normal planning people are not
under the extreme stresses that they are in disaster planning. Very little research has been
devoted to analyzing how post-disaster recovery differs from development decision processes
in other contexts. Olshansky (2005) offers that viewing post-disaster recovery as a balancing
act between speedy actions and the need to deliberate on them, is useful in differentiating it
from other development decision processes.
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Poster Session

Why Village Planning in Aceh Post Disaster Recovery Planning

Prior to housing reconstruction Board of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (BRR) together
with all international communities agreed that they must prepared VP or Village Spatial
Planning. Village Planning is a community planning process which is designed to assure that
resident get realistic and appropriate choice for their future life. Main activity components
are: community participation, participatory land mapping, damage and loss assessment,
village plan, including land use and land consolidation, infrastructure, economic and public
facilities plan, disaster risk reduction.
It is probably the most widespread community participation planning in post disaster recovery
planning the world has ever seen. In period of one year It covers around 731 devastated
villages in Aceh Province and 46 villages in Banda Aceh city. It is supported by
bilateral/multilateral donor (USAID, Ausaid, UN-Habitat, GTZ, ADB, Mercy-corps, CARE
international, YIPD for land mapping and BRR).

Village Planning Process:

BRR published several guidelines related to village planning such as: participative land
mapping guidelines, Public consensus Building Land Demarcation, Village organization and
Development, and Renovation and Hosing Development guidelines. BRR guideline is used as
the minimum standard, each Each donor/agency has their own standard/guideline. The
guidelines are used as references for the construction and improvement of housing settlements,
as well as settlement infrastructure and economy and covered issues like disaster management,
risk reduction, and early warning system.Main process can be seen on below picture.

Evaluation on the village planning process based on Build Back Better Principal
Evaluation on the village planning is conducting based on Build Back Better principal and
Sustainable Recovery. The Build Back Better principal is clearly defined by 10 propositions
provided by Clinton (2006), the former US President. Sustainable Recovery is based on the
definition of Milleti (1999). By summarizing those two concept of recovery, comes out to the
three aspect that is aspect recovery, mitigation and community participation (see table)
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Poster Session

Case Study: Lampulo Village, Banda Aceh

Lampulo before tsunami
The village of Lampulo, a well established coastal community in urban Banda Aceh, was one
of the areas heavily damaged by the tsunami. It is located in the northern part of Banda Aceh
city, along the east side of the Aceh River up to the coastline. The area north of the village is a
mix of dilapidated fish ponds and severely damaged mangrove swamps. Lampulo is located
and within the buffer zone policy of Master Plan of Banda Aceh. Prior to the tsunami, most of
the majority of the village had sufficient basic infrastructure. The economic and occupational
structure of the community was quite varied, with a mix of occupations and incomes.
However, fishing was the predominant occupation. There was a fish market and a number of
floating docks

Lampulo lost nearly 4317 of people (849 died, 3522
missing) in the tsunami. See table table 4.
After Tsunami
Before After Tsunami (2005) 2006
Lost Died Safe
HH 1602 1451
Male 3251 1831 1370 1977
Female 3071 1691 1430 1446
Total 6322 3522 849 2800 3423
Source: Lampulo Village office, 2005;Kuta Alam Sub district Spatial Plan, GTZ ,2006
The majority of the buildings in Lampulo were
completely demolished by the tsunami.
Figure 2. Orientation of Lampulo to Banda Aceh

Lampulo

Kuta Alam

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Poster Session
Approximately 75% of the buildings in the total village were completely destroyed, with
another 10% heavily damaged. Much of the infrastructure in the community was in equally
bad condition. While there was a piped PDAM water supply to most of the village before, this
system is no longer functioning. Similarly, the electrical supply for the majority of homes and
businesses was completely destroyed. The internal roads themselves were probably the one
infrastructure element that was not badly damaged, though the condition of the roads pre-
tsunami were not very good to begin with and is even worse now.
The Tsunami wave destroyed local economic infrastructure such as: boat docks, ice-block
company, boats, etc. Many boats were crushed and thrown away inland. One of the boat
landed on roof of the house, become a tsunami monument.

Reconstruction process:
The reconstruction process in Lampulo, especially housing was implemented before the
village planning was conducted. Other sectors such as infrastructures, community facilities,
and local economic recovery were implemented after the village planning was conducted.
There are a number of organizations and agencies that have been actively involved in the
reconstruction work in Lampulo Village.(see table)
No Institution/Donor Activity/Project Year Progress
1 Aceh Relief Housing: 91 unit 2005 91 unit
2 BRR Housing Rehabilitation:10 2006 10 unit
3 CARE Housing: 965, temporary housing,
temporary WATSAN, health, and
livelihood assistance.
Village Planning
2006

2006
700 (not finish-
contractor
leaving)
finish
4 Kata Hati Housing
5 GTZ Community Hall for the Fisherman
Subdstrict/Kecamatan Spatial Plan
2006
2006
Finish
finish
6 Honda Motor Corp Health Centre/puskesmas 2006 finish
7 Coca Cola mosque & new school 2006 finish
8 Refugees des Enfants du
Monde
Elementary School 2006 finish
9 Americares new Fish Markets 2006 finish
10 BRI Rehabilitation mosque 2005 finish
11 OXFAM temporary drinking water supply 2005 finish
12 P2KP Road, drainage 2006 finish
13 YIPD Village mapping 2005 finish
Source: CARE,2006;GTZ,2006, field survey 2008

Evaluation on Implementation of the village plan
Overall evaluation on the village plan and implementation based on aspect recovery,
mitigation and community participation shows that: (1) Sector/Aspect which is "Build back
better" in post disaster: housing, local infrastructure, community facilities, disaster risk
mitigation and (2) Sector/Aspect which is NOT YET "Build back better" in post disaster:
local economy, environment, social capital, community participation. The evaluation on
village plan as per June 2008 can be seen on table. on attachment.

Poster Session
Lesson Learned:
Village Planning can give a quick overview of the local situation from the viewpoint of the
people. It also helped to transfer communities needs and wishes to decision makers and
planners in a direct way so that it motivates communities and mobilizes the implementation,
as well. Overall, it strengthens bottom-up process. On other hand, it can help with the healing
process in the community during the planning process , since they can help to forget the
miserable past, and focus on what they hope for the future of their community and family
life.
However, village planning faces challenges such as: social jealousy within community or
between villages, reconstruction delays, and the quality of houses due to land title issues, bad
contractors, and institutional problems. It can not replace a thorough analysis of all aspects or
of inter-region/villages, therefore a wider plan covering comprehensive aspect is necessary.
Due to many actors and plan involved at the same time, in a short time-such as: NGOs with
their plan and community with their village plans, as well as government plan, a
communication between player during the design of the plan and implementation is necessary.
The diagram below that adopted from Hopkins (2007) can explain how interacting of plan
could happen in Aceh.

