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Tourism Management 25 (2004) 7179

Tourism routes as a tool for the economic development of rural areasvibrant hope or impossible dream?
Jenny Briedenhann*, Eugenia Wickens
Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Wellesbourne Campus, High Wycombe HP13 5BB, UK Received 4 January 2002; accepted 10 March 2003

Abstract Both eulogised and reviled as a development option, rural tourism is increasingly viewed as a panacea, increasing the economic viability of marginalised areas, stimulating social regeneration and improving the living conditions of rural communities. Less developed countries, aficted by debilitating rural poverty, have considerable potential in attracting tourists in search of new, authentic experiences in areas of unexploited natural and cultural riches. This paper argues that the clustering of activities and attractions, and the development of rural tourism routes, stimulates co-operation and partnerships between local areas. Meaningful community participation, together with public sector support, presents opportunities for the development of small-scale indigenous tourism projects in less developed areas. This paper interrogates the development of rural tourism routes in South Africa and highlights factors critical to its success. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Tourism routes; Communities; Participation; Partnership; Culture

1. Introduction Declining economic activity, restructuring of the agricultural sector, dwindling rural industrialisation and out-migration of higher educated youth, has led to the adoption, in many western nations, of tourism as an alternative development strategy for the economic and social regeneration of rural areas (Pompl & Lavery, 1993; Williams & Shaw, 1991; Hannigan, 1994a; Dernoi, 1991; Wickens, 1999). In Eastern Europe, where events of the last decade have triggered a rapid rise in rural unemployment, tourism has been identied as a catalyst to stimulate economic growth, increase the viability of underdeveloped regions and improve the standard of ! living of local communities (Ratz & Puczk, 1998; Kombol, 1998; Simpson, Chapman, & Mahne, 1998). In less developed countries of sub-Saharan Africa, aficted by debilitating rural poverty, tourism is perceived to be one of the few feasible options for development. Compelled by the pressures of restructur*Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1494-532-367; fax: +44-1494465-432. E-mail address: jbried01@bcuc.ac.uk, eugenia.wickens@bcuc.ac.uk (J. Briedenhann). 0261-5177/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0261-5177(03)00063-3

ing, and driven by demands for economic growth and job creation, governments in developing countries however frequently fall prey to the dangers of random, ad hoc development, without due regard to the economic and cultural well-being of rural communities, the conservation of the environment or the inclusion of local residents in decision-making (Britton, 1991; Drake, 1991; Evans & Ibery, 1989; Getz, 1983; Long, Perdue, & Allen, 1990; Marsden, 1992; Prentice, 1993). Whilst governments are generally of the opinion that tourism development will generate new jobs, enhance community infrastructure and assist in revitalising the agging economies of rural areas, tourism as a development option has come under increasing censure due to the alleged paucity of revenues, the inequity of benet distribution and the perceived social costs to resident communities (Jud & Krause, 1976; Whelan, 1991, p. 9; Hitchcock, King, & Parnwell, 1993, p. 19; Din, 1993, p. 328), which belie the very objective for which the development is initiated. If social and economic development means anything at all, it must mean a clear improvement in the conditions of life and livelihood of ordinary people (Friedmann, 1992, p. 9). Still, tourism frequently remains the preferred development option; especially in rural communities where

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people are so desperate that they will accept any proposal, which portends to offer economic growth, with little or no consideration of future detrimental impacts (Kinsley, 2000, p. 1). This paper argues that the clustering of activities and attractions, in less developed areas, stimulates cooperation and partnerships between communities in local and neighbouring regions and serves as a vehicle for the stimulation of economic development through tourism. The paper further discusses the development of rural tourism routes in South Africa and highlights the factors critical to its success. A brief commentary on tourism routes in general, is followed by an interrogation of the proposed utilisation of tourism routes as a strategy through which to rapidly optimise the synergies between job creation, tourism and conservation in Africa (Open Africa, 2002, p. 4). Throughout the world, developing countries, with a rich resource base of pristine natural and cultural treasures, hold signicant comparative advantage in their potential to attract tourists in search of authentic new experiences (Wahab, 1974, p. 15). The potential for tourism development in sub-Saharan Africa is however under threat given that the alleviation of rampant, debilitating rural poverty must perforce take priority over resource conservation thus precipitating a downward spiral in which both communities and their best chance of recovery, is steadily diminishing (Open Africa, 2002, p. 13). Redclift (1992, p. 395) echoes this opinion, arguing that poor people often have no choice but to choose immediate economic benets at the expense of the long term sustainability of their livelihoods. There is no point in appealing, under these circumstances, to idealism or altruism to protect the environment when the individual and household are forced to behave selshly in their struggle to survive.

