Aac Spec 543010

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS
543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT
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SCOPE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS LEGAL REQUIREMENTS DEFINITIONS OBJECTIVES OF EARTHING MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS MEDIUM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR UNDERGROUND INSTALLATIONS LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN UNDERGROUND INSTALLATIONS MECHANISED MINING LIGHTING AND SMALL POWER DISTRIBUTION LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF EXPLOSIVE MAGAZINES EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR SHAFT HEADGEARS EARTHING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF IN PIT 22KV OR 33KV/6.6KV TRANSFORMER SKIDS EARTHING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT EARTH LEAKAGE AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS EARTH BAR EARTH BONDING
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APPENDIX 1: TYPICAL UNDERGROUND RETICULATION. PAGE 1 OF 2 APPENDIX 1: TYPICAL UNDERGROUND RETICULATION. PAGE 2 OF 2 APPENDIX 2: CHAMBER OF MINES DATA SHEET 1.6 - 1991: "EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR SHAFT HEADGEARS"
AAC_SPEC_54301001.DOC
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For information or comments on this document please contact ATD QA Anglo Technical Division accepts no liability for any damage whatsoever that may result from the use of this material or the information contained therein, irrespective of the cause and quantum thereof.
APPENDIX 3: CHAMBER OF MINES DATA SHEET 1.1 - 1991 EARTH LEAKAGE AND EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION 36
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SCOPE
This document serves as a guideline for the design, installation and maintenance of earthing systems.
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
Earthing installations shall comply with the following recommended practices and specifications: IEEE 142-1972 : Recommended Practice for Grounding on Industrial and Commercial Power System The Protection of Structures Against Lightning Protection of Structures against Lightning The Design and Installation of Earth Electrodes Protection against Lightning Electromagnetic Pulse Earth Rods and Couplers Neutral Earthing in Medium Voltage Industrial Power systems Earthing of Low Voltage distribution Systems The Wiring of Premises
SANS 10313:1999 SANS 61024 SANS 10199: 2004 SANS 61312 SANS 1063: 1998 SANS 10200: 1985 SANS 10292: 2001 SANS 10142
: : : : : : : :
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
All earthing systems shall comply with the latest revisions of the: Minerals Act and Regulations Mines Health and Safety Act and Regulations Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations
DEFINITIONS
MEDIUM VOLTAGE : System nominal voltage exceeding 1 000 volts, but not exceeding 44 000 volts System nominal voltage not exceeding 1 000 volts Provision of a low impedance current path to the mass of the earth
LOW VOLTAGE SOLIDLY EARTHED
: :
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GROUNDING
Provision of a low impedance interconnections and reference plane between objects Limitation of the difference in potential between adjacent components of an equipment item and between them and constructional elements of the building or structure such as reinforcements, pipe systems, etc by galvanic coupling A protective conductor providing potential equalisation
BONDING (POTENTIAL EQUALISATION)
BONDING CONDUCTOR UNEARTHED
A system without an intentional connection to ground except through a measuring device or other very high impedance device A point in an electrical system, which in normal operating conditions does not carry current to earth. In symmetrical three-phase systems the zero-point coincides with the system neutral point, i.e. the point at which the voltages pertaining to the phase conductors add up to zero Network whose zero-point is connected, without any current-limiting device, to an earth electrode
ZERO-POINT
DIRECTLY EARTHED NETWORK INDIRECTLY EARTHED NETWORK
Network whose zero-point is connected via a current-limiting device to an earth electrode. Examples of possible current limiting devices include resistors, reactors and voltage transformers Indirectly earthed network whose current limiting device is a resistor A system earthed through an earth connection of sufficiently low impedance to ensure that earth faults that may occur cannot build up voltages in excess of limits established for the system
RESISTIVELY EARTHED EFFECTIVELY EARTHED
OBJECTIVES OF EARTHING
The objectives of the earthing and bonding system shall be to ensure that: All conducting non-current carrying parts of the electrical distribution system are prevented from attaining voltage levels that would be dangerous to persons A uni-potential system exists, with all conducting non-current carrying parts of equipment and structures being effectively at a single earth potential
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Adequate continuity and low impedance exists in the earthing system to enable timeous tripping of protective devices in case of earth faults, i.e. breaches of insulation between live conductors and earth A low impedance path exists for safe conduction of Lightning currents to ground A common reference plane for voltage measurements exists Where required a signal return path exists for some systems such as telecommunications Protection against harmful discharges of static electricity is afforded
MEDIUM VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
ON
SURFACE
The Mines or Works receive power from Eskom through a supply configuration of 3 phase, 3 wire, at 33 000 volts, 22 000 volts, 11 000 volts, 6 600 volts or 3 300 volts. The power supply normally originates from a delta-connected transformer without an earth conductor. To satisfy the objectives of this recommended practice, the following items are necessary: A reliable low impedance connection of less than 5ohms to the general mass of earth A reliable earth fault current return path to the 3-wire system A reliable electrical connection to the general mass of earth is achieved by an underground earth mat and/or electrode system
An earth fault current return path is provided by connecting a Neutral Earthing Compensator (NEC) between the three phases of the power system and the earth system. This is done at the source of the supply. The NEC transformer winding has a Zig-zag configuration with no secondary winding. The impedance of the winding is high when there is no fault on the system resulting in only a small magnetising current in the transformer windings. The Zig-zag winding configuration results in a low impedance when an earth fault condition occurs. By inserting resistance between the neutral of the Zig-zag transformer and earth, the earth fault currents can be limited to any desired value. The resistance value and rating has been standardised to allow an earth fault current of 300 amp for 10 seconds, although some older installations may still operate at the old standard of 600 amps. A "sustained" earth fault occurs when an earth fault in the power system is not cleared by its "local" (i.e. next upstream circuit breaker). A Current Transformer (CT) at the NEC detects such currents and drives a protective relay, which trips the supply after a pre-set time.
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Protection against internal NEC faults is provided by "restricted earth fault protection". In this scheme the NEC, HT switch and the earth conductor of the NEC are each provided with CTs, which are connected so that through faults produce balanced secondary outputs. Internal faults in the NEC produce an unbalanced current, which energises a trip relay. Whenever either the sustained or internal earth fault protection operates, the incoming power supply to the board must be tripped (the NEC stays connected to the system). In some cases, this requires the provision of a trip signal to Eskom. A typical NEC connection at a consumer sub-station is illustrated in Figure 1.
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NEC CONNECTION AS CONSUMBER SUB BUSBAR
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At the newer consumer sub-stations, it is Eskom's practice to supply the NEC and connect it at their transformer output terminals. The earth terminal is then bonded to the Eskom earth bar, along with Eskom's earth mats. To provide a current return path, it is essential that this earth bar is inter-connected with the Mine's consumer sub-station earth bar. At such Eskom sub-stations, sustained earth faults cause the Eskom NEC protection to operate and trip out the transformer supply breaker (88kV or 132kV). Power is normally distributed via three core PILCSWA or XLPE cables. To provide for a solid earth return path, a bare copper (normally 70mm) conductor is installed in direct contact with the soil in a trench or cable racking in a surface installation. Alternatively an insulated earth conductor is run with the Power Cable and connected to the sub station earth bar at one end and the equipment at the other end. Where power is distributed via unarmoured single core cables, the sheath of such cable must be earthed at one end only to prevent circulating currents. A separate earth wire must be run in parallel with single core cables.
MEDIUM VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
FOR
UNDERGROUND
The majority of the medium voltage systems are associated with primary distribution circuits and the earthing protection circuits will be similar as per the surface medium voltage distribution system. Where four or more shaft cables are installed, no additional earth conductor may be required due to the number of parallel earth current return paths in the armouring and sheaths of the shaft cables. Underground section feeders should normally be, accompanied by separate earth conductors. Where this is not the case, it is vital that the electrical continuity of the sheath and armouring are maintained at every joint and termination. Earth fault current protection relays must be set to minimum values at all times to limit the touch potential experience on extended single cable systems operating in high humidity environments. Due to long distances involved, voltage drop along the return path can be high. To limit the touch potential, the sub-station earth bars shall be bonded to pipes, cable racks and general steelwork to reduce the impedance of the return path as indicated in Appendix 1. At the newer consumer sub-stations, it is Eskom's practice to supply the NEC and connect it at their transformer output terminals. The earth terminal is then bonded to the Eskom earth bar, along with Eskom's earth mats. To provide a current return path, it is essential that this earth bar is inter-connected with the Mine's consumer sub-station earth bar. At such Eskom sub-stations, sustained earth faults cause the Eskom NEC protection to operate and trip out the transformer supply breaker (88kV or 132kV).
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Power is normally distributed via three core PILCSWA or XLPE cables. To provide for a solid earth return path, a bare copper (normally 70mm) conductor is installed in direct contact with the soil in a trench or cable racking in a surface installation. Where power is distributed via unarmoured single core cables, the sheath of such cable must be earthed at one end only to prevent circulating currents. A separate earth wire must be run in parallel with single core cables.
LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS

