4 Forces and motion

This chapter investigates how forces affect motion. Before you study it, make sure that you have read the earlier material on displacement, velocity, acceleration, and the links between them. The block in Figure 1 is resting on a table. Experience suggests a force is needed to get the block moving along the surface, and that if the force were removed, the block would stop moving. From these observations, the hypothesis that a constant force causes a constant velocity might seem reasonable. However, this is not the case. Careful observation shows that the block does not come to rest as soon as a force is removed, but that it takes time (and distance). Rather than reject the above hypothesis, some have attempted to modify it. Before the work of Isaac Newton in the 17th century, the accepted model was that the effects of a push continued after the actual event and took time to run out (Figure 2). However, this view arose because not all of the forces were being considered. In reality, there are four forces acting on the block as it moves along a flat surface: the forward push, friction from the surface, the pull of the Earths gravity, and the vertical reaction force up from the surface (see Figure 3). When studying motion experimentally, there are two forces that cannot be removed: gravity and friction. However, it is possible to compensate for each of these forces, or set up situations where their effects can be minimized. For example, if an object is dropped so that it falls freely, then, briefly, there is only the force of gravity acting on it. Unless it is moving very fast or is very light, the effects of air resistance can be ignored. Under these circumstances, experimental measurements show that the resulting motion is uniform acceleration. Resultant force causes acceleration. Later in the chapter, Newtons laws of motion will be introduced. However, before looking at these, one needs to understand how forces can combine, and why it is important to allow for their directions.
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Figure 1 A block resting on a table

Figure 2 The diagram is from an old manuscript and shows the predicted path of a cannon ball after being red. It is close to being a straight line until the force runs out when the cannon ball falls down nearly vertically. Isaac Newtons work caused this prediction to be altered
vertical reaction from table R forward push from hand P frictional force from surface F blocks weight from Earth W block moving forward at constant velocity

Figure 3 Forces in a block moving at constant velocity

Forces and motion

Mathematical physics: Vectors and scalars

All quantities are either vectors or scalars. Vectors (such as force, velocity, and acceleration) have direction as well as magnitude (size). A change in either magnitude or direction, or both, means that the vector has changed. Scalars (such as mass, density, and energy) just have magnitude. There is no direction to take account of (see Table 1). Velocity and speed are related, but different. Velocity is a vector, while speed is a scalar. In other words, if you say that a velocity is 10 m s 1, you also have to give a direction (to the right, for example). However, if the speed is 10 m s 1, no direction is implied. If a motorcycle is travelling around a circular track at 10 m s 1, its speed is constant, but its velocity is not, because the direction is changing. And if the velocity is not constant, then the motorcycle has acceleration. Having acceleration does not necessarily mean getting faster or slower.
Table 1

Next, a parallelogram is completed, as in the example below. The diagonal gives the direction and magnitude of the resultant.

A+B

Figure 4 Parallelogram of vectors

Scalars Volume Density Speed Concentration Frequency Energy / work Power Distance Mass

Vectors Velocity Acceleration Force Displacement Momentum

If you have more than two vectors to add, the parallelogram rule can be applied with different pairs in turn. Alternatively, the arrows representing the different vectors can be drawn one after another with the tail of one arrow starting from the tip of the proceeding arrow. The arrow joining the tail of the first arrow to the tip of the last arrow represents the resultant vector. Vector subtraction A negative sign in front of a vector does not alter its magnitude, but means that the direction is reversed. The subtraction of two vectors just involves the addition of a negative vector, as shown in Figure 5. The technique could be used, for example, to calculate the relative velocity between two moving objects.

AB

Mathematically, scalars and vectors need to be handled in different ways. Scalar addition Scalar addition is the everyday mathematics of numbers: a mass of 3 kg and a mass of 4 kg together give a total mass of 7 kg. Vector addition A 3 N force and a 4 N force do not necessarily create a total force of 7 N. The maximum that they can create is 7 N, but the minimum is 1 N, and any value between 1 N and 7 N could be possible depending on the directions of the forces. The force produced by the combination is called the resultant force. To add two vectors, one can use the parallelogram rule shown in Figure 4. First, the vectors are represented by arrows, with the length of each arrow being in proportion to the magnitude of the vector.