2. The literaturesome generalisations Evolving tourist trends have, over the last decade, led to a shift from standardised mass tourism to more individualistic patterns, in which greater exibility and a more meaningful experience have gained prominence (Poon, 1989; Hummelbrunner & Miglbauer, 1994; Gilbert, 1989, p. 42; Pigram, 1993). It has been argued that rural tourists have varied motivations, which might include ecological uniqueness, special adventure opportunities, cultural attractions, or the peace and quiet of the countryside (Sharpley & Sharpley, 1997; Page & Getz, 1997). Greffe (1994, p. 30) suggests that this presents a unique opportunity for rural operators to manage in terms of economies of scope by establishing networks of different service providers, organised in such a way as to maximise opportunity and offer a diverse range of activities. For suppliers of rural tourism

this emphasises the signicance of the development of product, which attracts, satises and retains the market (Greffe, 1994; Hummelbrunner & Miglbauer, 1994). Clustering of activities and attractions, the erection of user-friendly signage, the establishment of easily accessible information ofces, and the development of rural tourism routes, which stimulate entrepreneurial opportunity, the development of ancillary services and provide a diverse range of optional activities, has become decisive in securing business in less developed rural areas (Greffe, 1994; Chassagne, 1991; Gunn, 1979; Fagence, 1991; Lew, 1991; Miossec, 1977; Long et al., 1990; Getz & Page, 1997). Effort is focused on maximising individual spend, and providing products and experiences that act as an incentive to tourists to stay longer and return on repeat visits (Kinsley, 2000). The potential of tourism routes has long been realised in developed countries. In 1964 a Council of Europe working group mooted the idea of a series of European Cultural Routes, with the prime objectives of raising awareness of European culture through travel, setting up networks for cultural tourism, and utilising European cultural heritage as a means of stimulating social, economic and cultural development, thus improving the quality of life of local people. The idea however only came to fruition in 1980 with the establishment of the Santiago de Compostela Pilgrim Ways (Council of Europe, 2002). The term Cultural Tourism Route was dened as a route crossing one or two more countries or regions, organised around themes whose historical, artistic or social interest is patently Europeanythe route must be based on a number of highlights, with places particularly rich in historical associations (Council of Europe, 2002, p. 2). Twenty years later the project is described as an instrument for understanding the European values arising from the complex cultures and societies that have formed Europe (Council of Europe, 2002, p. 2). The program, with over 2000 partners, is based on multilateral co-operation involving a chain of projects and information sharing networks, monitored and coordinated by the European Institute of Cultural Routes (Council of Europe, 2002, p. 3). In the United States heritage trails have been shown to provide the impetus for the development of a range of attractions and facilities along their routes (Hill & Gibbons, 1994). Hill and Gibbons point out that Western heritage trails, in particular, have served as a catalyst for the stimulation of theatrical productions, wagon trains, horseback trails and diverse other attractions and activities relished by tourists. Hill argues that since tourists are dispersed along the length of the trail, management of carrying capacity is facilitated, negative environmental impacts reduced, and economic benets more evenly distributed (Hill & Gibbons, 1994). The initiation of co-operation and partnership between different local areas, regions, states and, as the

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cross-border rural tourism stimulated by the opening of the border between Finland and Russian Karelia would indicate, occasionally countries, is perceived as an additional benet of such development (Hill & Gibbons, 1994; Selin & Friman, 2002, p. 377). The 20002002 Cultural Tourism Incentive Programme The Queensland Heritage Trails Network has been initiated with the objective to revitalise rural and regional Queensland economies through the creation of jobs and a sustainable tourism infrastructure (Queensland Heritage Trails Network, 2000, p. 2). The project, which functions in partnership with local government, aims at developing a network of thirtytwo major projects, developed around themes for particular local areas or regions, and promoting linkages which stimulate and encourage tourists to travel through the state, venturing away from major attractions and enjoying new experiences offered by the lesserknown surrounding areas (Queensland Heritage Trails Network, 2000, p. 3). The denition of heritage is broadbased and includes historical, environmental and traditional values, as well as how the spirit of Queenslanders shows itself through an empathy with the land, through a sense of community continuity and through stories of individual achievement. Whilst the underlying concept of tourism routes is thus not unique, the mode of operation of the African Dream Project is clearly innovative. Initiated as a result of the vision of one man, the Open Africa foundation was established in 1995 by a group of scientists, businesspeople, tourism experts, sociologists and conservationists with the aim of optimising tourism, job creation, and conservation in Africa (The African Dream Project, 2000, p. 3). The mission of the group, under the patronage of ex-President Nelson Mandela, is to turn Africas natural and cultural resources into one of the most valuable products on earth, based on the business principle of supply and demand, which dictates that whatever is rare is valuable. Its vision is equally unambiguous to link the splendours of Africa in a continuous network of Afrikatourism routes, from the Cape to Cairo (Open Africa, 2002, p. 2).