Earth fault currents must return to the power system from which they originate and cannot flow "through" an unearthed double wound transformer. Each time a double wound power transformer is installed in a system, a fresh return path to the LV side is required to return LV earth fault currents. This is achieved by using star connected LV windings and connecting the LV earth system to the star point. In balanced three phases, 550V 3 wire systems, any current flowing through the star point connection is an earth fault current. Back-up earth tripping, can therefore be operated by such currents. In 380/20V, 3-phase, 4 wire systems, the star point of the transformer is connected to the neutral of the system and current will flow in the neutral of each 220V single-phase circuit. It is important to separately connect the LV earth system to the star point of the transformer. This connection is passed through a CT, the output of which operates the back-up E/F protection. All earth systems are to be connected together, i.e. at a mini-sub the HV and LV earth bars are interconnected and at transformers both HV and LV earth systems are connected to the transformer earth stud. 550V Distribution System Two methods are used to limit the magnitude of the earth fault return current to the star point of the transformer, e.g.: Inserting a 27ohm resistor between the star point of the transformer and earth "ISOLOC" system inserting a high impedance between star point of the transformer and earth
At the 550V secondary, the transformer earth fault current is limited by inserting a resistance in the return path, in the form of a 27ohm resistor between the star point and earth. This limits the earth fault current to a maximum of approximately 11 amps. If an earth fault occurs, it should be cleared by the relevant circuits E/F protection. If this fails, back-up protection is provided by a back-up relay (such as an ADIT relay) driven by a CT in the return circuit to the transformer star point. This relay trips the HT switch supplying the transformer if the earth fault current persists for more than a certain (adjustable) time. It should be noted that many old 550V systems do not have resistance earthing, nor backup ADIT relays. It is recommended that where danger to persons exists, the older system should be upgraded to include a 27ohm resistor between the star point and earth.
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Some areas are at present using a modified insulated neutral system having the trade name of ISOLOC (Figure 3). Here the transformer neutral is earthed through an impedance having a very high ohmic value in parallel with the normal insulation of the system conductors. Should the insulation resistance of the system fall below a preset value, an alarm is sounded and it becomes necessary to locate the fault before resetting the system to normal. This system has two disadvantages, these being: The necessity to switch out the system components in order to find fault, and Two earth faults on two alternative phases can develop into a phase fault. To overcome this problem, it is necessary to fit core balance earth leakage protection or indication on each individual circuit or group of circuits.
The advantage of the ISOLOC is that insulation resistance can be monitored and repaired on a planned basis. In the cases of transformers connected in parallel, only one transformer should be treated as discussed above. The star point of the other is not connected. This only applies while both transformers are connected in parallel. At 550V, power is distributed via 4 core PVC/PVC/SWA/PVC flame retardant cables, the fourth core used as an earth conductor. This is always the black core. At 550V transformers, this core is connected to the earth side of the neutral earthing resistor. The armouring of these cables is also used as an additional earth conductor, the connection being made via a mechanical cone type gland. Figure 4 illustrates typical transformer connections. Where the fourth core of a cable is used as an earth conductor, the fourth core must be properly terminated at each end and bolted to an earth terminal, stud or earth bar (not onto a cover plate bolt or gland bolt). 950V Distribution System For the 950V system, the earth current limiting resistor value inserted between the star point of the transformer LV windings and earth should be 121ohm. The power is distributed via PVC/PVC/SWA/PVC cables as specified in Items 8.5 and 8.6.
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LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS
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LOW VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
IN
UNDERGROUND
The neutral point of the LV windings of the transformer or mini-sub supplying power to the underground 550V and 950V must be connected to the earth point via a 27ohm and 121ohm current limiting resistor, respectively. For coal mines, the neutral earthing resistor should limit the earth fault current to a value of between 0.75A and 2.5A. Due to long distances involved, voltage drop along the return path can be high. To limit the touch potential, the substation or mobile mini-sub earth bar should be bonded to pipes, cables, racks and general steelwork. The power is distributed via a 4-core non-halogen cable to AAC Specification 565002. The fourth core of the cable is used as an earth conductor and connected to the earth side of neutral earthing resistor. The armouring of these cables is also used as an additional earth conductor. Where a joint is made in the cable, all the armouring must be connected through the joint by means of crimped ferrules. Appendix 1 shows typical underground reticulation for a gold mine.
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10
MECHANISED MINING
Present day practices in some coal mines are to solidly earth the neutral point of the LV winding of service transformers or mini-subs. This practice is not encouraged. Earthing should be through a neutral earthing resistor to limit the earth fault current to values between 0.75A and 2.5A. To ensure end-to-end continuity exists, every trailing cable must be provided with a pilot conductor within the cable and this conductor requires to be supplied with a safe monitoring current from a pilot relay circuit installed in the gate-end box supplying the cable. The purpose of the pilot relay as shown on Figure 5 is: To monitor the continuity of the earthing system and trip the supply when earth continuity is disrupted; To ensure that the circuit will be tripped before an open flash occurs should any plug be pulled out of its socket while the cable is alive.
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LIGHTING AND SMALL POWER DISTRIBUTION