The acting under influence of the plans perspective recognizes that many interacting agents
and their plans interact both through the effects of their actions and through their beliefs about
the plans and attitude of others with whom they are interacting.

Acknowledgement
The authors thank to Dr. Erwin Fahmi, Director of Spatial Planning of the BRR-Aceh and his
staffs for the generosity in providing data and information on the village plans.

Activities on
the Land
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Poster Session
References

Berke,P.2002.Does Sustainable Development Offer a New Direction for Planning? Journal of
Planning Literature, 17,1, Sage Publication.

BRR,2008,Laporan Kegiatan Tiga Tahun, Pemulihan Aceh Nias.

BRR,2007,Enriching the Construction of the Recovery, Annual Report 2007

CARE,2006. Village Planning Report: Lampulo, Kuta Alam, Banda Aceh.

Cliton,W,J,P.2006. Lesson Learned from Tsunami Recovery:Key Propositions for uild Back
Better, United NationsSecretary Generals Special Envoyfor Tsunami Recovery, nited
Nations, New York

Hopkins, L. (2005). Acting under Influence: Using Plans n Urban Development. Draft
discussion presented for Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning

Mileti,D.S, 1999. Disaster by Design: Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States,
Joseph Henry Press, Washington, DC.

Olshansky, R. B. (2006). Planning after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of the American Planning
Association, 72 (2), 147153.

Olshansky, R. B. (2005). How do communities recover from disaster? A Review of current
knowledge and an agenda for future research. Paper presented at the 46th Annual Conference
of the Association of Collegiate

Rubin, C.B.; Saperstein, Martin D.; and Barbee, Daniel G. 1985. Community Recovery from
a Major Natural Disaster, Monograph No. 41, Program on Environment and Behavior,
Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Boulder.

2 6 5
CV
Photo
Prof. Akimasa SUMI
Organization: Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability
Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science
The University of Tokyo
Job Title: Professor of The University of Tokyo
Executive director of Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Numerical weather prediction, Monsoon dynamics, tropical meteorology,
climate dynamics including ENSO and global warming simulation
Academic
Record:
1971, D. of Bachelor, The University of Tokyo
1973, D. of Master, The University of Tokyo
1985, D. of Science, The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
1973-1975, Tokyo-district meteorological Observatory, Japan Meteorological
Agency (JMA)
1975-1979, Electronic Computation Center/JMA
1979-1981, Research Associate, Department of Meteorology, University of
Hawaii
1979-1985, Electronic Computation Center/JMA
1985-1991, Associate Professor, Department of Geophysics, The University of
Tokyo
1991-present, Professor, Center for Climate System Research(CCSR), The
University of Tokyo
1994-2004, Director of CCSR
2005-present, Executive Director of TIGS
Academic / Social
Contribution:

266
CV

Prof. Terry McGee
Organization: The University of British Columbia
Job Title: Professor Emeritus
Major Field / Research
Interests:
Prof. McGee has published over 20 books and 200 articles. His principal research interest is
the planning challenges of the urbanization process in Asia and the growth and challenges of
mega-urban regions in Asia. He has also conducted research on rural migrants employed in the
semi-conductor factories of Malaysia ( 1980s) and street vendors in Southeast Asian cities in
the 1970s. Between 1999 and 2002 he worked on a policy orientated project on the
development of social safety nets for vulnerable low income populations in Southeast Asia
cities. For most of the 1990s he worked on a UBC= Vietnam project on poverty alleviation in
Vietnam together with six Vietnamese Universities. .In 2003 he was awarded the President of
Vietnams medal for distinguished contribution to Vietnamese social science. He is currently a
member of a UBC team in a joint UBC-Brazil project on New Public Consortia for Metropolitan
Governance in Brazil

Prof. McGee has acted as consultant for the UNDP, the Asian Development Bank, IDRC and
CIDA. Between 2003-2006 he carried out research together with Chinese colleagues on the
policy challenges of Chinese urbanization that resulted in a book entitled Chinas Urban
Space. Development under Market Socialism published in 2007 in London and New York His
recent research has been on the social economic, environmental and planning challenges of the
peri-urban-urban regions of extended metropolitan regions of Asia. He is presently working
on a project on the effects of climate change on the large metropolitan regions of Asia together
with scholars from the University of Tokyo and the United Nations University in Japan. .
Academic Record: B.A.: Victoria University, Wellington, NZ Geography 1958
M.A. (First Class): Victoria University, Wellington, NZ Geography 1961
Ph.D.: Victoria University, Wellington, NZ Geography 1969
Professional
Experience:
Former Director, Institute of Asian Research, The University of British Columbia 1978- 2000
Professor of Geography, University of British Columbia, 1978-2000

Prof. McGee has held appointments at the, University of Malaya (1958-1965) University of
Wellington (1966-1968) , University of Hong Kong, ( 1968-1973) Australian National
University (1973-1978) and, since 1978, The University of British Columbia.
Academic / Social
Contribution:
President, Canadian Association of Geographers, 1990-1992.
Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences Australia, 1975-
Acted as senior advisor on urban policy to BAPPANAS (Central Planning Agency) in
Indonesia for periods in the 1980s and 1990s.
More recently he has been a member of the Expert Panel on Urbanization in Developing
Countries established by the American Academy of Sciences based in Washington.
He has also been appointed to the International Geographical Unions Taskforce on Mega
Cities.