3. The case of South Africa Undoubtedly there are sceptics who will snigger at the magnitude of the dream, and the vastness of the undertaking, particularly given world perception of the continent as unstable, disease infested and crime ridden. For South Africa the reality is however unmistakable. In a country of expanding population, increasing unemployment, a declining currency, and a steady drop in the value of its mineral wealth, until now its most protable commodity, tourism presents one opportunity to turn

the tide of unemployment through the generation of jobs and the creation of entrepreneurial opportunities. A 1998 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) report suggested that within a decade more than 170,000 direct and 516,000 indirect new jobs could be created across the broader South African economy by growth in the travel and tourism industry (WTTC, 1998). With unemployment rampant at over 40%, these words were manna to an inexperienced government struggling with the escalating problems of poverty alleviation, and growing demands for speedy delivery to counter the backlog in the provision of health care, education and basic services such as the provision of clean drinking water in the countrys rural areas. International tourism to South Africa, after phenomenal initial growth of 52% in 1995, had declined in 1998 to only 3.5%. The Travel and Tourism Industry represented 2.4% of total employment and 2.6% of total gross domestic product (GDP). Indirectly the wider Travel and Tourism Economy contributed 7% of total employment, 13.2% of total exports, 11.4% of total investment and 8.2% of total GDP (WTTC, 1998, p. 10). However, the avidly anticipated tourism boom had not materialised. Tourist markets, which stagnated further between 1998 and 2001 have, since the calamitous events which precipitated widespread fears for tourist safety in more traditional destinations, shown an upturn but the inux of tourists has been, to a signicant extent, conned to Cape Town and its environs, whilst desperately needed job creation and poverty alleviation in the countrys marginalised rural areas assume evergreater signicance. If one takes into account the unique properties of South Africas rich and diverse natural and cultural resources, condence in the future of the tourism industry is easily substantiated. The expectations of modern tourists, avidly seeking the traditional indigenous cultures and natural beauty of less developed areas (Harrison, 1994), could be surpassed in a country which is home to the worlds largest, tallest, fastest and smallest land mammals; the largest bird; and off the coast one of the worlds largest sea mammals. The vegetation is equally varied and unique; the Cape Fynbos is the richest, most varied, and concentrated area of vegetation on earth (The African Dream Project, 2000). The country, a melting pot of African, European and Asian heritage, is today proudly African, with a dawning respect for each others culture and traditions. Indigenous rituals, ceremonies and religious festivals, long dormant, are being proudly regenerated and revitalised. South Africas slogan A World in One Country is justifying itself. This unique diversity, combined with a superb climate and an undervalued currency, makes the country good value for money.

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4. Methodology The investigation into the utilisation of tourism routes as a development option in Southern Africa was prompted by the weight accorded two specic statements, pertaining to the development of rural tourism routes, in a three round Delphi Consultation Survey. This survey was undertaken as the preliminary stage of data collection toward a Ph.D. thesis pertaining to the evaluation of rural tourism development projects. Utilisation of the Delphi Technique has proved appropriate for such research topics where the conicting agendas of individual stakeholders are reconciled in an interactive and personality-free team approach to decision-making (McNamee, 1985). The research called for the careful, deliberate selection of prospective participants in order to increase the likelihood that the differences of opinion and expertise in the rural tourism eld would be represented in the data collected and to systematically elicit and link information drawn from different levels within the sector (Taylor & Bogdan, 1984; Patton, 1990; Sekaran, 1992; Maykut & Morehouse, 1994). Participation in the Delphi Survey was thus purposively solicited from South African tourism academics, consultants in the eld of rural tourism, public sector ofcials representing the various tiers of government and their agencies, members of nongovernmental organisations operating in the rural tourism eld and private sector tourism operators. The inclusion of tourism practitioners was considered particularly relevant since issues raised by academics are prone to have a theoretical bias, which may disregard factors of a more practical orientation. This assumption is substantiated by Jenkins (1999) and Cooper (2002) who articulate the differing approaches to research, and the poor communication, which exists between the academic and practitioner tourism sectors. The panel comprised thirty participants, all of whom had considerable expertise in the rural tourism eld. Results of the Delphi Consultation Survey were supplemented with ndings from a focus group, semistructured interviews and correspondence with tourism route developers.