To provide power at 220 volts (for socket outlets, lights, etc.), a 380-volt, 5-wire system is used; this is termed a TN-S system in IEC terminology. This system has a phase-to-phase voltage of 380V and phase to neutral voltage of 220V. Each single-phase 220V circuit makes use of one of these phase conductors and the neutral. It is, therefore, impossible to use the fourth core of a 4-core cable as an earth conductor. For that reason, a separate earth wire is run from the 380-volt transformer to each distribution board and from there to each circuit. The earth wire is to have an area determined according to Table 3 of SANS 10142. The armouring is again used as an additional earth conductor. At 380-volt transformers, the normal neutral terminal is internally connected direct to the transformer star point. The neutral core of the 4-core cable is to be connected to this terminal. The earth system must be connected to the star point via a ring type CT. In some cases a second neutral terminal is available with an internal or external CT and this terminal should be earthed to the transformer earth stud. Where this second neutral terminal is not available, the normal neutral terminal must be earthed to the transformer earth stud via a CT. The earth wires accompanying the primary and secondary cables and all other cable armouring are also to be connected to the transformer earth stud, thereby earthing the transformer to the sub-station earth bars, earth mats, etc. This is illustrated in Figure 4. On domestic type socket outlets, the SANS Wiring Regulations 10142 specify that earth leakage protection of 30mA sensitivity must be provided.
12
LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF EXPLOSIVE MAGAZINES

The design of lightning protection of explosive magazines shall be in accordance with SANS 10313:1999.
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The lightning protection system normally consists of free standing masts separated from the structure. It normally consists of two or more masts at suitable positions around the magazine to provide appropriate shielding angles against lightning.
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The mesh used in the construction of floors, walls and roofs must be of a type in which wires are bonded in a permanent manner. The mesh aperture shall be 250mm or less. The roof must further have continuous metal roof with metal trusses or a reinforced concrete roof with continuous steel reinforcement or mesh. The roof must be bonded down to down conductors to a secondary building earth ring. The building earth ring must be bonded to the primary earth rings, which are grounding the masts together. The continuity of the earth ring must be tested annually by disconnecting the earth ring from all down conductors and masts at predetermined inspection points. The resistance of any part of the earth system must not exceed 1ohm. The results must be recorded in a logbook and the inspectorate must be notified.
13
EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR SHAFT HEADGEARS

The earthing systems for headgear are fully described in Appendix 12 Chamber of Mines Data Sheet 1.6-1991, which is attached to this Code of Practice.
14
EARTHING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF IN PIT 22KV OR 33KV/6.6KV TRANSFORMER SKIDS

For the safety of personnel and to protect portable transformers skids fed by 22kV or 33kV overhead lines, it is recommended that the following earthing arrangements are made: Establish the following earth mats: Primary overhead line earth mat Skid earth mat 6.6kV electrical system earth mat.
These earth mats are required to be approximately 15ohms, but if this is not achievable, higher readings are acceptable provided they are less than 30ohms. It has been found in practice on coal mine installations that satisfactory results can be achieved using 2 rods in parallel installed in drilled holes back filled with conductive slurry (Metronite) placed 30 metres apart, interconnected with trench earths. The earth mats are to be at least 30 metres apart from each other and from the skid. The earth mats are to be established and connected in accordance with the following drawings: Y2197 (Sheets 3, 4 and 5).
Earthing and Lightning Protection of In Pit Transformer Skids The 6.6kV electrical system neutral earthing resistor is to be rated to limit the earth fault current to 25amps and be able to carry this current continuously.
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The connection from the overhead line shall be by means of XLPE cable at least 50 metres long. This has the effect of operating as a surge reactor to lightning surges. The screen in the XLPE cable is to be earthed only at the skid and not at the overhead line end. The pilot wire monitor shall be protected by means of a gas surge arrester and a 'crowbar' protection unit.
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GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS
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15
EARTHING OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

In practice, two separate grounding networks will normally be needed, namely: A safety grounding system. This consists of a common bus network for the grounding of electrical equipment such as equipment racks, cable trays, power panels, building structures, etc. This system serves to protect personnel and equipment against possible hazardous potentials resulting from faults involving the power mains or from lightning. A clean grounding system. This consists of an insulated low noise common bus network for the grounding of electronic equipment. When used on a return for signals, it is termed a signal ground.
The signal grounding system must provide a low impedance at the frequencies concerned and, in cases where the noise amplitude on the safety ground system is very high, preferably install a separate earth rod system for the clean ground. Design and construct a grounding system for a new facility as follows: Determine the probability of direct lightning stroke to the facility and provide measure to reduce the possibility of lightning discharge currents in clean ground conductors. For example, antennas can be protected by so extending the antenna mast above the antenna so as to ensure that the antenna is located within the zone of protection of the mast and by providing an adequate counter-noisy earthing system for the mast. By taking into account the frequencies and conductor lengths involved, determine whether single point, multiple point or hybrid grounding systems are required. Use a type of conductor that will provide a low A.C. impedance at the relevant frequencies (e.g. flat copper strip). If there is a possibility that the conductor will be required to conduct large lightning discharge currents, select a conductor having an adequate cross-sectional area. Keep all grounding conductors as short as possible and wherever possible, avoid sharp bends. Take measures to prevent the coupling of noise and lightning energy into grounding conductors, as a consequence of surge carrying conductors running parallel to the grounding conductors. Ensure that all joints and bonding points are reliable and present low impedance electrical connections. Where possible, avoid closed loops, which may cause circulating noise currents. If this is not possible, keep the area of the loop as small as possible.
To protect electronic equipment from surges on power and signal lines: Provide isolation between signal line/power supply and equipment (often provided on equipment as standard). Provide "short circuit" path from signal line/power supply to grounding system via combination of gas arrester metal oxide varistor and silicon transient suppressor. Network design to suit isolation provided (1) and probability/amplitude study for the geographic area concerned.
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In addition to the electrical requirements, ensure that the grounding system complies with the following general requirements: The system must be mechanically strong and reliable The system must be well documented so as to enable the average technician to understand and implement the design objectives The cost of the system must be reasonable and standard and readily available materials must be used Any alterations or additions to the system must be compatible with the original design aims
16
EARTH LEAKAGE AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

Earth leakage and earth fault protection must comply with the Chamber of Mines Data Sheet 1.1-1991. See Appendix 3 attached.
17 17.1
17.1.1
STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS EARTH BAR