267
CV

Prof. Kazuhiko TAKEUCHI
Organization: Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S)

Job Title: Deputy Executive Director

Major Field /
Research
Interests:

Landscape ecology and planning, sustainability science
Academic
Record:
1970.4-1974.3 Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, The University of
Tokyo
1974.4-1976.3 Master's Course, Department of Agrobiology, Graduate School of
Agriculture, The University of Tokyo
1976.4-1977.3 Doctoral Course, Department of Agrobiology, Graduate School of
Agriculture, The University of Tokyo
1980 Received Dr. Agr. from The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
2008.7-Present Vice-Rector, United Nations University
2007.4-2008.6 Vice President for International Relations, Executive
Representative, Beijing Office, The University of Tokyo
2005.8-Present Deputy Executive Director, Integrated Research System for
Sustainability Science(IR3S), The University of Tokyo
2005.4-2008.6 Special Adviser to the President
2004.4-200.9 Director, Asian Natural Environmental Science Center, The
University of Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
2007-2008 Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture, Vice President
2008 The City Planning Institute of Japan, President
2005-2008 Rural Planning Association, Special Adviser
2003-2008 Center for Environmental Information Science, Trustee

268
CV

Tentative title of
your speech at the
session:
Supporting urban innovation
Dr. Sebastien RAUCH
Organization: Chalmers University of Technology
Job Title: Associate Professor
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Environmental Science/geochemistry
Urban systems
Academic
Record:
PhD, Chalmers, 2001
MSc, Chalmers, 1998
Maitrise, Universite de Haute Alsace, 1995
Professional
Experience:
Associate Professor, Chalmers, 2005-present
Assistant Professor, Chalmers, 2004-2005
Postdoctoral Fellow, MIT, 2002-2004
Research assistant, Chalmers, 2001-2002
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Sbastien Rauch is an associate professor at Chalmers Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering. His main research area focuses on environmental
geochemistry with a special attention to urban environments and their global
impacts. Interest in complex environmental issues has resulted in his
involvement in sustainability research and the coordinator of the AGS Urban
Futures Initiative at Chalmers. He is the author of over 40 peer reviewed articles
and the editor of a book on the urban environment published in the AGS book
series.

269
CV

Photo
Dr. Yuji HARA
Organization: IR3S, The University of Tokyo
Job Title: Project Assistant Professor
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Geography / Landscape Planning, Urban Rural Planning, Resource Flow,
Landscape Ecology
Academic
Record:
September 2007: Doctor of Agriculture
April 2003 September 2005
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science DC1 Researcher
September 2003 December 2003
Visiting researcher at LEP, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
March 2003: M.Agri. from Department of Ecosystem Studies, UT
March 2001: BSc from Department of Geography, UT
Professional
Experience:
October 2005 Present
Project Assistant Professor at IR3S, The University of Tokyo

270
CV

Prof. Irham
Organization: Graduate Program in Agribusiness
Gadjah Mada University
Job Title: Director
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Sustainable Agriculture and Environment
Academic
Record:
BSc. in Agricultural Economics, Gadjah Mada University (1988)
MSc. in Rural and Regional Planning, Asian Institute of Technology (1993)
PhD. in Agricultural and Resource Economics, the University of Tokyo (1998)
Professional
Experience:
Vice Chairman, Department of Agric. Socioeconomics, GMU (1998-2002)
Vice Director, Graduate Program in Agribusiness, GMU (2000-2008)
Director, Graduate Program in Agribusiness, GMU (2008-present)

271
CV

Dr. Kensuke KATAYAMA
Organization: Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering,
Job Title: Assistant Professor
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
National and Regional Planning, Spatial Planning in European Union
Academic
Record:
2001: Master, Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo
2004: Ph.D., Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
2004-2005: Project Research Associate of Research Center for Advanced Science
and Technology, The University of Tokyo
2005-2007: Research Associate of Department of Urban Engineering, The
University of Tokyo
2007-present: Assistant Professor of Department of Urban Engineering, The
University of Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
A member of Information Committee of the City Planning Institute of Japan
A member of Study Group on Spatial Planning System in Foreign Countries
(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Japan)

272
CV

Dr. Niramon KULSRISOMBAT
Organization: Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Architecture,
Chulalongkorn University
Job Title: Lecturer
Major Field /
Research Interests:
Urban conservation / Water-based urbanism
Academic Record: -Kulsrisombat, N. (2008), De Facto Urban Regeneration: A Case Study of
Chiang Mai City, Thailand, in Sustainable City Regions: Space, Place and
Governance, Kidokoro, T., Harata, N., Subanu, L.P., Jessen, J., Motte, A.,
Seltzer, E.P (eds), cSUR-UT Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration,
Springer (Japan).
-Kulsrisombat, N. and Siri, Y.(2007), Lost Space Under Elevated Expressway
and Urban Regeneration, Bangkok, in the research conference proceeding
titled Urban Renewal organized by Department of Urban and Regeneration,
- Piadaeng, N. (2006), Local Organizations and Locally-Based Tourism
Development, in the proceeding of research symposium titled Asian Approach
to Conservation held by UNESCO-ICCROM Asian Academy and the Faculty
of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, 3-4 October, 2006, Bangkok,
Thailand.
- Piadaeng, N. and Nishimura, Y. (2005), Stakeholder Collaboration and
Locally-Based Tourism Development: A Case Study of Rural Communities,
Thailand, in the publication series: WTO.EKM papers 2005, World Tourism
Organization (WTO) (in press).
Professional
Experience:
- 2005-present: Lecturer at Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University.
- 2008-present: Committee, Arts and Architectural Conservation Committee,
The Association of Siamese Architect Under Royal Pratonage.
- 2007: Second Prize. The Conceptual Design Competition for the New
Bangkok Sub-centers, rganized by Bangkok Metropolitan Administration,
(Team of Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University)
- 2001: First Prize. International Workshop on Tourism and Heritage:
Sustainable Development of the Doi Tung Mountains, Thailand, organized by
Mae Fah Luang Foundation and Ateliers dEte de Cergy-Pontoise.
Academic / Social
Contribution:
- Project leader: The project the Architect Volunteer in Amphawa Community
and Bang Noi community, Samut Songkhram province organized by the
Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University and Amphawa Municipality,
Samut Songkhram province, from year 2005-present.
2 7 3
CV

Prof. Shigenori MORITA
Organization: Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Job Title: Professor
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Crop Production for Food and Energy based on Root Ecology
Academic
Record:
Bachelor (1976), master 81978) and doctor of Agriculture (Ph.D. 1983) from The
University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
Assistant (1981), associate (1989) and full professor (2002) at The University of
Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Academic awards from Crop Science Society of Japan in 2007 and Japanese
Society for Root Research in 2005 and 2009. Vice president of
International Society of Root Research from 1996.

274
CV

Dr. Zhilin Liu
Organization: Tsinghua University
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Urban Policy and Governance, Sustainable Development, Housing Policy, New
Institutionalism Theory
Academic
Record: Aug 2007 to present, Assistant Professor,
TEACHING EXPERIENCE:
School of Public Policy and Management, Tsinghua University
2007 Ph.D. City and Regional Planning, Cornell University
EDUCATION
2002 M.S. Human Geography, Peking University, Beijing, P. R. China
1999 B.S. Urban Studies and Regional Planning, Peking University, Beijing, P. R.
China
Professional
Experience:

2008 to present Lanzhou City Economic Development Strategy Research, for Lanzhou
City Master Plan (2009-2020), Project PI.
2008 to present Incentives and Decision Mechanisms for Low-Carbon Development:
An Analysis of Local Government Behavior, Small Grant of Institute
of Low-Carbon Economy, Tsinghua University (Co-PI).
2008 to present Low-Carbon City Development Plan for Baoding City, Hebei
Province (PI: Professor QI Ye).
2007-2008 Urbanization Governance in China: Challenges and Policy Analysis,
(PI: Prof QI Ye), Research Project for 2007 China Sustainable Cities
Initiatve, sponsored by the Energy Foundation. Projects Key
Participant.