The preliminary round of the Delphi Consultation, in which prospective participants were requested to engage in individual brainstorming in order to generate twentyve criteria considered, from the specic viewpoint of the expert, imperative for inclusion in an evaluation framework for application in rural tourism development projects, yielded two issues directly related to the development of tourism routes. These were included in the second round Delphi Survey instrument. In this round participants were requested to rate statements based on their individual opinion of the importance of the factor in establishing criteria for inclusion in a framework for utilisation in the evaluation of rural tourism development projects. Rating was accomplished using an ordinal scale of 14. Accordingly the allocation of the number four (4) signied that the factor in question was considered as essential for inclusion, whilst three (3) denoted that it was considered important, two (2) of minor importance and one (1) that it should not be included. Participants were afforded the use of a zero (0) rating signifying that they were uncertain of, or did not wish to comment on, the statement in question. The third round of the survey included an analysis of the full list and ratings, shown as the individuals own response to the second round questionnaire, the average response of the group, as well as the standard deviation, thus emphasising areas of consensus and disagreement. The intent of the third questionnaire was to invite participants to either revise, or reafrm, their responses to the second round questionnaire in view of the group response to the second round. The importance accorded by panellists to factors relating to tourism routes is clearly indicated in Table 1. Further eldwork was carried out in South Africa in October 2002. The ndings of a focus group, comprised of six South African participants, substantiated the results of the Delphi Survey. All the members of the focus group are actively engaged in the rural tourism eld either as public sector ofcials, consultants, or operators of rural tourism enterprises. Input from seven semi-structured interviews, conducted with respondents intimately involved in the development of rural tourism, in four of South Africas nine Provinces, further

Table 1 Factors related to the development of rural tourism routes Mean New rural tourism development projects should expand the product base of traditional, or where applicable, new tourism routes, enhancing their potential to attract and hold visitors in the area for extended periods. New rural tourism development projects should augment nodal development, creating a critical mass of tourist facilities/activities. 3.32 Mode 3 SD 0.55 % 96% Freq. 27

3.07

0.66

82%

23

SD: Standard deviation. %: Signies the percentage of the respondent panel who rated the factor 4 (essential for inclusion) or 3 (important for inclusion). Freq.: Signies the frequency with which the 28 panellists, who completed the Delphi process, rated the factor as either 4 or 3.

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highlighted the signicance in which these factors are held and elucidated the reasons for their perceived importance.

5. The relevance of tourism route development in the South African context Whilst the potential for the development of tourism in South Africa is recognised, growth of the industry is constrained by a variety of factors. A study, undertaken on behalf of the government in 1999, stated that South Africa could only hope to develop holistic, integrated strategies for tourism development if the various tiers of government, tourism agencies and private sector organisations, are able to clearly dene their roles and neutralise the current bitter rivalry existing between them (The Cluster Consortium, 1999, p. 7). Research conrmed these ndings. If private sector industry associations dont stop their turf war the private sector will not succeed in making its role a successful one (Briedenhann, 2000, p. 47). Input from the focus group indicates that little has changed. Respondents raised issues of conict between policy makers and private industry, inter-industry politics and the negative synergy it causes; problems of so much negativism from the private sector and local area inghting. One respondent spoke of too many transformation politicians while a correspondent wrote it is such a pity that our government is totally focussed on self and not on our province. These problems are exacerbated by the fact that control of the tourism plant, and its benets, still rest in the hands of only one side of the community. I am aware that tourism is still in the minority hands. We cant mince words on this (Ndala, 2001, p. 1). The development of Afrikatourism, a term used to brand the concept of tourism routes and projects which are distinctively and exclusively African (The African Dream Project, 2000), is envisaged as a mechanism through which to overcome the constraints of role incertitude, and disparity of interests. These problems have left tourism development uncoordinated and haphazard, and it is a fervent hope that Afrikatourism will provide the industrys roleplayers with a unifying aspiration, the benets of which will be enjoyed by all. The worlds best hope of securing sustainability in travel and tourism lies not with national authorities, but with the competence and authority vested in local government responsible for specic tourism destinations, working in partnership with private sector business (Middleton & Hawkins, 1998, p. 39). Findings from the research however indicate that while it is at Local Government level that the responsibility for tourism rests, the inability of ofcials to undertake their responsibilities is commonplace. Comments decrying local authority lack of understanding and lack of

