Answers Exam Number 2, 18.385j/2.

036j MIT (Fall 2010)

Rodolfo R. Rosales (MIT, Math. Dept., room 2-337, Cambridge, MA 02139) November 29, 2010 Course TA:
Jan Molacek, MIT, Math. Dept. room 2-331, Cambridge, MA 02139. Email: molacek@math.mit.edu

Contents
1 Problem 6.5.13 - Strogatz (Nonlinear centers). 1.1 Problem 6.5.13 statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Problem 6.5.13 answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Problem 08.02.05 - Strogatz (Hopf bifurcation using a computer). 2.1 Problem 08.02.05 statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Problem 08.02.05 answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Problem 08.02.11 - Strogatz (Degenerate bifurcation, not Hopf ). 3.1 Problem 08.02.11 statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Problem 08.02.11 answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Problem 08.04.03 - Strogatz (Homoclinic bifurcation via 4.1 Problem 08.04.03 statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Problem 08.04.03 answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Analysis for the Hopf bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . computer). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 3 3 4 6 6 6 8 8 9 12 13 13 14

5 Problem 08.06.07 - Strogatz (Mechanical example of quasiperiodicity). 5.1 Problem 08.06.07 statement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Problem 08.06.07 answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Figures
1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 3.1 4.1 4.2 Problem Problem Problem Problem Problem Problem Problem 6.5.13. Phase plane portrait & energy surface. Dungs eqn., = +1. 6.5.13. Phase plane portrait & energy surface. Dungs eqn., = 1. 08.02.05. Stable spiral point before a Hopf bifurcation. . . . . . . . . 08.02.05. Soft (supercritical) Hopf bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 08.02.11. Phase portrait for Dungs equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 08.04.03. Phase portraits slightly before an homoclinic bifurcation. . 08.04.03. Phase portrait slightly after an homoclinic bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . 3 4 5 5 7 10 11

. . . . .

1
1.1

Problem 6.5.13 - Strogatz (Nonlinear centers).

Statement for problem 6.5.13.

(Nonlinear centers). a) Show that the Dung equation d2 x + x + x3 = 0, dt2 has a nonlinear center at the origin for all > 0. b) Older edition of the book had here: If < 0, show that the origin is a nonlinear center only if || is suciently small. How large can || be? This is wrong! The new edition says: If < 0, show that all trajectories near the origin are closed. What about trajectories that are far from the origin? This xes the problem, but remains missleading! There is a center for all values of ! SHOW this and give a COMPLETE description of what happens for < 0. (1.1)

1.2

Answer for problem 6.5.13.

1 1 V (x) = x2 + x4 . 2 4

Introduce the potential

Then the equation takes the form

d2 x dV + = 0, dt2 dx which clearly has a conserved quantity, the energy: 1 E = E(x, x) = x2 + V (x). 2 (1.2)

Note that E is smooth and that E vanishes only at the critical points of (1.1). Thus the orbits of (1.1) are given by the level curves of E. We note that: The origin is always a local minimum of E, thus The origin is always a center for Dungs equation. There is a big dierence in the phase plane portrait between the cases > 0 and < 0: When > 0, the origin is the only critical point and all the orbits are periodic. You might say that the origin is a global center. All the curves E = constant are closed.

3
dy/dt + x + x3 = 0, y = dx/dt.
2

1
2

y 0

1.5

E
-1

0.5 0 -2 0 -1 0

-2

-1

-2

Figure 1.1: (Problem 6.5.13). Dungs equation (1.1) for = 1. Phase plane portrait (left) and 1 1 energy surface E = (y 2 + x2 ) + x4 , where y = x (right). All solutions are periodic. 2 4 1 When < 0, two additional critical points (saddles) arise, at (x, x) = ( , 0). These are 1 connected via the orbits corresponding to the energy value E = . Only the orbits inside 4 the region whose boundary is made up by these saddle connections are periodic. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate the situation for the cases > 0 and < 0, respectively. Note that we can always scale the equation to make || = 1, so these two gures illustrate all possible cases. The gures also show plots of the energy surfaces that correspond to each one of the two cases ( > 0 and < 0.) 1 Notice that, for < 0, the region that the periodic orbits occupy in the phase plane has size . Thus it gets smaller as the the magnitude of grows. But it never vanishes!