275
CV

Dr. Hideki KOIZUMI
Organization: Department of Urban Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Tokyo

Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Participatory and Collaborative Planning and Governance

Professional
Experience:
1993-1997: Research Associate of Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Science and
Engineering, Science Univ. of Tokyo
1997- 1999 : Lecturer of Urban Planning, Dpt. of Urban Engineering, School of
Engineering, University of Tokyo
1998 : Visiting Scholar, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University
of Washington

276
CV

Prof. Makoto YOKOHARI
Organization: Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Landscape planning
Ecological landscape planning in urban fringe areas
Academic
Record:
Bachelor (1984), master (1986) and PhD (2002) from The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
Research fellow, National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences (1986 to
1988)
Associate Professor, University of Tsukuba (1988 to 2004)
Professor, University of Tsukuba (2004 to 2006)
Professor, The University of Tokyo (since 2006)
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Japanese Institute of Landscape Architecture Award (1994)
Editorial board member of Landscape and Urban Planning (Elsevier), Landscape
Research (Carfax), and Landscape and Ecological Engineering
(Springer)

277
CV

Prof. Dietwald Gruehn
Organization: Dortmund University of Technology, School of Spatial Planning (Germany)
Job Title: Prof. Dr., Executive Director of Institute of Spatial Planning, Chair of Landscape
Ecology and Landscape Planning
Major Field /
Research Interests:
Landscape and Environmental Planning, Regional Development,
Validation and Development of Landscape Function Assessment Methods, Visual
Landscape Assessment, Land Valuation,
Concepts for Sustainable Land Use, Climate Change,
Open Space Planning Research,
Environmental Law and Policy,
Effectiveness of Planning Instruments and Programmes and their Evaluation,
Applied Multivariate Statistics in Spatial Planning.
Academic Record: "Habilitation" and "Venia legendi" in Landscape Planning, Landscape Management and
Nature Conservation, Berlin University of Technology, Germany (2004),
Ph.D, Berlin University of Technology (1997),
Correspondence degree course "Public Law", University of Hagen, Germany (1991-97),
M.Sc. in Landscape Planning, Berlin University of Technology (1985-91).
Professional
Experience:
Since 2008 Executive Director of Institute of Spatial Planning (IRPUD), Dortmund
University of Technology,
2006-08 Vice-Executive Director of Institute of Spatial Planning (IRPUD), Dortmund
University of Technology,
Since 2006 Full Professor, Chair of Landscape Ecology and Landscape Planning,
Dortmund University of Technology,
2005-06 Head of Environmental Planning Department, Austrian Research Centers -
systems research GmbH, Vienna, Austria,
2004 Managing Director, "Environmental Planning, Research and Consultancy", Berlin,
2003-04 Visiting Professor, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU),
Department of Landscape Planning, Alnarp, Sweden,
2003 Consultant, Estonian, Latvian & Lithuanian Environment Ltd. (ELLE), Riga,
Latvia,
1997-2003 Assistant Professor, Berlin University of Technology, Department of
Landscape Planning, Landscape Management and Nature Conservation,
1991-97 Research Scientist, Berlin University of Technology, Department of Landscape
Planning, Landscape Management and Nature Conservation.

2 7 8
CV

Mr. Norihisa SHIMA
Organization: Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Urban and regional planning in Asia and Africa, Development economics
Academic
Record:
March, 2002 Bachelor degree, Department of Urban Engineering, the University
of Tokyo
March, 2004 Master degree (engineering), Department of Urban Engineering, the
University of Tokyo
April, 2004-October, 2007 Doctor course, Department of Urban Engineering, the
University of Tokyo

Professional
Experience:
October, 2007-August, 2008 Project researcher, Center for Sustainable Urban
Regeneration (cSUR), the University of Tokyo
September, 2008-Present Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
the University of Tokyo

279
CV

Dr. Peeyush SONI
Organization: Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok (Thailand)
Job Title: Affiliated Faculty (AIT); Secretary-General (AAAE); Assistant Editor (IAEJ)
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Agricultural Engineering; Aquacultural Engineering; Controlled Environment
Engineering; Greenhouse Technology; Agricultural Systems Analysis
Academic
Record:
D.Eng. (Agricultural Engineering), Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
M.Eng. (Agricultural Engineering), Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand
B.Eng. (Agricultural Engineering), College of Engineering & Technology, India
Professional
Experience:
Jan 07 - to date Affiliated Faculty
Courses taught: Controlled Environment Agriculture
Design & Testing of Agricultural Machinery
Aquaculture Engineering
Ergonomics
Apr 07 - to date Research Laboratory Supervisor
Laboratories supervised: Farm Power & Machinery; Design &
Testing; Precision Agriculture; Ergonomics; Greenhouse
control; Soil Mechanics; Instrumentation & Measurement
Systems

280
CV

Prof. Zong-bo TAN
Organization: School of Architecture, Tsinghua University
Job Title: Professor, Cochairman of Urban Planning Department
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Urban Planning & Design / Urban Land Use Planning, Comparison of Urban
Planning System in different Countries and Districts
Academic
Record:
A Doctoral & Master Degree of Engineering (Urban Planning) from Osaka City
University, Japan
A Bachelor Degree of Architecture from Tsinghua University, China
Visiting Scholar in Graduate School of Design at Harvard University, USA
Professional
Experience:
Researcher of United Nations Center for Regional Development
Deputy Manager in Forest Overseas Co. Ltd.
Chief Designer of ZYT Studio
Researcher of China Institute for Development Planning at Tsinghua University
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Member of Urban Planning Overseas committee, Urban Planning Society of
China
Director of Urban Planning Society of Beijing

281
CV

Prof. Hitoshi IEDA
Organization: Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Transportation, national planning
Academic
Record:
graduate from the University of Tokyo in 1978
(Dept. of Civil Engineering)