capacity formed a common theme. Focus group participants spoke of the lack of leadership no one ever leads private sector developers into understanding what criteria they should meet. Private sector is just left to do your own thing. A local government representative admitted local government has no capacity to implement. Another stated the law says local government must take control of tourism but they have no capacity whilst the private sector admonished government doesnt know what tourism means. A rural tourism operator interviewed commented on lack of public sector support and the fact that there was no useful advice in trying to set up the product. Other interviewees spoke of a lack of understanding of the integrated nature of tourism and the need for local government to integrate tourism into their whole structure. Another argued local councils must understand the value of tourism and provide a platform for the private sector to deliver. Proponents of the African Dream Project have experienced similar frustration The support from this quarter (the public sector) has varied considerably, from 100% backing by those condent of their positions to puerile and passive negativism by the ones who feel threatened. In the end it will be difcult for the doubters to resist the successes that others are achieving (Personal Correspondence). Tourism theorists are united in the claim that in order for tourism to sustain itself in a local community, the residents must be willing partners (Haywood, 1988; Murphy, 1983; Pigram, 1992). Successful tourism development calls for a people-centric approach, in which the voices of local communities are heard and decisions relating to the type, scale and rate of tourism development informed by their input (Matthews, 1978; Murphy, 1985). Whilst the notion of community participation is now widely recognised, many local inhabitants neither comprehend nor trust the participatory process. The Environmental and Development Agency Trust (EDA), commissioned as development facilitators by the government of a newly democratic South Africa, found to their dismay that, even with the best facilitation techniques, longstanding distrust, fear, antagonism and the disinterest entrenched by years of neglect and deprivation, can create substantial barriers to achieving meaningful participation in local communities (Environmental and Development Agency Trust, 1999, p. 2). Mistrust, between various factions, is endemic, since any potential economic activity is seen to represent a potential benet to one sector of the community simultaneously marginalising another (Richards & Hall, 2000). Proactive entrepreneurs, who seize opportunities to embark upon innovative ventures, are frequently the catalyst of friction, culminating in intertribal disputes, power struggles, jealousy or perceived challenge to traditional leadership (Butler & Hinch, 1996). The situation is exacerbated by the fact that, in

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economically deprived areas, government delivery is frequently alleged to have been a failure, further accentuating perceptions of neglect and abandonment (Environmental and Development Agency Trust, 1999, p. 2). The private sector developer of a rural cultural tourism project states emphatically forget the idealised view of the communityits a nightmare, doesnt work, too much conicting opinion. Work with individuals and incentivise them to want to make moneythis counts. A member of the public sector disagrees if all the stakeholders are not invited to be part of the planning process those who have been left out will try to obstruct the project on the grounds that they were not recognised. Leaders of the tourism route project cite the difculty in achieving genuine community participation as a signicant constraint. Uncertainty with regard to the meaning of tourism development prevails. What do we mean by tourism development? We all talk about it, but have different opinions as to what it really means, pinpoints the dilemmas and frustrations embedded in this issue (Briedenhann, 2000, p. 37). Correspondence with a community project leader enunciates the difculties of participation and partnership we did encounter distrust in the start, which we understood, as people were hijacked for projects and never even smelled the excitement of tourism. Another articulates the constraints to be overcome when we came together we realised the need for a bonding of trust and people across the railway line (a dividing factor of the past) to work together and build a good quality product and be seen as business people and not a product to be pitied but to enjoy and learn about our product and lifestyles. Whilst the Open Africa team act as facilitators and provide enabling mechanisms for the development of tourism routes, the initiative must come from within the community. An Open Africa Field Ofcer then addresses a meeting, attended by as many potential stakeholders as possible, to explain the project. The community makes all decisions regarding participation, or any other issue, themselves. Communities, opting to participate in the project, are called upon to identify the Big Five features of their area, and themselves as a community (Open Africa, 2002). In South Africa, as in many less developed countries, lack of access to tourism either as entrepreneurs, or tourists, has engendered limited understanding of tourism, its impacts and potential benets, amongst the majority of the population. As a result of this many communities do not realise their own potential, or the value of their resources, as tourist attractions. Participants are encouraged to brainstorm, bearing in mind the old Japanese saying a lighthouse does not throw a light on its own foot, meaning that we often fail to recognise the potential of what is on our doorstep (Tabe, 2000, p. 4). Participants soon begin to realise their areas unique and unexploited