Figure 5 Subtraction of vectors

Vector trigonometry The above techniques involve scale diagrams. However, it is often possible, and certainly more accurate, to use trigonometry to calculate the resultant. This is of course much simpler if rightangled triangles are involved.
AV

A AH = Acos AV = Asin

a2 = b2 + c2 a

AH

Figure 6 Components of vectors

Figure 7 Pythagorass theorem

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Forces and motion

a B

parabolic trajectory

b c A

resultant

C A b

Figure 8 The cosine rule for any triangle is a2 b2 c2 2bc cos A

Figure 9 The sine rule for any triangle is a b c = = sin A sin B sin C

Figure 10 A ball thrown horizontally can be analysed in terms of its independent horizontal and vertical motions. In this example the horizontal velocity is constant whereas the vertical velocity varies.

Resolving into components The techniques used for vector addition can be employed in reverse to split a vector into two (or more) separate vectors, called components. If the components are at right angles, they can be treated independently to find out their effects on motion. Analysis of two- or three-dimensional vector problems often involves a separate analysis for each of the different directions. This is followed by a vector addition to find the overall result.

Further operations In some situations, it is not possible to treat vectors at right angles as separate, because they interact with one another. The motion of a charge in a magnetic field is one example. The full analysis of such situations involves a process called vector multiplication. There are two techniques. One produces a vector product (or cross product), the other a scalar product (also known as a dot product or inner product). Which is chosen depends on the circumstances, but note that, in the second case, vector multiplication produces a scalar. Two scalars can also be multiplied, but that process is much simpler.

Weight This is the gravitational force of attraction on an object. It is sometimes confused with mass, but mass is not a force. Mass is sometimes described as the amount of matter in an object, but resistance to acceleration might be more meaningful, as discussed later. An objects weight and mass are related by this equation: W mg W is the weight of the object, measured in newtons (N) m is the mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg) g is the gravitational field strength (9.81 N kg 1 near the Earths surface) An object taken to the surface of the Moon would have the same mass but a different weight. Normal reaction When two surfaces are pushed together, there is a repulsion between them that results from the electromagnetic interaction between electrons. This force acts whenever the two surfaces are in contact.

y-direction

Key forces There are many types of force. This section looks at some of them. A full analysis of any force not only includes its magnitude and direction, but the following as well: the object that is feeling the force the object that exerts the force the nature of the force.

A student moves between two points P and Q as shown below.

point P x-direction

point Q

The displacement from P in the x-direction is dX. The displacement from P in the y-direction is dY. The resultant displacement from P is dR. Which of the following diagrams shows the three displacements from point P?
A P dY dX C P dX dR dY Q dR Q D B P dR dY Q

dX P dY dX dR

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Forces and motion

It is called the normal reaction and is at right angles to the surface. For example, a block resting on a table is subject to a normal reaction acting up (see Figure 11). Friction When two surfaces are in contact, with one sliding over the other, the force that opposes this motion is called friction. Friction is also present before the surfaces start to slide. The resultant force between two surfaces in contact is the combination of the normal reaction and friction. A smooth surface is one with very little friction. Air resistance is a form of friction. Tension and compression These are produced by opposing forces. In the case of tension, the force directions are such that the length of the body is increased. With compression, it is decreased.
F F

normal reaction

weight

Figure 11 A block at rest on a table

Figure 12 The above rod is in tension.

Figure 13 The above rod is in compression.

Upthrust A fluid (liquid or gas) has weight. Because of this, it exerts pressure on any object placed in it. Pressure differences in the fluid cause an upward force on the object. This is called an upthrust, or buoyancy force. If it is strong enough, the object will float, like a boat in water, for example. Lift Air flowing over an aircrafts wing produces an upward force. This force is known as lift.