2
2.1

Problem 08.02.05 - Strogatz (Hopf bifurcation using a computer).

Statement for problem 08.02.05.
dx = y + x dt dy = x + y x2 y, dt

(Hopf bifurcation using a computer). For the following system and (2.1)

4
dy/dt + x - x = 0, y = dx/dt.
2 3

0.4

0.2 0 -2 -1

-1

0 1 2 -1 -2 1 0

-2

-1

Figure 1.2: (Problem 6.5.13). Dungs equation (1.1) for = 1. Phase plane portrait (left) and 1 1 1 energy surface E = (y 2 + x2 ) x4 , where y = x (right). The critical energy level curve (E = ), 2 4 4 corresponding to the saddle connections, is marked with a thick black line on the right picture. a Hopf bifurcation occurs at the origin when = 0. Using a computer, plot the phase portrait and determine whether the bifurcation is subcritical or supercritical. For small values of , verify that the limit cycle is nearly circular. Then measure the period and radius of the limit cycle, and show that the radius R scales with as predicted by theory.

2.2

Answer for problem 08.02.05.

See gure 2.1 for the phase portrait with = 0.1. It indicates a stabilizing nonlinearity, thus a supercritical (soft) Hopf bifurcation. Figure 2.2 shows a picture of the phase portrait for = 0.1 on the left and the limit cycles for various values of 0 < 1 on the right. A stable limit cycle appears around the critical point for 0 < 1. This conrms that a supercritical (soft) Hopf bifurcation occurs. For 0 < 1 it is easy to see (in gure 2.2) that the limit cycles are nearly circular. The table on the right shows a listing of various parameters for these cycles. It should be clear that the R theoretical predictions (e.g.: constant, and period linear period) are satised. Limit Cycle Parameters, 0 < 1. 0.0160 0.0100 0.0025 R =radius. 0.35775 0.28285 0.14142 R 2.8283 2.8285 2.8284 Period . 2.0014 2.0005 2.0000

5
dx/dt=x+y & dy/dt=-x+ y-x y, for: = -0.1
2
2

y0

Problem 08.02.05. System (2.1) for = 0.1 < 0. All the orbits spiral towards the origin, even those O(1) away. Since is fairly small, this is a good hint that the nonlinearity is stabilizing, which should lead to a supercritical (soft) Hopf bifurcation.

-1

-2

-1

x
Figure 2.1: (Problem 08.02.05). Phase portrait for the system in (2.1) when = 0.1 < 0.
dx/dt=x+y & dy/dt=-x+ y-x 2y, for: = 0.1
2
0.4

Limit cycles for: x =x+y & y =-x+ y-x y.

t t

= 0.01
1
0.2

= 0.016

= 0.0025

y0

-1

-0.2

-2

-1

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

Figure 2.2: (Problem 08.02.05). Left: phase portrait for the system in (2.1) when = 0.1 > 0. The picture on the right shows the limit cycles for various values of 0 < 1. Furthermore, the limit cycle for = 0.1 is not very circular, but if we interpret its radius as the value R of x when y = 0, we obtain R 0.89235, which yields = 2.8219 (quite close to the values above in the table.) In this case the period is P 2.0579.

3
3.1

Problem 08.02.11 - Strogatz (Degenerate bifurcation, not Hopf ).

Statement for problem 08.02.11.
d2 x dx + + x x3 = 0. 2 dt dt

(Degenerate bifurcation, not Hopf ). Consider the damped Dung oscillator (3.1)

a) Show that the origin changes from a stable to an unstable spiral as decreases through zero. b) Plot the phase portraits for > 0, = 0 and < 0, and show that the bifurcation at = 0 is a degenerate version of the Hopf bifurcation. In fact, show that no periodic orbits are possible for = 0.