resources. A route forum is then appointed to carry the identication process further, leaving the process of ownership rmly in community hands. In adopting this stance, Open Africa is subscribing to the views of Delphi panelists who stress the need for the community to feel they own the project in order to secure the cooperation and commitment needed to make sure that it succeeds. Members of the focus group expressed similar sentiments. Consultants cant make decisions for the people. Development must be community led. It helps build community respect and they take ownership. Another stated dont patronisepeople want to make their own decisions. Whilst the nancial contributions of corporate members sustain the African Dream Project, funds necessary to cover the cost of establishing a route, are sourced from donors who have an interest in the area. The issue of funding is cited by Open Africa as the only acute problem encountered thus far, with the result that nancial constraints are hampering the speed with which new routes can be developed (Personal Correspondence). Public sector support has varied considerably, but has not been aggressively sought. Once funding for a new route has been sourced, further meetings take place at which the nature of the route is determined, participants identied and a name decided upon. The overriding approach throughout the process is that communities take their own decisions relating to the development of the route, and anything connected with it (Open Africa, 2002). Whilst it is generally accepted that integrated marketing becomes ever more imperative in an era of increased competitiveness and growing array of destinations on offer (Middleton & Hawkins, 1998), unilateral action by provinces, uncoordinated programmes, inadequate promotional funding, duplication of effort and squandering of those resources available, have dogged South African tourism promotion (Briedenhann, 2000). Since size, and paucity of funds, renders most rural tourism businesses unable to embark upon meaningful marketing campaigns of their own, this responsibility has devolved upon public sector bodies. In many of South Africas rural areas there are however few formal tourism structures. Where these exist, a dearth of marketing capacity, and a paucity of funds, add to the difculties of small operators seeking to promote their products and services. Interviewees emphasise both the importance and the difculties of networking and achieving integration into other mainstream tourism activities. One articulates networking as a huge uphill battle whilst another claims to have dragged tour operators kicking and screaming to his project. A rural tourism operator emphasised that is was essential to network and to know who to network with. Another put it more bluntly if you didnt originally plan this project with that in mind, how you were going to create those

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linkages, youre stuffed before you started. The Open Africa project overcomes this constraint by offering new tourism routes an efcient and dependable window to the marketplace. Once all details of a tourism route have been nalised, digital photographs and all relevant data pertaining to the route are collected, collated and edited by Open Africa ofcers. Routes are then transferred onto the African Dream website. Utilising an integration of GIS technology with the Internet, enables routes to be mapped according to their exact geographic coordinates and displayed on an interactive map, facilitating ease of access to comprehensive, up-to-date and reliable information. Information depicted on the website is decided in consultation with participants further enhancing the ethos of participant ownership and control. No commercial advertising is permitted on the Open Africa website, an approach which ensures that neither participation, nor information, can be monetarily manipulated (The African Dream Project, 2000). For tourists who have already arrived in the country, the website will be supported by a network of 24 h Afrikatourism InfoStops at strategically placed service stations along the various tourism routes. A combination of the lack of education, which in many cases includes a deciency in either basic literacy or numeracy, problems of access to training and, frequently, the inappropriateness of programmes offered, render many rural communities ill-equipped to offer a quality tourism experience or product. Sen (1983a) argues that meaningful development must be comprehended as an improvement in peoples capabilities. This view is endorsed by other development practitioners who contend that long-term success requires building community capacity (Rocky Mountain Institute, 2001, p. 2). Whilst many of South Africas rural communities are lacking in education and nancial resources, both of which have proved insurmountable barriers to participation in the tourism industry of the past, they are rich in an abundance of air, creativity, warm hospitality and entrepreneurial skills, which have enabled them to eke out a living in highly adverse circumstances. Facilitation of access to tourism at grassroots levels, and the building of human capacity through mentorship, transfer of skills, and exposure to technology is opening the doors to new vision, hope and economic opportunity, and enriching South Africas tourism offerings with products which are uniquely African (The African Dream Project, 2000). We have been offered so many opportunities to upgrade and educate our entrepreneurshotel school, business in the hospitality trade, business plans, receiving and booking of guests, the law in business, insurance requirements, telephone manners and so much morey (Personal Correspondence). Whilst the project has encountered its hurdles, the African Dream is now starting to count its successes. To

date there are 32 routes, involving 80 towns and their rural areas in four countries, stretched over a distance of 11,623 km. 791 tourism undertakings account for 5798 direct full-time and 2334 part-time jobs in products as diverse as activities related to the conservation of the endangered Blue Crane, cultural villages, African themed restaurants, prehistoric cave paintings to township tours and mission stations. Ever greater numbers of people are buying into the vision and Team Africa now has 2331 individual, corporate, institutional, professional and partner members. The worlds tourists are also awakening to this new and exciting potential. The website currently has 5473 hits daily (Personal Correspondence, de Villiers: February 2003). The value of the exposure to participants on the website at current rates, for which no charge is levied, is R4.7 m annually. As recognition of the projects value grows increasing strategic alliances are being forged with institutions such as the World Travel and Tourism Council. Pretoria University has started a Centre for Afrikatourism Studies and the National Research Foundation has launched The Afrikatourism Thrust (The African Dream Project, 2000). Development of the parallel African Transfrontier Peace Parks keeps pace with the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, in which South Africa and Botswana have joined forces across their borders to create one of the largest parks in the world, as a groundbreaking rst. Soon the fences between the world-renowned Kruger National Park and her neighbouring Mozambican elephant park will come down. The route has expanded to include transborder projects such as The Maloti Route between the Eastern Free State Province and Lesotho. A route based on the conservation of the Rhino, and incorporating South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania, Botswana and Namibia is in the process of planning as are two new routes in Mozambique. The next phase of the project will incorporate the development of tourist routes in Namibia (Personal Correspondence). Like most innovative concepts, buy-in to the project has been frustratingly slow. I suppose this gures in a situation when you are involved in changing peoples paradigms, yet makes no sense when you consider the benets involved. It took a long time to get where we are, which on reection seems strange given that the end result is so simple, but now the African Dream Project is arguably the fastest and most cost effective development project in Africa. Everything about it is working as planned, better in many instances than hoped for, and the benets are beginning to come through in a truly rewarding manner (Personal Correspondence). And from a community member of a new tourism route I am sure by now you realise our objectives are to make tourism a reality to the people on ground level and motivate participation at all levels so that one tourist eight jobs becomes not a dream but within anyones

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reach. Input from focus group participants supports the claim that buy-in to the concept of tourism routes is gaining ground. Tourism route roads can form the catalyst for the sale of local products and Tourism route roads are the greatest development tool. An interviewee states to survive rural hotels must form part of a nodal development with a main attraction as the tourist drawcardits the only way. However, others caution against the dangers of raising expectations and point out that especially community projects must be market related. This contention is endorsed by an interviewee who unequivocally stated there is very limited market in appealing to peoples conscience. Very few people will visit a project from altruistic values if it does not have what interests them. Whilst South Africa undoubtedly has a long way to go in achieving the integration of rural communities into its mainstream tourism product, there are few who would not admit that this is no longer simply a matter of choice, it is an imperative. Whilst integration has occurred in many other areas of South African business and society, tourism remains predominantly a white mans thing. Whilst political freedom is now an accepted norm in South African society, economic freedom still lies a long way off. A young African man expressed this issue we thought we were ghting for freedom and all we got was democracy. The principles driving the development of tourism routes in South Africa subscribe to the frequently touted principles of responsible tourism. The African Dream encourages the development of local features, interaction with local cultures, and the maintenance of a sense of place and uniqueness. It also engenders respect for environments and their inhabitants (The African Dream Project, 2000, p. 10).

private sectors and local communities to sustain it. For the new South Africa, the consequences of failure to develop a sustainable tourism industry, inclusive of opportunity for all her people, do not bear contemplation.

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