Newtons laws of motion In the late 1600s, Isaac Newton (16431727) proposed three laws to describe the nature of forces and the relationship with motion. This section looks at these laws, expressed in their modern form, and some of their implications.
Newtons first law This expresses the idea that the motion of an object does not change unless a resultant force acts. With no such force, a stationary object will stay still, and a moving object will continue to move at constant velocity (steady speed in a straight line): If F 0, v 0 F is the resultant force acting on the object, measured in newtons (N) v is the change in velocity, measured in m s 1 Note that bold text has been used to show vector quantities: for example, F for force. In diagrams, this isnt necessary because F can indicate the magnitude, while an arrow can be used to show the direction.

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Forces and motion

Newtons second law This provides a way of calculating an objects acceleration if the force acting and the mass are known. Expressed as an equation: F ma F is the resultant force acting on the object, measured in newtons (N) m is the mass of the object, measured in kilograms (kg) a is the acceleration of the object, measured in m s2 Note that the resultant force and the acceleration are both vectors and have the same direction. Although the above equation is very useful, it is not the most fundamental way of stating the law. That is done using the concept of momentum, which is covered later (see pages 478). Relative motion The first and second laws raise another key idea: being stationary is not essentially any different from having a constant velocity. In both cases, the resultant force on the object must be zero. Put another way, being stationary means having a constant velocity of zero. A consequence of this idea is that there is no such thing as an absolute frame of reference. If you observe an object moving past you at constant velocity, it is impossible to tell if you are stationary and the object moving, or if it is the other way around the object is stationary and you are moving. The situations are identical.
Speed of train 30 m s1 according to A

1 An elevator (lift) is used to either raise or lower sacks of potatoes. In the diagram, a sack of potatoes of mass 10 kg is resting on a scale that is resting on the oor of an accelerating elevator. The scale reads 12 kg.

elevator

10 k g

scale

The best estimate for the acceleration of the elevator is A B C D 2.0 m s 2.0 m s 1.2 m s 1.2 m s
2 2 2 2

downwards upwards downwards upwards

2 A light inextensible string has a mass attached to each end and passes over a frictionless pulley as shown.
pulley

Speed of car 20 m s1 according to A

string mass, M mass, m

Observer A

Figure 14 It is impossible to know an objects absolute velocity

According to passengers on the train, A is moving at 30 m s 1 and the car is moving at 10 m s 1 (both in the same direction). According to the driver of the car the train is moving at 10 m s 1 and A is moving at 20 m s1, in opposite directions. Another point to note is that forces control only the changes in velocity, and not its absolute value. It is impossible to calculate an objects velocity just by knowing the resultant force and the mass. You also need to know the initial conditions the velocity that the object had before the forces started to act.
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The masses are of magnitudes M and m, where m M. The acceleration of free fall is g. The downward acceleration of the mass M is A (M m)g (M + m) B (M m)g M C (M + m)g (M m) D Mg (M + m)

Newtons third law This expresses the idea that forces always involve two objects, and always act in pairs. The forces are sometimes called the action and the

Forces and motion

reaction, but it does not matter which you call which, because one cannot exist without the other. The forces have these features: they act on different objects they are equal in magnitude they act in opposite directions, along the same line they are the same type of force. The law is sometimes stated like this: If object A exerts a force F on object B, then object B will exert an equal but opposite force on object A. FAB FBA FAB is the force acting on object B from object A. FBA is the force acting on object A from object B. For example, your weight is the gravitational pull of the Earth on you, downwards, So, according to Newtons third law, there must also be another force: the gravitational pull of you on the Earth, upwards. If you push against a wall, to the left, then the wall must push on you with an equal force, to the right. Free-body diagrams Forces act in pairs and always involve two objects. However, to solve problems, one needs to concentrate on just one object at a time. A free-body diagram is a useful way of doing this. It shows one object in isolation, with all the forces acting on it. Start by drawing a diagram representing the general situation, showing all the bodies involved (a body is just another name for an object). Choose the one body you are interested in. Draw it removed from its environment. In other words, dont include any of the supports or strings holding it up. Draw in all the forces acting on the body. If, for example, there is a support underneath, this will produce an upward force. So draw in the force (but not the support). Dont include any forces that are exerted by the body on anything else. Newtons third law can be used to help identify all the relevant forces. If you want to find the bodys acceleration, find the resultant force acting and use F m a. In doing this, remember that you can always consider one direction at a time, and then add the components.

Normal reaction the push of the stool on the student

EXAMPLE 1: A block moving at constant velocity: As the block is moving at constant velocity, T F R W
frictional force from surface, F

normal reaction from table, R tension force from string, T

Weight the pull of the Earth on the student

Figure 15 Forces on a physics student sitting on a stool

Figure 16 A block moving with constant velocity

blocks weight from Earth, W

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Forces and motion

EXAMPLE 2: An object in a lift. A 1 kg mass is hung on a newton meter (Figure 17a). The mass is taken into a lift and accelerated up (Figure 17b) and decelerated (Figure 17c).
a) b) c)

Figure 17 The forces on an object in a lift Calculate the acceleration of the lift in Figures 17b and 17c.

Verifying Newtons second law This section follows the design of an experiment that aims to verify Newtons second law. Although the experiment can provide evidence to support Newtons second law, a detailed analysis of the results shows that the procedure has been based on some false assumptions. Can you spot the mistakes as they are introduced?
The experiment involves the following variables: resultant force, mass, and acceleration. This suggests two possible approaches: First, the force could be chosen as the independent variable, the acceleration as the dependent variable, and the mass as the controlled variable, which is held constant. The prediction is that the acceleration should be proportional to the force. Second, the mass could be the independent variable, the acceleration the dependent variable (as before), and the force as the controlled variable, which is held constant. The prediction is that the acceleration should be inversely proportional to the mass. A possible setup for the experiment is shown in Figure 18.
acceleration trolley pulley

weights

Figure 18 Possible experimental setup to verify Newtons second law

46

Forces and motion

In the first approach, the force is changed by altering the weights hanging from the string. The acceleration of the trolley is recorded electronically using motion sensors. The values of the force and the acceleration are recorded, then the experiment repeated with different forces.
1 What shape of graph would you expect if the measured acceleration and the force were proportional? Explain your answer. [2] 2 The actual results are shown in Figure 19 with uncertainty limits shown for the force values.
acceleration / m s2 2.00 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 force / N

rst four points. The data is checked by taking further readings. This shows that the weight is not proportional to the acceleration as shown in Figure 20.
acceleration / m s2 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 force / N

Figure 20 a) Add the best-t line for this data. [2] [4]

Figure 19 a) Add the best-t line for this data. b) Use the graph to explain what is meant by a systematic error. c) Estimate the value of the frictional force acting on the trolley. [2] [2] [1] [2] [Total 7 marks] 3 Careful analysis of the graph shows that the last two points are not quite in the same straight line as the

b) i)

Draw free-body force diagrams for the trolley and for the weight.

ii) Use the diagrams to explain why both the trolley and the weights accelerate together. [4] c) The value of the weights is continually increased. The acceleration of the trolley would eventually reach a maximum value. Explain why this is so and estimate its value. [3] [4]

d) Estimate the mass of the trolley.

d) How could the procedure be modied to improve the experiment?

[Total 17 marks]

Mathematical physics: Force and momentum

Linear momentum, p, is a vector quantity defined by the following equation: p mv m is the mass of the object, measured in kilograms v is the velocity of the objects, measured in m s 1 p is the momentum of the body, measured in kg m s Since 1 N 1 kg m s2, an alternative unit for momentum is N s (these two units are equivalent). This definition provides a more fundamental way of stating Newtons second law:
1

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting. F d (mv) dt

In SI units, the definition of Newtons second law means that the resultant force and the rate of change of momentum are equal. F = d (mv ) dt
1

F is the resultant force, measured in newtons mv is the momentum of the object, measured in kg m s

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