3.2

Answer for problem 08.02.11.

d2 x dx + + x = 0. 2 dt dt

a) The linearized equation near the critical point at the origin is (3.2)

This is a damped harmonic oscillator for > 0 and an excited one for < 0. Thus the critical point at the origin is a stable (rep. unstable) spiral for 0 < < 2 (resp. 2 < < 0) and a stable/unstable node for 2 > 4. b) The switch from stable to unstable spiral of the critical point at the origin suggests that a Hopf bifurcation might occur at = 0. However, consider the energy function: 1 E= 2 which satises

dx dt

1 1 + x2 x4 , 2 4
2

(3.3)

dE dx = dt dt

(3.4)

In particular, E is a conserved quantity for = 0. This shows that the nonlinear terms in equation (3.1) are conservative, neither stabilizing nor destabilizing. This is a fundamental necessary condition for a Hopf bifurcation, since the limit cycle that arises there is the product of the balance between the linear and the nonlinear terms. We conclude then that: no Hopf bifurcation will occur for = 0. Another indication that a Hopf bifurcation cannot occur for = 0 is to notice that, if there was one, there would be a limit cycle for only one of either > 0 or < 0. But equation

7 (3.1) is invariant under the transformation t t and , which is not compatible with the existence of a limit cycle on only one side. We conrm the conclusion in the paragraphs above by proving that no periodic orbits are possible for = 0. This follows because, for any periodic orbit we must have: 0= Thus
dE dt = dt

dx dt

dt.

(3.5)

dx 0 on the orbit, which means that the orbit is actually just a critical point. dt
Duffing oscillator for = 0.5
4 3 2 1

0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2

x
Figure 3.1: (Problem 08.02.11). Phase portrait for Dungs equation (3.1). The stable and unstable dx manifolds for the two saddles are shown. Here y = . dt To study the phase portrait for equation (3.1), we note that we need to consider only the case > 0, because the equation is invariant under t t and . We also note that the phase portrait (for any ) must be invariant under (x, x) (x, x). For 0 < 1 the phase portrait for equation (3.1) can be obtained by noticing that E is a slowly decreasing function of time. Thus the orbits are almost level lines for E. In particular, the behavior of the stable/unstable manifolds for the saddles at P1 = (x, x) = (1, 0) 1 and P2 = (x, x) = (1, 0) is easy to understand. In particular, one of the unstable manifolds
1

Note that, once we have these, they pretty much determine the behavior of the other orbits.

8 for each saddle will have to approach the critical point at the origin, while the other diverges to innity. Figure 3.1 shows the phase portrait for = 0.5.

4
4.1

Problem 08.04.03 - Strogatz (Homoclinic bifurcation via computer).

Statement for problem 08.04.03.
dx = x + y x2 dt dy = x + y + 2 x2 , dt

(Homoclinic bifurcation). Using numerical integration, nd the value of at which the system and (4.1)

undergoes a homoclinic bifurcation. Sketch the phase portrait just above and below the bifurcation. In fact: 1. Find and classify all the critical points for all values of . 2. For = 0 the origin is a center for the linearized equations. What happens for the nonlinear equations? Are the nonlinear terms stabilizing or destabilizing? What sort of critical point is the origin for the full equations: stable spiral, unstable spiral, or center? You should be able to do this analytically See hint 4.1. 3. What happens at crosses 0? (Justify your answer). The result in item 2 should help here! 4. Now increase from = 0, and nd the homoclinic bifurcation (this is where youll need a computer). 5. Optional: Compute the period of the limit cycle as the homoclinic bifurcation is approached, and verify the theoretical prediction: Period log | c | Remark 4.1 Notice that this problem is very similar (in fact, it is the same system of equations) to Strogatz problem 08.02.07. However: notice that 08.02.07 is purely computational while here you are being asked to do the analysis behind the problem. Hint 4.1 To do the analysis in item 2, you have two alternatives: A. Do a two-times expansion for orbits near the critical point. Namely: write the equations in terms of x = X and y = Y (where 0 < 1). Then expand. dE B. Find a local Liapunov function E = (x2 + y 2 )+ higher order terms, such that <0 dt dE dE close to the origin. In fact 0 is O.K., as long as = 0 only for some curves that dt dt the orbits cross e.g. the axis.