Miniature Sub-Stations For both surface and underground mini-subs, AAC Specification 543/4 and 5 calls for the provision of an earth bar, common to the MV and LV side, as follows: The Miniature Sub-Station (MSS) shall be provided with a 70mm2 Copper earth bar (referred to as the MV earth busbar) that is accessible from both MV and LV compartments to which the MSS enclosure, transformer tank, RMU (if applicable) and all other metal supports are bonded. Unless otherwise specified, the LV neutral earth busbar shall be bonded to the MV earth busbar. The bonding connection between the LV Neutral busbar and the MV earth busbar shall be removable to facilitate separation of MV and LV earth in accordance with the requirements of SANS10292. Where separation of MV and LV earths is specified, the bonding connection between LV neutral busbar and MV earth busbar shall be replaced by a surge arrester with the following characteristics: Maximum Continuous Overvoltage (MCOV) of 5kV Class 1 Discharge Current Rating, 10Ka Maximum Residual Voltage of 20Kv Minimum Creepage of 140mm
17.1.2
Fixed Sub-Stations Each sub-station containing more than one switchboard shall be provided with an earth bar, as follows: A solid copper bar of approximately 500 x 50 x 10mm dimensions mounted on the sub-station wall on stand-off insulators;
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2 x 70mm or 1 x 95mm bare stranded conductors must be strained against the sidewall along the full length of the cable duct in the sub-station. No joints are permitted in these main conductors.
17.2
17.2.1 17.2.2
EARTH BONDING
The conductor size for bonding of equipment is to be approximately 70mm stranded copper conductor. Branch tee-offs from the main earthing conductor mats are to be: Brazed in the case of solid-to-solid conductor connections A lug to be used in the case of stranded to solid conductor connections Wrapped and soldered in the case of stranded conductor connections All metal cabinets, enclosures, cable trays, racking, conduit, trunking, sub-station screens and all other metal work connected with wiring (other than the current carrying parts) are to be bonded to earth All cables terminating at switchgear are to have their earth conductors bolted to the switchgear earth bar. Where this connection is via a mechanical cone type gland, the gland must make a good connection to the gland plate, i.e. any non-conducting covering must be removed. In addition the gland plate must be bonded to the switchgear earth bar by a, stranded copper conductor of at least half the area of the phase conductors (not applicable to single core cables, see 4.7). All cables terminating at transformers are to have their earth conductors connected to the transformer earth stud All cables terminating at other equipment (motors, liquid starters, battery chargers, etc.) are to have their earth conductors connected to the housing enclosure At every sub-station, all switchgear earth bars and any earthing mats or spikes are to be bonded to the sub-station by a 70m stranded copper earth wire
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APPENDIX 1: TYPICAL UNDERGROUND RETICULATION. PAGE 1 OF 2
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APPENDIX 1: TYPICAL UNDERGROUND RETICULATION. PAGE 2 OF 2
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APPENDIX 2: CHAMBER OF MINES DATA SHEET 1.6 - 1991: "EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR SHAFT HEADGEARS" 1 INTRODUCTION Metalwork in and around a shaft may be raised to a potential higher than that of its surroundings due to the passage of a charged storm cloud over-head or to the occurrence of a lightning stroke direct to the headgear or to ground in its vicinity. To reduce consequent risks to men and equipment to a minimum it is essential that the headgear and associated metalwork should be well earthed. (Such risks include high touch potentials and the possible premature ignition of explosives underground). Comprehensive information on the design, installation and testing of lightning protection and earthing system is to be found in SANS 03-1985 Code of Practice for the Protection of Structures Against Lightning. In addition reference may be made to B.S. Code of Practice CP326: 1965 The Protection of Structures Against Lightning, and B.S. Code of Practice CP1013: 1965 Earthing will be found very useful. In brief the requirements for safety are that electrical conductors of adequate crosssection and number should be installed to conduct direct lightning stroke current from the point of strike at or near the top of the headgear to a properly designed and permanently effective headgear earth electrode system, which must be installed around the headgear footings. All metalwork entering the shaft or close to it should be securely bonded to the earthing system. 2 STEEL HEADGEARS As a steel headgear forms a conducting framework, the structure will be adequately protected if it is well earthed by means of copper conductors from the footings of its main legs to the main headgear earth electrodes system. It is recommended that copper strip at least 50mm x 6mm should be used to connect the footings of the main headgear structural members to the headgear earth electrode system, to ensure that these conductors will be able to resist mechanical damage and the effect of corrosion over a long period of service. (Ref. Fig.1). The top of the headgear should be constructed that there is a negligible chance that a lightning strike will terminate on a sheave wheel or winding rope. To achieve this these parts should fail within the protective zone (Ref. SANS 03) of the framework and derricks(s) and/or air terminations mounted on the upper portion of the headgear. 3 CONCRETE HEADGEARS In the case of concrete headgears (Ref. Fig.2.) all steel reinforcing needs to be electrically continuous, since some or all the lighting current will flow in it. Experience indicates that normal reinforcing fixing procedures give adequate bonding for lightning protective purposes within the body of the concrete. However, the reinforcing has also to be bonded to metalwork within the headgear tower, and externally as well where down-conductors are installed. To make such connections cooper straps or rods welded to the reinforcing structure should be brought out through the concrete at convenient horizons (particularly at ground level and the top of the headgear) and connected to all metalwork and machinery installed in the headgear and at ground level to the main headgear earth electrode system.
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An air termination system as described below for wooden headgears should be installed, which need only include tall spikes or masts if hand railing or top ring conductor with finials (or a metal roof in the case of a headgear with a tower-mounted winder), does not provide an adequate zone of protection for sheaves or other equipment at the top of the headgear or for men when work may have to be carried out on the top platform. This air termination system should be well bonded at not less than two points to sound connections to reinforcing at the top of the structure. If there is any doubt about the soundness of such connections, or the continuity of reinforcing steel, at least two external down-conductors should be installed, care being taken that the copper strip or stranded copper wire used follows the shortest possible route to earth. To achieve this it may be necessary to strain the conductors from overhanging portions of the structure to fixing points at a lower level. They should be run down the corners of a rectangular headgear and a minimum copper section of 40mm x 5mm (or equivalent) is recommended. Their horizontal spacing should not exceed 20 m, measured round the tower perimeter. If a concrete headgear has been cast without earthing connections to reinforcing steel being provided, surface concrete should be broken away at points at the top and bottom of the headgear, at least to enable some bonding to be done. In such cases external conductors should be provided as noted above. There is a case for the installation of external down-conductors on all concrete headgears, since these can easily be seen to be intact and to be properly connected at top and bottom. Note: it is preferable to use non-stranded conductors for all buried portions of earthing systems due to their greater resistance to corrosion but stranded conductors are often more convenient for use above ground. It should also be noted that for lightning protection, plate or coiled-wire earth electrodes are much less efficient in their use of copper than trench or rod electrodes). 4 WOODEN HEADGEARS The whole of the structure of every wooden headgear should be adequately protected from lightning strikes by a suitable system of air terminations (i.e. lightning conductors) and down conductors. The air termination system may consist of a continuous copper ring conductor at least 25mm x 3mm in cross-section fixed along the upper and outer edges of the highest transverse members of the headgear, with 0.5m vertical finials of copper or copper-clad steel rod mounted at the corners. In cases in which these conductors do not screen the structure or equipment mounted on it adequately one or more extended air terminations in the form of rigid vertical metal masts or spikes should be provided. These should be mounted for preference at the top of the structure (in place of short finials) and be of such a height that all portions of the structure fall within their protective zone. This may be considered, to be within a zone having a vertical semi-angle of 45O in the zone between two masts and 30O outside that zone. Each vertical air termination should be solidly connected to the ring conductor mentioned above. At least two down-conductors of cross-section not less than 25mm x 3mm (and preferably 40mm x 5mm) running from opposite corners of the top ring conductor down the outside edges of the legs of the headgear and connected to the headgear earth electrodes system should be installed.