Professional
Experience:
entered Japanese National Railways in 1978,
worked for several railway projects; speed-up projects of Shinkansen
and existing narrow gauge lines; North-East Corridor project
in USA; advanced track management strategies.
Research Associate at the University of Tokyo in 1984
Associate Professor at the University of Tokyo in 1986
Visiting Researcher at German Aerospace Research Institute
(1988-1989)
Visiting Professor in the University of the Philippines
(1993-1994)
Professor at the University of Tokyo in 1995
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Member of National Councils for such as
Metropolitan Rail Network Development,
Road policy, Port Development, and City Development

282
CV

Prof. Toshio OTSUKI
Organization: Dep. of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, The Univ. of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Architectural Planning Theory and Design
Housing for Low Income People
Management Studies for Housing Estates
Academic
Record:
1991 B.S. Dep. of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of Tokyo
1993 M.S. Dep. of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, Univ. of
Tokyo
1997 Dr.Eng. Dep. of Architecture, Graduate School of Engineering, Univ. of
Tokyo
Thesis title: A Study on Long-Term Management for collective houses
Professional
Experience:
1996-1999 Research Associate of Dep. of Architecture, Yokohama National
Univ.
1999-2003 Lecturer of Dep. of Architecture, Tokyo Univ. of Science
2003-2008 Associate Professor of Dep. of Architecture, The Univ. of Tokyo
2008- Associate Professor of Dep. of Architecture, The Univ. of Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Book
2006 Time in Collective Housings Oukoku-sha
Academic paper
2008 An Evaluation of Detached Housing Estates with Different Types of
Approaching Space. A Comparative Study between Comkon
Space and without- Joint Committee for Housing, AIJ

CV

Dr. Kensuke FUKUSHI
Organization: IR3S, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Urban environmental engineering: hazardous compound management, risk
assessment, biological treatment, membrane technology, and suitability science
Academic
Record:
BS and MS in Civil Engineering at Tohoku University, Japan (1989 and 1991)
Ph.D. in Civil Engineering at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City (1996)
Professional
Experience:
1996 Research Associate at Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
1997 Assistant Professor at Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
1999 Assistant Professor at Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
2001 Associate Professor at Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
2001 Associate Professor at the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Ken Fukushi has approximately 100 publications (approx. 50 are peer reviewed
journal publication) in professional journals, conference proceedings, and book
chapters in environmental science and engineering fields. He belong various
domestic and international academic societies and serves as an editor of two
international journals (Sustainability Science and ASCE journal). He teaches
environmental system engineering, urban environment, hazardous waste
management, and environmental sustainability in Graduate Schools of
Engineering and Frontier Sciences at the University of Tokyo. He is one of the
founding faculty members of IR3S.

284
CV

Mr. Dipak GYAWALI
Organization: Institute for Social and Environmental Transition
Job Title: Research Director
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Interdisciplinary research at the interface of society and resource
base/technology, specifically around issues of water and energy. Cultural Theory
(Theory of Plural Rationalities) approach to water and other conflicts.
Academic
Record:
MSc (Hydroelectric Power Engineering), Moscow Energy Institute, USSR
MA (Energy and Resources), University of California, Berkeley, USA
Pragya (Academician), Nepal Academy of Science and Technology
Professional
Experience:
Nepal government engineer till 1986; Interdisciplinary analyst since 1987
Nepals Minister of Water Resources 2002/2003
Chair, EUs review of its international water research FP4 (1994) to FP6 (2006)
Vice Chair, UNs 3rd World Water Development Report (March 2009/Istanbul).
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Books/reports: Rivers, Technology and Society; Aid Under Stress; Ropeways in
Nepal; Re-imagining the Rural Urban Continuum; Fluid Mosaic;
Chapter in books: Environment Across Cultures; Clumsy Solutions to a Complex
World; Indo-Nepal Water Relations - Challenges; Water and Ethics;
Activities: Chair, Rural Self-Reliance Development Center (till 1997); Trustee,
King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (1998-2006); currently
General Secretary, Nepal Guthi Preservation Society; Board member, Nepal
Water for Health; Chair, Nep School of Social Sciences and Humanities.

285
CV

Dr. Guangwei HUANG
Organization: Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Environmental Hydraulics, River Engineering
Academic
Record:
Doctor of Engineering from the University of Tokyo, 1994.
Professional
Experience:
Associate Professor at Kanazawa University and Niigata University

286
CV

Dr. Kumiko OGUMA
Organization: Department of Urban Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
1. Determination of microbial and chemical pollution in water environment.
2. Assessment and management of waterborne health risks.
3. Water and wastewater management systems in urban area.
4. Sustainable use of groundwater.
5. Advanced water treatment technologies including UV irradiation, membrane
filtration and adsorbents application.
Academic
Record:
March, 2003: Doctor of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
March, 2000: Master of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
March, 1998: Bachelor of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
October, 2008: Current position
May-September, 2005: Visiting Assistant Professor, Duke University (USA)
April, 2003: Assistant Professor, Department of Urban Engineering, The
University of Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
International Ultraviolet Association (International Board Member)
International Water Association
Japan Society on Water Environment
Japan Society of Civil Engineers

287
CV

Prof. Guangheng NI
Organization: Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Job Title: Director of the Institute of Hydrology & Water Resources
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Hydrological modeling
River basin water resources management
Water quality simulation and evaluation
High efficiency water use in arid and semi-arid regions
Academic
Record:
1991.10-1994.09, Doctor of Engineering, the University of Tokyo
1985.09-1988.06, Master, Tsinghua University
1980.09-1985.07, Bachelor, Tsinghua University
Professional
Experience:
2002.12-present,
Dept. of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, China
1994.10-2002.12,
Nippon Koei Co. LTD., Japan
Urban River Division, PWRI, Japan
Civil Engineering and Eco-technology Consultants Co., LTD., Japan
1988.07-1991.09,
Dept. of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, China
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Member of CHES (Chinese Hydraulic Engineering Society), Committee on
Urban Water Resources
Member of CSNR (China Society of Natural Resources), Committee on Water
Resources
Member of APHW (The Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology and Water
Resources)
Member of IAHS (International Association of Hydrological Science)

288
CV

Dr. Priana SUDJONO
Organization: Dept. of Environmental Engg., Bandung Institute of Technology.
Job Title: Associate Professor.
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Computation on Environmental Management System especially in Water
Management.
Academic
Record:
1981 Sanitary Engineer.
1986 Master of Science in Environmental Management and Technology.
1991 Post Graduate Diploma in Engineering.
1998 Doctor of Engineering Systems.
Professional
Experience:
1981-1991 Assistance at the Bandung Institute of Tech., Dept of Env. Eng.
1991-2000 Lecturer at the Bandung Institute of Tech., Dept of Env. Eng.
2000-now Associate Professor at the Bandung Inst. of Tech., Dept of Env. Eng.
2003-2004 Guest Professor at River Basin Research Center, Gifu Uni, Japan.
Academic / Social
Contribution:
2005-now Chief section of scientific publication and events at Indonesia
Association of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers. Responsible
for annual scientific meeting, at national level, on Research on
Environmental Problems in Indonesia.
Editor of a scientific journal nationally distributed Lingkungan Tropis.
Editor of a scientific journal internationally distributed Applied Sciences
in Environmental Sanitation.