9 The rst alternative is a straightforward application of the methods in the Weakly Nonlinear Things notes. The second actually provides a rigorous proof of the result. However, it turns out that getting E is not completely trivial! The naive approach to searching for E is 0. Dene E0 = x2 + y 2 and compute its time derivative. This yields dE0 = (3rd-order terms) + (4th-order terms). dt Of course, this is not good enough: the 3rd-order terms can have any sign. Hence: 1. Add 3rd-order term corrections to E0 , to eliminate the 3rd-order terms in E0 . That is, dene E1 = E0 + 3rd-order terms, so that dE1 = (4th-order terms) + (5th-order terms). dt Note that there is only one way to do this. Unfortunately, some of the 4th-order terms here will be positive. Hence: 2. Add 4th-order terms corrections to E1 , to eliminate the bad 4th-order terms in E1 . That is, dene E2 = E1 + 4th-order terms, so that dE2 = (negative 4th-order terms) + (5th-order terms) + (6th-order terms). dt Again: there is only one way to do this. Unfortunately, this will still not work. Some of the higher order terms here are always smaller than the negative 4-th order terms, but some are not. For example, if x2 y 2 is a negative 4-th order term, then: (i) x2 y 2 + x3 y 2 is always negative for x2 + y 2 1, so x3 y 2 is not a problem, but (ii) x2 y 2 + x4 y can switch sign (if 0 < y < x2 1), so x4 y is a bad term. Hence: 3. Add 5th-order terms corrections to E2 , to eliminate the bad 5th order terms ... Unfortunately, you then end up with bad 6th order terms! This never ends! Fortunately: if you do the process above correctly, you will notice that: while the terms in En involve ever higher powers of y, there is only a very small set of powers of x that appear. Hence, look for a Liapunov function of the form E = g(y) + x2 f (y) + . . ., where g, f , etc., are to be determined. This will work: there is a nite (and small) numbers of terms involved. After you have obtained E in this fashion, you will see that it can be expanded as in item B above.

4.2

Answer for problem 08.04.03.

Before we start, let us nd the critical points for the system in (4.1). Multiplying the rst equation by , and subtracting from the result to the second equation, yields 0 = (1 + 2 ) x (2 + ) x2 at the critical points. From this, and y = x + x2 (also valid at the critical points), we obtain:

10 P0 = (x, y) = (0, 0) is a stable spiral for < 0, and an unstable spiral for > 0. It can be shown (see 4.3) that a supercritical (soft) bifurcation occurs for = 0, and a stable limit cycle appears enclosing the origin for > 0. 1 + 2 Ps = (x, y) = 2+

1 2 1, 2+

is a saddle for < 2, and for > 0.

The homoclinic bifurcation occurs as the limit cycle created by the Hopf bifurcation at = 0 grows in size with , till at a critical = c 0.0661 it collides with the saddle at Ps , and it is destroyed. This process is illustrated by gures 4.1 and 4.2.
xt = x + y - x 2 & yt = -x + y + 2x2, for = 0.055. xt = x + y - x 2 & yt = -x + y + 2x2, for = 0.066.

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.4 -0.2

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.2

0.4

0.6

Figure 4.1: (Problem 08.04.03). Problem 8.4.3. Left: phase portrait for the system in (4.1) for = 0.055, a value slightly below the critical value c 0.0661 for the homoclinic bifurcation. Right: limit cycle for the system in (4.1) for = 0.066, a value below, but very close to the critical value c 0.0661. On the left in gure 4.2, for the value = 0.055, we can see how the limit cycle has grown from its original position around the origin, and it is now large enough to get very close to the saddle at Ps . Notice how the stable manifold for the saddle approaches the limit cycle, while the unstable one hugs it closely (going backwards in time) and then leaves towards innity. On the right in gure 4.2, for the value = 0.066, only the limit cycle is shown. This value of is very close to the critical value, and the limit cycle is so close to the saddle that is very hard to

11
x = x + y - x 2 & y = -x + y + 2x2, t t for = 0.077.