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MAIN HEADGEARS EARTHING SYSTEM For reasons of safety this earthing system should be so designed and maintained that the most severe direct lightning strokes to the headgear can be withstood without danger to men or equipment. A resistance to earth of under 5ohms should be sought, but in locations with difficult earthing conditions values of about 10ohms may be best that can be achieved on the headgear earthing electrode system on its own. The main earthing system and connections to it are illustrated in Figures 1.200 and 1.201. It consists of interconnected earthing conductors buried in the soil close to the headgear at a depth of at least a metre. There should be a connection to the main earthing system from each down-conductor or headgear earthing point, including the footings of the vertical and reaction legs of a steel headgear. These connections should be interconnected by a 50mm x 6mm or equivalent cross-section copper ring conductor buried in a trench at least one metre deep which encircles the shaft. This should be installed at an early stage during construction work, before the area is paved and may be laid in the excavation made at the pre-sink stage of construction. Should the buried ring-conductor earth electrode system described above not give a sufficiently low earth resistance an improvement must be attempted by extending the earthing system. The preferred method is by the installation of buried 25mm x 3mm copper counterpoise strips radiating from the buries ring-conductor and connected to it at the points of attachment of the down conductors. Such counterpoises should have a maximum length of about 100m. If soil conditions enable copper or copper-clad steel driven rods to be employed these may provide a method of reducing the overall earthing resistance (and impedance to lightning currents). Soil resistivity tests will enable a judgement to be made as to the value of driving rods and favourable locations for doing so, as well as the length of radial counterpoise, which may be needed. Rods should be separated by horizontal distances at least equal to three times the length of rod used. It is important that the resistance to earth of the earthing system should be rested on first installation, and highly desirable that further tests should be done on the system at intervals thereafter, particularly during the first dry season following installation. However, in practice testing of its earth resistance as a separate entity will not be possible after bonding to other services takes place nor will satisfactory measurements be possible once the ground in the near vicinity of the headgear has had pipe, cables, tracks, wire fences etc. installed on or in it, since such conducting objects interfere with earth resistance tests by distorting the current field between the test spikes and the earth system under test. It is most important that materials used in making joints in the earthing system should be substantially free from any tendency to corrode in the prevailing soil and atmospheric conditions. Brazing is the best method; soft soldering without reinforcement by a rivet on non-corrosive bolt is not fully satisfactory. Note: A Copper-earthing conductor should not be passed through a steel pipe as this may produce an inductive choking effect to a lightning discharge current. Pipes of materials such as aspects cement, PVC or pitch-fibre may be used as protection or as conducts through concrete work.
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BONDING All shafts steelwork and steel shaft guides, air, water and ventilation pipes and signalling wires and bell rope winches and cable armouring should be solidly bonded to the earthing system. Such bonding may be facilitated by the provision of an earth bonding conductor in the form of a ring of 25mm x 6mm (or larger) copper strip inside the shaft at or just below collar level, with radial connections to the earthing system. It is in practice not normally possible to isolate the earthing system of the mine power distribution system from that of a headgear and for this reason a direct bond to the earthing system of any nearby distribution substation and that from which any cables enter the shaft of headgear, should be established: all metalwork associated with cabling and electrical items of equipment in the shaft and headgear should be bonded to the headgear earthing system as should the base-frame of all hoists serving the shaft. Where electrical equipment such as tower-mounted winder receives a power supply from a substation some distance from the headgear, consideration may have to be given to the installation of surge diverts at the end of the supply cable at the top of the tower. Where electrical equipment such as a tower-mounted winder receives a power supply from a substation some distance from the headgear, consideration may have to be given to the installation of surge diverts at the end of the supply cable at the top of the tower. Danger due to a lighting strike to a headgear can occur at shaft stations and other points underground if good bonding does not exist at each station between metalwork such as shaft guides, rails pipes, shaft gates, signalling bell housing and other items with which a man can come into contact. Strap or stranded copper bonding conductors of mechanical strength adequate to minimise risk of damage after installation should be used for such bonding. When a concrete floor is cast at shaft stations it is advantageous to have light steel reinforcing mesh cast into the floor and bonded to rails and shaft steelwork.
BELL ROPES During shaft sinking pull-bell ropes should have strain insulators made of Teflon or similar insulating material inserted at a point between the bottom of the stage and the shaft bottom to insulate the last length of the bell ropes.
BLASTING SYSTEM EARTHING During shaft sinking it has in the past been the practice to install a separate earthing electrode to which was connected to the screening of the blasting cable carrying mains power for detonator firing down the shaft. It has been stipulated that this electrode should be at least 9 meters from the nearest headgear earth. In practice such electrodes have been used but the blasting earth electrodes have been used, but the blasting earth electrodes connecting lead has often been un-insulated buried conductor.
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It is now considered that although the ideal of having the cable screening and other nonlive metal associated with the blasting circuits earthed to an electrode outside the potential field of the headgear main earthing system is highly desirable it is in most cases extremely difficult if not impossible to achieve in practice. This is because of the following: A separation of the order or 50m (rather than 10 metres) is necessary to give a reasonable chance of the blasting earth being outside the potential field of the main earthing system during a lightning discharge; Because in most instances there is complex and extending network of pipes, rails, cables and other earthed metalwork laid in the ground on surface close to a sinking shaft, making it increasingly difficult to site an independent earth electrode; Because of the need to keep the blasting system earth lead, and the blasting cable screening, well insulated from the main earth system. Insulation with an impulse breakdown value of the order of 100kV between the blasting earth and the main system would be desirable between the two systems. Such a value can be achieved by using special high voltage polythe or other polymeric insulation on the main earth electrode cable but is impossible to maintain in the shaft where the cable is often installed in wet conditions and clamped by metal clamps at frequent intervals over relatively thin sheathing intended to provide mechanical protection rather than electrical insulation.
For the reasons indicated above, it is now believed that the provision of a separate blasting electrode has often provided no true separation of earthing system, and it is therefore felt that the bonding of the earthing cable screening system to the main headgear earthing electrodes should be considered permissible and be adopted as the normal procedure.
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APPENDIX 3: CHAMBER OF MINES DATA SHEET 1.1 - 1991 EARTH LEAKAGE AND EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION 1 INTRODUCTION In a healthy distribution network of the type generally encountered on mines the electrical currents are confined to the insulated conductors of the network. I.e. currents flow in the external earth path between the system and the power source. If currents do flow in these paths they indicate that there is leakage of current as a result of failure of the insulation and the immediate and greatest concern is that there may be a hazard to persons as a consequence of high voltage appearing on the metallic frame of equipment and even on adjacent structures such as handrails, plumbing fixtures etc. If Leakage currents are high enough then damage to equipment can also occur. In certain types of installation a technique of wiring known as Multiple Earthing may be used which deliberately utilises return conductors, which are also attached to metallic return conductors, which are also attached to metallic structures. In mining practice, particularly when mining in hard rock, this system is not used and will not be considered here. Because of the possible hazards to life, every installation must be examined very critically from this point of view. Provision of proper and substantial earth paths in the form of bonding will reduce the hazards to life by ensuring that earth faults will not induce dangerous differences in potential in metalwork accessible to persons and this should always form the first line of defence. Bonding straps may, however, become damaged in time and reliance on these alone can never be regarded as being a complete protection against hazards to life. Bonding will also prevent damage to equipment following internal earth faults. As a consequence there is a need to have protection equipment, which will switch out the faulty apparatus or network as soon as an earth fault occurs. The fact that there are so many different techniques for detecting and isolating equipment when an earth fault occurs indicates that there is no single ideal system and every installation must necessarily involve some degree of compromise. 2 EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS ON HUMAN BODY The Human body is a conductor of electricity and the effects of current passing through the body depend on both the magnitude and the duration of the current. The applied voltage is only important in so far as it causes current to flow through the body resistance and although the skin when dry and unbroken offers a fairly high resistance to current flow, the skin of persons working underground is usually far from dry because of the moist conditions found there and also because of perspiration. Persons in mines are therefore particularly susceptible to electric shock. The resistance of the skin is an extremely variable but important factor, it being the first defence partner. There is not much difference in the resistivity of bone, nerve, muscle or blood tissue, these all being much lower than that of the skin. The resistance of the skin of the hand varies from about 1 megohn for dry cry calloused hands down to about 300ohms for hands wet with saline perspiration. The passage of current stimulates the sweat glands and also causes local burning and blistering, all of which quickly reduces the skin resistance and this is one of the reasons why duration of contacts is important.