289
CV

Dr. Shahram KHOSROWPANAH
Organization: University of Guam, Water & Env. Research Institute of the
Western Pacific (WERI)
Job Title: Professor of Water Resources Engineering
Major Field / Research
Interests:
Hydraulics, Surface water hydraulics, computer modeling of water
distribution systems, soil erosion and sedimentations, GIS
application in water resources, watershed management
Academic Record: Ph.D. Civil Engineering, Colorado State University
M.S. Civil Engineering, Colorado State University
B.S. Irrigation, Rezaeih University
Registered Professional Civil Engineer
Certified master modeler for MWH Soft H2oMap and Haestad
WaterCAD
Professional Experience:
Dr. Khosrowpanah has more
than 25 years of experiences in
research and engineering
practices in the area of water
resources. He is presently
the principal investigator for the
following projects:
Identify the Optimum Land Coverage Practices for Southern
Guam
Watersheds Development of Realistic Residential and
Commercial Water Demands for Use with the Saipan Water
Distribution System Model
Watershed Management for Senipehn Watershed, Pohnpei
Island, the Federated States of Micronesia
Developing a Digital Watershed Atlas for Southern Guam
Academic / Social Contribution:

Dr. Khosrowpanah teaches and advises graduate and under-grad
students in Envi. Science Program and Pre-Engineering program
at the University of Guam.

CV

Dr. Parikesit
Organization: Dept. Biology/Institute of Ecology Padjadjaran University Bandung Indonesia
Job Title: Lecturer/Researcher
Major Field /
Research Interests:
Landscape ecology and Natural resource management/ Biodiversity conservation
Academic Record: - PhD graduated from the University of Tokyo Japan in 2004
- MSc graduated from the University o Guelph Canada in 1994
- BSc graduated from Padjadjaran University Indonesia in 1988
Professional
Experience:
- Lecturer at the Dept. Biology Fac. Mathematics & Nt. Sciences Padjadjaran Univ.
- Lecturer at Graduate programme on Environmental Studies Padjadjaran Univ.
- Researcher at the Institute of Ecology Padjadjaran Univ.
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Parikesit, Salim, H., Triharyanto, E., Gunawan, B., Sunardi, Abdoellah, O.S., Ohtsuka, R. 2005.
Multi-source water pollution in the Upper Citarum Watershed, Indonesia, with special
reference to its spatio-temporal variation. Environmental Sciences, 12, 3: 121 - 131
Parikesit, Takeuchi K, Tsunekawa A., Abdoellah, O.S., 2005. Kebon tatangkalan: a disappearing
multi-layered agroforestry in the changing agricultural landscape of the Upper Citarym
Watershed, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 63: 171 182
Parikesit, Takeuchi K, Tsunekawa A., Abdoellah, O.S., 2005. Resource analysis of small-scale
dairy production system in an Indonesian village: a case study. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and
Environment105: 541 - 554
Parikesit. 2003. Kebon tatangkalan: the multi-layered agroforest in the changing agricultural
landscape of the Upper Citarum Watershed, West Java, Indonesia. Journal of Ecology and
Development.
Parikesit, Takeuchi K, Tsunekawa A., Abdoellah, O.S., 2001. Non-forest Fuelwood Acquisition
and Transition in Type of Energy for Domestic Uses in the Changing Agricultural Landscape
of the Upper Citarum Watershed, Indonesia. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 84,
245-258

291
CV

Dr. Takeyoshi CHIBANA
Organization: Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Job Title: Lecturer
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
1. Forming process of river morphology
2. Evaluation of river ecosystem
3. Management of river basin environment
Academic
Record:
March, 2003: Doctor of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
March, 2000: Master of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
March, 1998: Bachelor of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Professional
Experience:
August, 2004: Current position
September, 2003: Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Tokyo
April, 2003: Researcher, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of
Tokyo
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Japan Society of Civil Engineers

292
CV

Photo
Dr. Goro MOURI
Organization: Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo
Job Title: Postdoctoral fellow
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
I am currently in my fourth year as a PostDoc at Institute of Industrial Science
(IIS), University of Tokyo. I am a specialist in hydrological environmental
studies, and have broad studying and professional experience in catchment-scale
integrated water management. My work has focused on water sustainability
considering CO
2
emission assessment on Shikoku Island, western Japan, where
we are using numerical model based on hydrological technique to understand the
environmental impacts in an urban sewage system.
Academic
Record:
Ph.D. in Civil system engineering, Kyoto University (2003), Modeling of water
and sediment dynamics in the basin scale and its application to the actual basin.
Professional
Experience:
-Postdoctoral fellow of the project about catchment-scale integrated water
management supported by the New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO), Institute of Industrial Science (IIS), The
University of Tokyo (2005-2009)
-Project Leader of the project about water-resources development supported by
the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation (KWEF). (2007-2008)
-Postdoctoral fellow of the project about creation of sustainable water
environment in an urban catchment supported by the city of Gifu, Information
and Multimedia Center (IMC), Gifu University (2003-2005)

293
CV
Photo
Dr. Tetsuo KIDOKORO
Organization: University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Urban and Regional Planning/
Planning governance in Asian Countries
Informal Settlements
Academic
Record:
1993: Acquired Ph. D. from the University of Tokyo (Urban Planning)
1983: Graduated the Master Program of the Dept. of Urban Engineering, School
of Engineering, the University of Tokyo in March 31, 1983 (M. of Eng.)
1981: Graduated the Dept. of Urban Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The
University of Tokyo in March 31, 1981 (B. of Eng.)
Professional
Experience:
1996 - Present: Associate Professor, the Department of Urban Engineering, the
University of Tokyo
1994 1996: Visiting Lecturer (JICA Expert), Dept. of Urban and Regional
Planning, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
1990 - 1994: National Expert, the United Nations Center for Regional
Development (UNCRD)
1987 - 1989: Associate Expert, Human Settlements Unit, the United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP)
1983 - 1987: Urban Planner, ALMEC Corporation
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Kidokoro, T. et al. eds. (2008) Sustainable City Regions: Space, Place and
Governance, Springer
Kidokoro, T. et al. eds. (2008) Vulnerable Cities: Realities, Innovations and
Strategies, Springer