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.4 -0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

x
Figure 4.2: (Problem 08.04.03). Problem 8.4.3. Phase portrait for the system in (4.1) for = 0.077, a value slightly above the critical value c 0.0661 for the homoclinic bifurcation. distinguish it from an homoclinic connection. Of course, precisely at = c the limit cycle does in fact become an homoclinic connection, with the period going to innity. We recall that, as c , the period of the limit cycle behaves like | log(c )| see the table at the end of this answer, were this property is tested. Finally, gure 4.2 shows the phase portrait for the value = 0.077, which is above critical. The limit cycle has disappeared, and the un-stable manifold from the saddle approaches the spiral point (as t , while the stable one approaches innity as t . In general, homoclinic bifurcations are very hard to nd by means other than numerical integration of the equations this example is no exception to this rule. Perhaps there is an argument one can make to nd (and approximate) the critical value at which the bifurcation occurs, but I was unable to nd one. I was not even able to produce an argument indicating that a bifurcation should occur, other than the following (very gross) one: Once the Hopf bifurcation occurs, the size of the limit cycle grows like . Since the saddle starts fairly close to the origin, even rather small values of will give values of that make the limit cycle large enough to reach the saddle. Hence, it is not unreasonable to expect a bifurcation to occur for some small value of . This is precisely what happens, with c 0.26 and Ps (c ) at a distance 0.53 from P0 .

12 For 0 < | c | 1 the period of a limit cycle about to disappear (due to an homoclinic bifurcation) behaves like log(| c |). The table on the right illustrates this, with Period = = constant at leading order. log(c ) Note that the calculation of c is not very reliable, so getting very close to it is not quite possible. Nevertheless, the table shows reasonable agreement with the theoretical expectation. 0.055 0.057 0.059 0.061 0.063 0.065 Period 8.969 9.265 9.636 10.130 10.877 12.458 1.993 1.971 1.948 1.919 1.883 1.829

4.3

Analysis for the Hopf bifurcation.

The origin switches from a stable to an unstable spiral point as crosses = 0. Hence, in order to show that a supercritical Hopf bifurcation occurs for = 0, all we need to do is to show that the origin is (nonlinear) stable spiral for = 0. Namely, for the system dx = y x2 dt and dy = x + 2 x2 . dt (4.2)

Following the hint (I will not display here the calculations described in the hint that motivate this form), we search for a Liapunov function of the form E = g(y) + x2 f (y) + x3 h(y). It is then easy to check that d (g) = x g + 2 x2 g , dt (4.3)

(4.4) (4.5) (4.6)

and

d 2 x f = 2 x y f 2 x3 f x3 f + 2 x4 f , dt

d 3 x h(y) = 3 x2 y h 3 x4 h x4 (1 2 x) h . dt The terms linear in x cancel if g = 2 y f , and the cubic ones cancel if f = 2 f . Thus

f = e2 y > 0 and g = yield

1 2

1 e2 y y e2 y

(4.7)

dE = 4 x2 y f 4 x4 f + 3 x2 y h 3 x4 h x4 (1 2 x) h . dt

(4.8)

4 Now take h = f , to obtain 3 dE 8 = x4 (1 2 x) f . dt 3 (4.9)

13 This is precisely what we were looking for. For x small, E < 0, except along the coordinate line x = 0 where E = 0. Since non-trivial orbits cross x = 0 i.e.: x = 0 for x = 0 and y = 0 E is a decreasing function along them. Further: E = x2 + y 2 + O((x2 + y 2 )3/2 ), (4.10)

so that the origin is a local minimum for E. In addition, it is easy to see that if is the polar angle = 1 + O((x2 + y 2 )1/2 ). Hence the origin is a stable spiral point.

5
5.1

Problem 08.06.07 - Strogatz (Mechanical example of quasiperiodicity).