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The danger of electric shock depends on the amount of current flowing through the body, the duration of such current flow and the path followed by the current through the body. Currents of 1 miliampere can just be felt: 5 to 15 milliampere cause an unpleasant stimulation of the muscles; 25 to 30 milliampere cause involuntary contraction which may interfere with breathing and also result in the victim being unable to release himself; 30 to 40 milliamperes may produce permanent damage, especially to nerve tissue and blood vessels: 50 milliamperes and above may be fatal as they can cause ventricular fibrillation of the heart, especially if it occurs during the critical or T-phase of the cardiac cycle. Since the T-phase lasts for about 150 milliseconds it will be seen that rapid disconnection of the power supply can be of crucial importance in safeguarding life. Still higher currents of 1 to 6 amperes cause a simultaneous violent contraction of all muscles, including those of the heart. This lasts condition has often proved to be less dangerous than lower currents since the violent muscle action often throws the victim clear. Release from the power source followed by artificial respiration and cardiac massage, if necessary, for a few minutes may cause the heart to resume its normal rhythmic function. The injurious effects of electric current flowing through the body also depend largely on the path followed by current. Currents flowing through the lower part of the brain affect the breathing nerve centre, and currents through the heart affect the heart muscle. Therefore currents from head to leg are the most dangerous, followed by arm-to-arm, arm to leg and leg to leg in deceasing order of danger. It can be seen why any current above 25 milliamperes must be considered potentially dangerous if allowed to persist. In underground conditions a voltage of as low as 25 Volts can cause this amount of flow through the human body. 3 PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS IN EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION It is technically feasible to obtain core-balance type of earth-leakage detectors with internal transistor amplifiers, which can detect earth-leakage current of 20 milliamperes and less. These units when combined with suitable tripping circuits to miniature circuits breakers as shown in Figure 1 are typical of the type of protection, which can be used on 220 Volt single-phase domestic systems. They can in fact protect a person who causes the earthleakage by touching a line conductor while standing on or holding onto an earthed metallic conductor. He will not avoid getting a shock but usually these systems operate so fast that no fatal consequences are likely to follow. When higher voltage systems are used, however, switchgear becomes bulkier and consequently slower in operation while the higher voltages cause higher currents to flow through the body with consequent increasing danger to the person touching the system.
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Figure 1: DOMESTIC EARTH-LEAKAGE PROTECTION
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Higher voltage systems are also much larger than domestic systems and usually involve cables and larger items such as transformers and motors, which can have substantial capacitances to ground. In A.C. systems a reactive current will flow through the incidental capacitances to ground and will be seen by any earth-leakage detector as an apparent earth fault as shown in Figure 2. The larger the system the higher the reactive current will be with the result that a 20 milliamperes detector eventually becomes useless and the detector has to be limited to higher and higher threshold currents. No standard can therefore be set for the magnitude of the earth-fault current allowable in industrial installations. When core-balance type earth-leakage protection was first introduced on the 525 Volt Circuits on the Gold Mines a figure of 250 milliamperes was tentatively adopted, this value being considered to be enough to avoid excessive nuisance tripping and low enough (when used in conjunction with rapid-acting circuit breakers) to provide some degree of protection for human life. Although still the subject of much argument, this value of 250mA has become generally accepted and equipment of this rating is readily available commercially. Many Engineers feel that in the interests of improved protection for human life a lower level of detection is desirable, and a 125mA System is readily obtainable by leading power conductors twice through the aperture of the core-balance transformer of a standard 250mA unit. As a general rule, such 125mA System has been found to operate without excessive nuisance tripping, provided that operation and maintenance procedures are closely supervised. Some engineers have even gone to a 62.5mA System by looping the power conductors 3 times, but the limited experience available so far indicates that at this degree of sensitivity the starting transients of Electric Motors coupled with the inherent strong capacitances to earth of the system can result in an unacceptability high degree of nuisance tripping. On system voltages of 3kV and higher these problems of incidental earth-leakage currents through cable and apparatus capacities are accentuated by leakage through corona discharges and these, coupled with higher system voltage itself, result in much higher threshold earth-leakage currents below which it is not practical to attempt to design detection equipment. At these higher system voltages it becomes virtually impossible to protect the life of a person if he makes direct contact with a live conductor and consequently great care must be taken to prevent any person from coming in contact with a live conductor. Of great importance in these cases is the need to prevent an earth fault from causing metallic enclosures of electrical equipment to rise to dangerously high potentials. In large systems a second factor needs to be considered, namely that some type of discrimination is desirable so that only the faulty equipment will be disconnected from the system rather than that the entire system be shut down wherever an earth fault occurs anywhere in the system. However, failure of a particular earth-fault detector is crimination being achieved either but time delays or by less sensitive detectors, or by both.
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Figure 2: EFFECT OF STRAY CAPACITANCES TO EARTH-FAULT DETECTOR
METHODS OF EARTH-LEAKAGE PROTECTION Earth-leakage currents in electrical equipment will normally occur because of defective insulation and these leakage currents, passing through the finite impedance of the earth path, will cause a potential difference to occur. Depending upon the magnitude of the leakage currents and the impedance of the earth path, such potential difference may vary from a few milli-volts to several hundred volts. Earth-leakage protection for equipment can therefore be based either on measurement of the leakage current or upon the potential difference produced by that current. Although, as has been pointed out, the sensitivity of the human body to applied voltage varies very widely according to the resistance of the skin and the points of contact, it is nevertheless possible to define a level (approximately 25 Volts) above which a hazard to life may exist. Earth-leakage protection for the human body may therefore be based also upon measurement of either the actual leakage current or the voltage producing it.
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Measurement of leakage current requires equipment capable of differentiating, reliably, between leakage currents of the order of tens or hundreds of milliamperes on the one hand and normal load currents, which may be of the order of several hundreds of amperes on the other hand. Because equipment capable of such performance was not initially available early attempts at earth-leakage protection were based on voltage measurements techniques. Although some success was achieved voltage-type earth-leakage protection tended to be unsatisfactory because of the following: A significant leakage current flowing through a low impedance path requires a very sensitive relay for detection, but the same leakage current flowing in a high impedance path can generate a high voltage. Voltage relays of adequate sensitivity for the first case often proved unable to resist flashover in the second case: Conversely relays with adequate voltage withstand capabilities were often unable to provide the requisite degree or sensitivity. Flashover problems were often aggravated by the high humidity, prevailing underground. Voltage measurement techniques are unable to provide protection against direct contact with a live terminal and it became clear that a significant proportion of electrocution accidents fell into this category.