294
CV

Dr. Qiang Charles Luo
Organization: WERI (Water and Environmental Research Institute of Western Pacific),
University of Guam
Job Title: Ph.D., Assistant Professor, and P.Eng.
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Dr. Luos primary research interests center on distributed numerical modeling of
watershed hydrology including water quantity and quality issues. Using
distributed data input of climate, vegetation, soil, morphology and geology, the
model LUOM (Luo, 2007) generates both lumped and distributed output such as
precipitation, evapotranspiration, surface water depth, stream flow (discharge),
infiltration, soil moisture, recharge to groundwater, and groundwater table. The
model makes use of GIS as the pre- and post-process tool. The model is also
capable to simulate sediment production on hill slopes and sediment transportation
in the overland flow and stream flow, deposition on and erosion of the riverbed.
The model application includes stream flow estimation, flood prediction, impacts
of climate change, impacts of land use change/urbanization, and effects of forest
management, etc.
Academic
Record:
Ph.D. in Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan
M.Sc. & B.Sc. in Water Resources Engineering, Tsinghua University, China
Professional
Experience:
Registered Professional Engineer at APEGBC, Canada.
2008 : Assistant Professor, WERI, University of Guam, U.S.A
2006 2008: Engineer, CH2M HILL Canada Limited.
2004 2006: Research Associate, University of British Columbia, Canada
2000 2004: Modeling scientist and Engineer, INA Corp. Japan
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Developed a distributed watershed model LUOM (Luo, 2007) and published a
storybook on Taoism, Lao-zi and Daode-jing (Luo, 2005).

295
CV

Dr. Danai THITAKOO
Organization: Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand
Job Title: Lecturer
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Landscape-Urban Ecology / Urban Ecology with an emphasis on urban patterns
and urban-rural interactions and changes, Hydro-Ecology, Human Ecosystem,
Landscape Changes and Resilience and Adaptation, Historical Landscape.
Academic
Record:
1998 Ph.D. in Environmental Planning, Department of Landscape Architecture, College of
Environmental Design, University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.
1990 M.LA., Department of Landscape Architecture, Graduate School of Design, Harvard
University, U.S.A.
1983 B.LA. (Honors), Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
Professional
Experience:
2006-Present Principle Investigator: Landscape and Urban Ecology and Planning Laboratory,
Dept. of Landscape Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
2004-Present Researcher: Southeast Asia START Regional Center, Bangkok, Thailand.
1998-Present Lecturer: Dept. of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Architecture,
1995- 1998 Research Specialist an Instructor: Geographic Information Science Center,
University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.
Academic / Social
Contribution:
2008 Thaitakoo, D. and McGrath, B.: Changing landscape, changing climate: Bangkok and
the Chao Phraya River Delta, Places 20.2: Climate Change and Place, Forum of Design
for the Public Realm, edited by Nancy Rottle, Marina Alberti, and Daniel Friedman,
October, 2008, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
2006 Thaitakoo, D. and B. McGrath: Bangkoks Agri and Aqua-cultural Fringe , Topos, Issue
56 Cultural Landscapes (September, 2006), Edited by Robert Schfer, The International
Review of Landscape Architecture and Urban Design, George D.W. Callwey Gmbh &
Co.KG Munich, Germany

296
CV

Prof. Kaori FUJITA
Organization: The University of Tokyo Graduate School of Engineering
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Department of Architecture / Timber Engineering
Academic
Record:
Graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1993
Graduated from the Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo in 1995 with the
degree of Master of Engineering
Graduated from the Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo in 1999 with the
degree of Doctor of Engineering. Thesis entitled: Experimental Research on the Horizontal Load
Carrying Elements of Traditional Japanese Timber Structures (in Japanese)
Professional
Experience:
COE Researcher at Structural Engineering Research Center, Tokyo Institute of Technology,
May 1999.
Research Associate at Tokyo Metropolitan University, October 1999.
Assistant Professor at Tokyo Metropolitan University, October 2000.
Associate Professor at Tokyo Metropolitan University, April 2005.
Associate Professor at The University of Tokyo, since April 2007, as of January 2009
Academic / Social
Contribution:
Member of the Architectural Institute of Japan
Board of the Non Profit Organization Forum of Timber Architecture

297
CV

Mr. Dendi MUHAMAD
Organization:
- Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia.
- Master Program of Environmental Studies, Post-Graduate Program,
Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia.
Major Field /
Research Interests:
Dendi Muhamad is a master of Environmental Studies major in Natural
Resource Management (from Padjadjaan University, 2008). In 2005 he
received a schoolarship from JASSO as research student in Lab. of Landscape
Ecology and Planning, Department of Ecosystem Studies, Graduate School of
Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo (for 6 months). Now,
he is a researcher in the Institute of Ecology, Padjadjaran University. His study
focuses on energy analysis in sustainable agricultural landscape management
in rural and pre-urban area, West Java, Indonesia. He also has an interest in
conducting research about farmers strategies on lbor alocation amng several
agricultural production system in a pre-urban area of West Java, Indonesia.

Ms. ZHOU Dingyang
Organization:
Laboratory of Landscape Ecology and Planning,
Department of Ecosystem Studies,
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences,
Major field /
Research
interests:
Research interests:
Land use/cover /intensity change
Landscape planning
Food risk and food security
Academic experience:
MSc China Agriculture University
Graduate Thesis: The Dynamic Change of Cropping System and Food
Production Risk in China
BA China Agriculture University
Graduate Thesis: Driving Forces of Urban Sprawl and Its estimate in
Dangyang County
2 9 8
CV

Mr. Kazuaki TSUCHIYA

Organization: Department of Ecosystem Studies, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Major Field
Landscape Ecology and Planning
Research Interests
Cities have grown with sprawling on agricultural landscapes and constructing
urban parks. Not all these green spaces are in good condition. Scattered
agricultural landscapes have abandoned and lack of management can be
found in some parks. These deserted landscapes are causing social and
ecological problems, thus the regeneration are needed. Planning and design
of landscapes can be a key tool to tackle these problems.
Urban Landscape Regeneration
How technological innovation has changed, is changing and will change the
landscapes? (agricultural techniques in ancient times, machines in modern
era, todays information technology, green tech in near future)
Technological Innovation and Landscape Change

Mr. Jay BOLTHOUSE

Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Jay Bolthouse is originally from Michigan, land of the Great Lakes. After
completing his bachelors degree in Geography at Western Michigan University,
he traveled to Japan and worked as an English instructor for two years. From
2005-2007, he completed a masters thesis on the social construction of the
Japanese concept of satoyama while in the Department of Geography at Western
Washington University. Currently, he is a PhD candidate at The University of
Tokyo where he is conducting doctoral research on community forestry networks
in England, New England, and Japan.