Statement for problem 08.06.07.
d2 r h2 = k dt2 mr3

(Mechanical example of quasiperiodicity). The equations m and d h = dt mr2 (5.1)

govern the motion of a mass m subject to a central force of constant strength k > 0. Here r, are polar coordinates and h > 0 is a constant (the angular momentum of the particle.) d a) Show that the system has a solution of the form r = r0 and = 0 , corresponding to uniform dt circular motion of radius r0 and frequency 0 . Find formulas for r0 and 0 . b) Find the frequency 1 for small radial oscillations about the circular orbit. c) Show that these small radial oscillations correspond to quasiperiodic motion by calculating the 1 winding number = . This is is called the winding number because it indicates how 0 many radial oscillations occur as the particle goes once around the origin. d) Show by a geometric argument that the motion is either periodic or quasiperiodic for any amplitude of radial oscillation. (To say it in a more interesting way, the motion is never chaotic). Hint: Show that all the solutions to the radial equation are periodic. Small extra challenge: write a formula for the orbital period (average time it takes the mass to go around the origin) when r = r(t) is periodic, but not a constant. Hint: Show that has the form = t+ periodic function, for some constant . The orbital period is then 2 / . You should be able to write a formula that gives as an integral (over one period) of an expression involving r = r(t). e) Can you think of a mechanical realization of this system?

14

5.2

Answer for problem 08.06.07.

1/3 1/3

a) Uniform circular motion. It is clear that r0 =

h2 mk

and 0 =

k2 mh

(5.2)

with = 0 t + 0 and 0 a constant, solves the equations in (5.1). b) Small radial oscillations about the circular orbit. Write r = r0 + r, where r is an innitesimal perturbation and substitute into the equation for r above in (5.1). Then we obtain (for the small radial oscillations r) the harmonic oscillator equation d2 r 2 + 1 r = 0, dt2 The equation for is
2 where 1 =

3h2 2 = 30 . 4 m 2 r0

(5.3)

d 2h 2k = 0 r = 0 r. 3 dt mr0 h

(5.4)

c) Winding number. 1 We have = = 3. That is: the frequency of oscillation in the radial direction is 0 not commensurate with the orbital frequency. Thus the two periodic motions combine to produce a solution which is quasiperiodic with two periods. d) Finite amplitude oscillations. The general solution of the radial equation in (5.1) must conserve the energy 1 dr E= m 2 dt
2

h2 + kr. 2mr2

(5.5)

Thus, the orbits of the radial variable in the radial phase space (r, r) are constrained to be level curves of E. Since E has a single minimum (at r = r0 and r = 0) and is convex, it is easy to see that all the solutions of the radial equation are periodic.2 That is: (r, r) = (r0 , 0) is a global center for the radial equation in (5.1). We now concentrate on one of the periodic solutions for r. That is: r = r(t) is a periodic function (say, of period T1 > 0 and frequency 1 = 2/T1 ). How does the corresponding angular variable behave? Let: h T1 dt 0 = . mT1 0 r2 (t)
2

This is the part of the argument that is geometric.

15 Then, from the equation for in (5.1), we have = 0 + 0 t +

t
0

h 0 dt, mr2

where the integral on the right is a periodic function of period T1 (since it is the integral of a periodic function of zero mean.) It follows that 0 is the angular frequency of the orbit around the origin and that the solution is (generically) quasiperiodic with two 2 periods: T1 and T0 = . (Of course, because the angular frequencies 0 and 1 depend 0 on the particular periodic solution for r selected, there will be cases where 1 /0 is rational: then the resulting solution will be periodic. e) Mechanical realization of the system. Consider a frictionless table, such as the ones that are used for demonstrations in physics courses (in these tables friction is reduced to a very small quantity by having the masses move on an air cushion.) Make a hole in the center of the table and tie a mass on the table (with a string of xed length) to another mass, hanging from the string below the table (the string passes through the hole in the table.) Provided the friction by the string on the sides of the hole is small,3 this system will satisfy the equations in (5.1), with the hanging mass providing a constant force k on the rst mass.

THE END.

The friction by the mass on the table as it slides on the surface, and the friction by the string on the sides of the hole are the two main sources of dissipation we have to worry about.
3