For this reasons, measurement of the actual leakage current has become the technique most favoured in the South African Gold Mining Industry. In all cases where an earth-leakage current exists there must be flow of current in an external earth conductor. This earth conductor may be an incidental one involving the earth itself, nearby pipes, railway track, structural steelwork, etc. However, if this incidental earth return is the only one encountered, the operation of the earth-fault detectors cannot be ensured in every case. If the earth return has a high impedance at certain points it is also possible for high voltage to be encountered during an earth-fault even between metallic structures apparently unrelated to the electrical system thereby causing a hazard to human lives and possibly even to sensitive equipment such as blasting circuits, in the vicinity. For this reason, all metallic structures in the vicinity of any electrical system must be securely bonded together with adequately sized earthing conductors. 5 APPLICATION OF EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION From the considerations indicated previously, earth-fault protection details fall fairly naturally into three classes of installation, namely: Domestic System usually 220 Volts Medium size systems normally 525 Volts three-phase The Larger distribution system usually of 3kV and above
Each class needs to be considered separately.
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DOMESTIC EARTH-LEAKAGE PROTECTION In houses, flats, offices and shops and generally where lighting and low power utility plug points are required, the use of 220 Volt sing-phase or 380/220 Volt three-phase is almost universal. These types of circuits allow the ideal form of earth-leakage protection to be used, namely that in which earth-leakage currents of the order of 20mA can be detected, thereby directly protecting persons who may come in contact between a live conductor and earth. As has been indicated, the core-balance types of detector incorporating internal amplifiers or sensitive polarized magnetic relays are readily available and universally used. For convenience of testing a push-button which can introduce a deliberate earth-fault slightly greater than the nominal sensitivity of the device is usually incorporated within these units. Regular testing of the units should be carried out to detect faults occurring in the detection of tripping circuits. Figure 3: OPERATION OF CORE BALANCE EARTH-LEAKAGE DETECTOR
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MEDIUM-SCALE, MEDIUM-VOLTAGE AND EARTH LEAKAGE PROTECTION In medium-scale system the usual system voltage is normally 525 Volts three-phase and is usually obtained from a transformer in the vicinity, which is connected to a higher voltage distribution system. The low voltage winding of the transformer and all circuits connected to this winding should be regarded as part of the installation. In mining practice it is usual to have a star connected low voltage winding on the transformer and in the simplest systems this star-point is connected solidly to the general earth system of bonding conductors. Core-balance types of earth-fault detectors generally operating at 250mA are fairly standard units, which can be placed ahead of these parts of the installation where individual earth-fault protection is desired. A healthy circuit with no earth-fault beyond the core-balance detector will have the vector sum of the currents in the three conductors as zero. This principle applies even if the load is completely unbalanced. Heavy currents can pass through the core-balance transformer window without affecting the secondary winding of the transformers as long as no earthleakage occurs beyond the core-balance transformer. Any earth-leakage occurring beyond the core-balance transformer will disturb the zero vector sum of currents flowing in the three conductors as shown in Figure 3 and the actual vector sum of the currents will be equal then to the value of current flowing to earth. The output current developed by the core balance transformer can then be used to operate a tripping circuit of a circuit breaker. These circuits usually termed instantaneous although there will in fact be inevitable delays in operating mechanisms and a deliberate delay of a few milliseconds may be built into the amplifiers to prevent nuisance tripping when current transients occur in the system. These delays can also be usefully employed where discrimination has to be considered. The 250mA instantaneous relay is intended for the protection of individual items of plant such as winches, fans, pumps, etc., and these is usually the preferred method of application, since a fault on a particular machine will then isolate that machine only and leave the rest of the plant in the area in uninterrupted operation. There may be some cases where a single relay can be used to protect a group of machines an example would be a multi-stage pumping scheme with several pumps connected in series, where stoppage of an individual motor would in any case hinder the whole system inoperative. Economic and/or technical circumstances may sometimes dictate the protection of a whole network by a single earth-leakage relay, in which case the sum of the inherent leakage of numerous circuit elements may be such that a 250mA relay would be swamped. To deal with such problems, instantaneous relays with sensitivities of 500, 1 000, 2 000 or 5 000 milliamperes are readily obtainable. When a branched network is fed from a single power source, then it may be desirable to introduce back-up earth-leakage protection at various points in the network and provide for a measure of discrimination between them.
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In this regard it should be pointed out that in typical systems where the neutral point is earthed either solidly or via relatively low impedance the magnitude of earth-fault currents will normally be such that, upon the occurrence of a fault, all instantaneous earthleakage relays in the system will trip simultaneously. This for example, 1 500 or 1 000mA instantaneous relay will not discriminate against a 250mA instantaneous relay except in very special circumstances. In order to obtain discrimination it is therefore necessary to introduce time differentials between successive stages, and for this purpose various types of earth-leakage relays with differing inverse-time characteristics are readily available commercially. Since the slower acting relays are normally used nearer to the power source, in which position the aggregate inherent leakage, the slower acting relays usually have progressively decreasing sensitivity. The principle of such discrimination between successive stages is illustrated in Figure 4.
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With a solid connection to earth of the star-point of the transformer quite large earth-fault currents can flow through the distribution circuits and these can cause the normal overcurrent protection circuits to operate in addition to the purely earth-fault detection circuits, depending on the particular circuit and taking into account the fact that these over-current circuits may also have some form of time delay incorporated, this effect may be tolerated. In many cases, however, it may be considered desirable to limit the earth-fault current so that its destructive effect on the piece of equipment developing the fault may also be limited. This can be done by, introducing a resistance or impedance between the starpoint of the transformer and earth. If this impedance is high compared with the earth return path impedance from the fault then the star-point voltage can rise to a maximum of 1/v3 of the phase-to-phase voltage, one phase under those conditions being at or near earth potential while the other two phases rise considerably in potential to earth as a consequence. The high potential to earth of the star-point of the transformer can be used to operate a voltage sensitive relay which can be used to trip out a main circuit breaker as shown in Figure 5. If some form of delay is incorporated into this tripping circuit it can provide a simple method of back up to the individual core-balance earth-leakage detectors in the rest of the circuit. In smaller systems the use of earth-fault protection at individual units can be dispensed with and instantaneous tripping via such a high impedance connection used on its own to disconnect the whole system on the occurrence of an earth-fault anywhere on the system.
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While high impedance star-point earthing will limit earth-fault currents, the danger of the higher potentials to earth on the healthy phase conductors should not be overlooked as the increased stress potential may cause further faults to develop on the system. The two extremes of zero impedance (direct connection to earth) and infinite impedance (open circuit to earth) both have their problems. A practical approach is to design the earthing impedance so that earth-fault currents are limited to values, which will not cause damage to equipment but will be of sufficient magnitude to operate the protective devices. Colliery earth-fault current limitation and earth-fault protection practice are dealt within some detail in Data Sheet 1.8 Underground electrical equipment in collieries (and other fiery mines). 5.3 High Voltage Earth-Fault Protection At voltages of 3kV an above it can be generally accepted that there is no type of equipment, which can protect a person touching a live conductor. Earth-fault protection at these voltages can only endeavor to disconnect a faulty piece of equipment as quickly as possible in order to avoid damage to the rest of the system or further damage to the faulty equipment and to prevent the secondary danger caused by high potentials appearing on adjacent metallic structures and enclosures. Systems operating at these voltages are generally quite large and the equipment cost is high so that it is worthwhile installing earth-fault protection equipment, which is more, sophisticated that that which would be used on lower voltage systems. High voltage systems also introduce further problems of their own which are of small significance at lower voltages. Chief among these is the need to study very carefully the over voltages which can occur during system disturbances. Like the lower voltage systems, high voltage systems can be operated either totally insulated from earth or with the system connected to earth directly or through some impedance. Modern practice does not favour an unearthed system for the following reasons: Earth-leakage protection cannot be applied easily to it The whole-network may be raised to dangerous voltage if any part of it comes into contact with a part of a high voltage network such as by fault between the high and low voltage windings of a supply transformer or a conductor of the other The voltage above earth of the network may rise to a dangerous level due to induced charges in the absence of a drainage path to earth The belief that a network with an unearthed neutral may safely suffer a single earthfault and be left in operation until it is convenient to find and clear the fault is true only if the fault is of such a nature that the conductor becomes solidly earthed at the moment of fault and remains solidly earthed thereafter. Even so, while the network is operated in this condition the voltage to earth of the two remaining healthy phases will be raised above normal and this will predispose them also to suffer earth-faults. If this happens, the network can no longer be kept in operation, as a second earthfault on another phase will be the equivalent of an inter-phase fault.