2 9 9
CV

Ms. Mariko MIYAMOTO
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Ms. Mariko Miyamoto is a PhD candidate of the Graduate School of Frontier
Sciences, the University of Tokyo. She received Bachelor of Environment and
Information Studies from Keio University in 2005, and Master of Environment
from the University of Tokyo in 2007.Her current study subjects include
landscape ecology and landscape planning, especially utilization of mountain
forest resources in modern age. She is a member of the Japanese Institute of
Landscape Architect, and the Japanese Association for Landscape Ecology. She
also has an interest in Cultural Landscape.

Mr. Toru TERADA
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Toru TERADA is a master of Policy and Planning Sciences (from University of
Tsukuba, 2008) and now he is PhD candidate of the University Tokyo majoring
Landscape and Regional Planning. His study focuses on a sustainable
maintenance of green spaces in particular distributed on a suburban area which is
formed by urban-rural mixed land-use pattern, in terms of low-carbon and woody
biomass utilization, and also he has an interest in its implementation for
comprehensive regional planning like a green belt policies.

300
CV

Ms. Asako OKUNO
Organization: Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The
University of Tokyo
Environmental Risk Management & Quality Control Technology laboratory
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Asako OKUNO is a master of Urban Engineering of The University of Tokyo
and now Im PhD candidate of that.
My study focuses on evaluation of environmental burden in recycling of plastic
containers and packaging wastes in Japan.
Im especially interested in cascade recycling of the plastic wastes that is
feedstock recycling or energy recovery of recycled single resin produced by
mechanical recycling to no cascade recycling that is only feedstock recycling or
energy recovery of the wastes.

Ms. Haruna WATANABE
Organization: Water Environment Technology Laboratory, Department of Urban Engineering,
Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
2008.3: Master of Engineering (Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate
School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo)
2008.4-now: PhD candidate of Engineering (same as above)
Research theme: Sediment toxicity identification
Contaminated sediments in urban water environment have toxic effect on
aquatic ecosystem. For the effective remediation of them, the identification of
chemical compounds responsible for the toxicity is needed. Now, I apply a
biologically-based fractionation approach called Toxicity Identification
Evaluation (TIE) to the whole-sediment bioassay with an ostracod (a benthic
crustacean) in order to identify the cause of sediment toxicity.

301
CV

Mr. Hiroaki FUJIMORI

Organization: Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Hiroaki FUJIMORI is master 1
st
student majoring in River Environmental
Engineering. He is interested in retaining the sound environment of rivers
damaged by human impact. To contribute to create eco-friendly river
environment, firstly he studies about gravel bars to grasp the characteristics of it.
Here characteristics mean bed material distribution, bars shape, relationship
between bars and flow regime, etc.

Mr. Hongpin MO
Organization: Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University
Major Field /
Research Interests:
MO Hongpin got his bachelor degree of Environmental engineering (from Tsinghua
University, China, 2006) and now he is a PhD candidate of Tsinghua University
majoring in Environmental System Analysis.
His study focuses on constructing a sustainable developing pattern for cities of
China, in which high resources and energy efficiency, low environmental burdens
and proper economic growth are main objects to purchase. The new national
strategy named Circular Economy is considered to be a potential approach, which
has various commons with the 3R society principle in Japan, and he is interested in
its theory and implementation.
Meanwhile, he is also working in Research Center for Industry of Chinas Circular
Economy in Tsinghua University, this institute has completed a number of
environmental consulting and research projects providing policy-making supports
for the state and regional governments of China.
3 0 2
CV

Mr. Yutaka ARAKI

Organization: Graduate student of Civil Engineering, The university of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Yutaka ARAKI is a master student of Civil Engineering, (from University of
Tokyo, 2008). He has studied about climate model in terms of analyzing climate
change impact especially focusing on 1 river basin in Indonesia while he was
staying in Asian Development Bank (Manila) as an internship last year (Jul-Dec,
2008).

Mr. Arthit LIMPIYAKORN
Organization: Graduate School of Urban Engineering, University of Tokyo

Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Arthit Limpiyakorn graduated Master degree from Asian Institute of Technology,
GIS&RS. Now he is PhD. Candidate of the university of Tokyo, International
Development & Regional Planning Unit. His study focuses on development of
comprehensive conceptual framework for urban greening. He also interested in
landscape ecological principal.

303
CV

Mr. Hirofumi HORI
Organization: The Urban Land Use Planning Research Unit,
Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Hirofumi HORI have got a masters degree of Urban engineering from The
University of Tokyo, 2007. And now, he is a Ph.D candidate of The Land use
planning research unit in The university of Tokyo.
His background is architecture, graduated from the faculty of architecture,
Engineering department in The University of Nagoya. After his graduation, he has
worked at the commercial development and consulting company for 2 years. And
then, he entered the masters course of The University of Tokyo
His study focuses on the sustainable Land use and Architectural design Review
system (actually, it means development review system) and the application in
North American cities. For example, Seattle, WA, Denver, CO, Portland, OR,
Vancouver, BC (Canada) etc
And also, he has interest in the Comprehensive planning and its implementation;
it might be Zoning and the Development Review, Public participation, citizen
agreement, of course, Planning system in each country!

Mr. Togu PARDEDE
Organization:
Japan: International Development Planning Unit (Onishi & Kidokoro Lab.),
Dept.Urban Engineering, The University of Indonesia
Indonesia: Ministry of Planning and Development/BAPPENAS
Major Field /
Research
Interests:
Togu Pardede got his bachelor degree in 1994 from Bandung Institute of
Technology with major in urban planning and Master in International
Development Studies in 2003 from GRIPS-Tokyo and now he is PhD candidate
of the University of Tokyo. His involvement as Central Government officer in
preparing Reconstruction plan/Blue Print of Aceh post Tsunami (2004) and
Damage and Loss Assessment and Action Plan of Yogyakarta Post-Earthquake
Reconstruction (2006) motivate him focusing his doctoral research in urban
planning for post-disaster recovery.

304
Supported by MEXT through Special Coordination Funds for Promoting Science and Technology
Cover Design: Kazuaki Tsuchiya
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