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Many earth-faults are likely to be intermittent or high and variable impedance and this type of fault can give rise to the phenomenon known as arcing ground or restrike. When an earth-fault occurs on such a network, the fault current that flows is that due to the capacity to earth of the two remaining healthy phases and this capacitate current can result in an arc at the point of fault which is continually and rapidly extinguished and reformed. This gives rise to transient over-voltages on the network of a magnitude that may be several times as great as the normal network voltage and these transient over-voltages may cause the insulation of the network to break down to earth at other points.
On an earthed three-phase network it is usual to earth the neutral point of the network as this equalizes the voltages between the phases and earth. If the neutral of a network is earthed the danger of transient over-voltage is greatly reduced and is possible, by the use of earth-leakage protection, to obtain quick automatic disconnection of faulty apparatus. Damage on circuits so disconnected will be less severe than would be the case if an interphase fault were to develop first before automatic disconnection took place. Unlike low and medium voltage systems, the user very often does not have access to the star-point of a supply transformer and in fact most transformers providing a high voltage supply are delta-connected and no earthing point is available. The user must therefore either provide some equipment, which will give him an effective neutral point or must arrange with the supply authority to do this. The usual way of doing this is by the use of a neutral-earthing compensator, which is a special piece of equipment resembling a transformer and having windings arranged in a zigzag configuration as shown in Figure 6 (a). These compensators may have a fairly high reactance built into the windings in order to limit the maximum earth-fault current, which can flow as a consequence of a fault. Additionally, resistance in the form of Cast Iron or Stainless Steel Grids can be placed between the compensator neutral point and earth as shown in Figure 6 (b).
APPROVED
28 April 2006
Page 47 of 51
APPROVED
28 April 2006
Page 48 of 51
For example, a 300-ampere neutral-earthing compensator at least should be used on a 6.6kV network with 150MVA prospective fault level. Neutral-earthing compensators are usually not continuously rated against the full earthfault which the system can pass as it is assumed that the various protection devices will clear the fault quickly. If this does not happen for any reason, the neutral-earthing compensator will be damaged and may well be set on fire so that it must be placed in a position away from other vulnerable equipment and should have its own protective equipment which will protect it from sustainable earth-fault currents as well as against faults which may develop within itself. Unlike other equipment on the system, the neutralearthing compensator should never be disconnected from the system while the system is alive, as this has been shown to cause dangerous high transient voltages, which can lead to multiple failures of rates and equipment throughout the system. Any faults detected in the neutral-earthing compensator or any dangerously high-sustained currents flowing in it as a result of uncleared earth-fault elsewhere in the system must trip the main incoming circuit breaker of the whole system and not the circuit breaker supplying the neutralearthing compensator. Once the problem of providing a neutral point on a high voltage system has been solved the rest of the problem of dealing with earth-faults on the system is basically no different from that of dealing with earth-faults on lower voltage systems. There will, however, generally be a greater emphasis on various types of discrimination in order to prevent isolation of more of the system than is necessary. In most cases discrimination is achieved by having the fastest acting protective devices situated at or near the terminal points of the system while progressively longer time delays are used in protective devices as they are located closer to the point of supply. Different current settings may also be used but are generally not of much value, as earth-fault currents do not vary to any extent with the actual location of the earth-fault. Another type of discrimination, which can be used, is that provided by directional earthfault relays and these have particular application to ring main circuits or to parallel feeder circuits such as shown in Figure 7. In this case an earth-fault occurring on one of the feeders will split between the two feeders as shown. Normal earth-fault protection equipment at the top ends of the feeders as A and B may have delay discrimination and will therefore only respond slowly to the earth-fault and it may easily happen that A will clear before B still leaving the earth-fault connected to the system. When B does clear both feeders will have been cleared and all supplies on the lower end of the system will be interrupted. If, however, directional earth-fault relays are installed at C and D discrimination between healthy and faulty feeders can be obtained. The directional earthfault relay has the property of operation only when a current opposite to that normally present is encountered in this case the directional earth-fault relay at D will clear that end of the feeder. No earth-fault current will now flow from A to C on the healthy feeder; the full earth-fault current then will flow through the normal earth-fault relay at B which will then clear the top end of the faulty feeder. The faulty feeder is thus removed from the system with the supply still being maintained through the healthy cable.
APPROVED
28 April 2006
Page 49 of 51
Figure 7: USE OF DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
The core-balance type of earth-leakage detector is used sometimes in high voltage systems, but unlike the types used in domestic and medium voltage systems it does not need to have an internal amplifier, the output current being adequate to drive the fault relays. Because of the large conductors and greater spacings required between conductors, the core-balance transformer is not always the most convenient type of detector to use. It is generally a more practical arrangement to use individual current transformers in each of the phase conductors and to connect their secondaries, so that the vector sum of the primary currents (residual current) will be measured.
APPROVED
28 April 2006
Page 50 of 51
In high voltage system there will be a number of indicating, recoding and protective circuits for other purposes than for earth-fault protection alone. Current transformers in particular may be common to a number of these other circuits. Reference to the detailed circuit drawing applicable to actual equipment in sue may well give the impression that the earth-fault protection is in fact more complex than outlined above. There is, in fact, little variation from these general principles in practice and this knowledge will serve to encourage maintenance personnel to really understand what should be expected of the equipment. Testing of earth-fault protection is of importance on a high voltage system as there is normally a need for individual units to work correctly but to work correctly in relation to other units on the system. It is of particular importance that the discrimination pattern of the various earth-fault relays should be correct. Testing by means of placing actual faults on the system at various points is feasible but not very practical due to the time for which the system would be out of commission for normal use. The more usual method of testing is to withdraw individual circuit breakers and their protective circuits from service and use primary current injection test equipment to simulate the operation of that particular circuit. Faults can develop in protective circuits, relay characteristic can change and the whole system can change. It is therefore essential that periodic inspections, usually, should be carried out on each unit of the whole system to ensure that the system protection is functioning correct.
APPROVED
28 April 2006
Page 51 of 51

Aac Spec 543010

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AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

LOW VOLTAGE SOLIDLY EARTHED

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

BONDING (POTENTIAL EQUALISATION)

BONDING CONDUCTOR UNEARTHED

DIRECTLY EARTHED NETWORK INDIRECTLY EARTHED NETWORK

RESISTIVELY EARTHED EFFECTIVELY EARTHED

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

MEDIUM VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

NEC CONNECTION AS CONSUMBER SUB BUSBAR

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

MEDIUM VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ON SURFACE INSTALLATIONS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

LOW VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

LIGHTING AND SMALL POWER DISTRIBUTION

LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF EXPLOSIVE MAGAZINES

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR SHAFT HEADGEARS

EARTHING AND LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF IN PIT 22KV OR 33KV/6.6KV TRANSFORMER SKIDS

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

AAC SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

543010 ISSUE 1 COPYRIGHT

GUIDELINES FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS