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Holographic solar
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Jump to: navigation, search The main limitation of solar power right now is cost, because the crystalline silicon used to make most solar photovoltaic (PV) cells is very expensive. One approach to overcoming this cost factor is to concentrate light from the sun using mirrors or lenses, thereby reducing the total area of silicon needed to produce a given amount of electricity. But traditional light concentrators are bulky and unattractive -- less than .ideal for use on suburban rooftops Now Prism Solar Technologies of Stone Ridge, NY, has developed a proof-ofconcept solar module that uses holograms to concentrate light, possibly cutting the cost of solar modules by as much as 75 percent, making them competitive with .electricity generated from fossil fuels The new technology replaces unsightly concentrators with sleek flat panels laminated with holograms. The panels, says Rick Lewandowski, the company's president and CEO, are a "more elegant solution" to traditional concentrators, and can be installed .on rooftops -- or even incorporated into windows and glass doors The system needs 25 to 85 percent less silicon than a crystalline silicon panel of comparable wattage, Lewandowski says, because the photovoltaic material need not cover the entire surface of a solar panel. Instead, the PV material is arranged in several rows. A layer of holograms -- laser-created patterns that diffract light -- directs light into a layer of glass where it continues to reflect off the inside surface of the glass until it finds its way to one of the strips of PV silicon. Reducing the PV material needed could bring down costs from about $4 per watt to $1.50 for crystalline silicon .panels, he says The company is expecting to pull in another $6 million from interested venture capitalists and start manufacturing its first-generation modules by the end of the year, selling them at about $2.40 per watt. Next-generation modules with more advanced .technology should bring down the cost further In their ability to concentrate light, holograms are not as powerful as conventional concentrators. They can multiply the amount of light falling on the cells only by as much as a factor of 10, whereas lens-based systems can increase light by a factor of .100, and some even up to 1,000 But traditional concentrators are complicated. Since the lenses or mirrors that focus light need to face the sun directly, they have to mechanically track the sun. They also heat up the solar cells, and so require a cooling system. As a result, although they redirect light with more intensity than the hologram device, "they're unwieldy...and

not as practical for residential uses," says National Renewable Energy Laboratory .spokesperson George Douglas Holograms have advantages that make up for their relatively weak concentration power. They can select certain frequencies and focus them on solar cells that work best at those frequencies, converting the maximum possible light into electricity. They also can be made to direct heat-generating frequencies away from the cells, so the system does not need to be cooled. "In this way, you are efficiently using only that part of the sunlight that really matters," says Selim Shahriar, director of the atomic .and photonic technology laboratory at Northwestern University in Evanston, IL Also, different holograms in a concentrator module can be designed to focus light .from different angles -- so they don't need moving parts to track the sun Prism Solar's system incorporates these advantages. Nevertheless, to be competitive with other solar technologies available today, the company might need to reduce its price below $2.40 a watt, says Christo Stojanoff, professor emeritus of engineering at .the Aachen University of Technology in Germany CEO Lewandowski says the holographic modules will cost about $1.50 per watt in a few years, using their second-generation technology, which will have solar cells sandwiched between two glass panels containing holograms. At that price, they'll start to compete with fossil fuel-generated electricity, which now costs almost three times less than conventional solar electricity, according to San Francisco, CA-based .research and consulting company Solarbuzz The modules' intensive use of glass could be adding to their cost, says Douglas. Still, such a novel idea for a concentrator, using holograms, could be a lucrative investment because it needs less silicon than flat-panel modules and therefore saves money. The high demand for solar cells in Germany and other European countries "has now outstripped the supply, which has [led to] a silicon shortage and a shortage of .manufacturing in the photovoltaic world," he says Although the idea of holographic solar concentrators has been around since the early 1980s, no one has developed them commercially yet, according to Professor Stojanoff, who has investigated the technique extensively. His company, Holotec GmbH in Aachen, Germany, researches and manufactures holographic materials. Also, Northeast Photosciences, a Hollis, NH-based company, came close to manufacture, before it went defunct for reasons unrelated to the technology or to .finance, he says So, if all goes according to plan, Prism Solar could be the first company to .manufacture and sell holographic solar concentrator modules
Original content from Technologyreview.com

Prisms Unique HPC Film

HPC Film is the core component of Prism Solars Holographic Planar Concentrator (HPC) technology, which enables solar modules to generate the same yield as conventional modules while using 50-75% .less photovoltaic material Reducing the amount of expensive silicon in a solar module greatly lowers material cost. It also results in manufacturing savings .through reduced assembly and processing requirements HPC Film consists of several gelatin-on-PET plastic layers. Each film is imprinted with a holographic optical element. Together, these elements diffract the wavelengths .(400-1100nm) that can be converted to energy by solar cells

HPC film diffracts usable wavelengths of sunlight and guides .them to the solar cells The usable energy is guided to the cells, resulting in up to a 3X concentration of energy per unit area .of photovoltaic material HPC Film replaced 2/3 of the silicon .in this solar module HPC Film collects sunlight over a wide range of incident angles, and collects diffuse and reflected light as well, keeping cells near peak efficiency over longer periods of the day and season. Harvesting energy over 360-degrees is what allows HPC modules to generate such high yields, even in low light conditions, with so little silicon or thin .film photovoltaic material

Through 360-degree collection, HPC solar modules collect more energy over a wider .range of angles, for high efficiency throughout the day and year Finally, HPC Film keeps solar cells operating at or near their peak performance temperature. Wavelengths of sunlight that cannot be converted by the solar cells are allowed to pass through the film and panel, rather than being absorbed and converted to heat. This spectral selection feature keeps cells operating close to their ideal .temperature curve without mechanical coolingeven at 3X concentration HPC Film has been field proven in installations for more than seven years and has shown no significant degradation or loss of performance. The highly stable film improves the efficiency of solar modules based on monocrystalline silicon, thin film, .or virtually any PV material
?Did

You Know

HPC Film allows infrared wavelengths to pass through the module, keeping solar cells operating near their optimum .temperature even at 3X concentration Reducing the amount of expensive silicon in a solar module greatly lowers material cost. It also results in manufacturing savings through reduced assembly and .processing requirements
.Prism Solar Technologies, Inc 2010 South Street, Highland New York 12528 180 Phone 845-883-4200 | Fax 845 883-4394 | Contact Us
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High efficiency photovoltaic roof tiles with static concentrators

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;.Bowden, S.; Wenham, S.R.; Dickinson, W.R.; Green, M.A Centre for Photovoltaic Devices & Syst., New South Wales Univ., Kensington, NSW

+Bow den, S.+Wenham, S.R.+Dickinson, W

This paper appears in: Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 1994., Conference Record of the Twenty Fourth. IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference - 1994, 1994 IEEE First World Conference on Issue Date: 5-9 Dec 1994 On page(s): 774 - 777 vol.1

Meeting Date: 05 Dec 1994 - 09 Dec 1994 Location: Waikoloa, HI , USA Print ISBN: 0-7803-1460-3 INSPEC Accession Number: 5175974 Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/WCPEC.1994.520074 Date of Current Version: 06 August 2002

ABSTRACT The use of static concentrators provides a level of concentration sufficient for significant cost reductions, without any of the problems of high concentration systems. There is no need for expensive tracking, most of the diffuse light is collected and passive cooling can be used for the cells. Following the construction of prototypes that confirm computer ray tracing predictions a structure has been designed for the manufacture of a 1 kW roof top array in association with the state power authority. Two manufacturing techniques for the array and potential commercial production are described. The pilot line at the University of New South Wales has commenced production of bifacial buried contact solar cells for the project. These cells provide the necessary high efficiency and low cost. Measurements have been made on the amount of dust likely to be present on a typical module, the effect on total internal reflection and thus the concentrator performance

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Holographic solar concentrator for terrestrial photovoltaics

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Ludman, J.;

Riccobono, J.;

Reinhand, N.;

Semenova, I.; Martin, J.; Tai, W.; ;.Xiao-Li Li; Syphers, G Northeast Photosci. Inc., Hollis, NH

+Ludman, J.+Riccobono, J.+Reinhand, N.+Semenova, I.+Martin, J.+Tai, W.+Xiao-Li Li+Syphe

This paper appears in: Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, 1994., Conference Record of the Twenty Fourth. IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference - 1994, 1994 IEEE First World Conference on Issue Date: 5-9 Dec 1994 On page(s): 1208 - 1215 vol.1 Meeting Date: 05 Dec 1994 - 09 Dec 1994 Location: Waikoloa, HI , USA Print ISBN: 0-7803-1460-3 INSPEC Accession Number: 5176081 Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/WCPEC.1994.520181 Date of Current Version: 06 August 2002

ABSTRACT This paper describes theoretical and experimental work performed on these high efficiency holographic concentrating and spectral splitting photovoltaic systems. The theoretical system efficiency was calculated to be 41% for a GaAs-InGaAs tandem cell when the hologram was recorded at 632.8 nm. A prototype system was used to demonstrate that it maintained a fairly constant efficiency over a period of 15 minutes without a heatsink; whereas the efficiency of a Fresnel system, using the same aperture and cell, dropped a factor of two within 30 seconds when used without a heatsink. Finally, a cost analysis of this system estimates it to generate power for 5.7 c per kWh when production levels reach 20 MW per year capacity

Infrared chlorophyll could boost solar cells

August 2010 by Kate McAlpine 19 19:00 For similar stories, visit the Energy and Fuels Topic Guide Nature still has plenty to teach us about harnessing the sun's energy. The latest lesson comes from the ancient stromatolites living in Australia's Shark Bay. Their cyanobacteria contain a newly discovered form of chlorophyll the fifth known that absorbs sunlight in the red and infrared part of the spectrum. It could be harnessed to help solar cells convert more .light into electricity Stromatolites are among the most primitive of life forms, with a fossil record stretching back over 3.4 billion years. Their layered structures are built up by sediment-trapping cyanobacteria. Stromatolites suffered markedly with the evolution of animals that munched on the defenceless algal mats, and are now found only in inhospitable environments where .such animals are rare including the very salty Shark Bay Min Chen of the University of Sydney in Australia, and her colleagues, went looking for interesting chlorophyll in the stromatolites there because the water in which they live and the trapped sediment that bulks them out filter out much of the visible light reaching the stromatolitic cyanobacteria. The team suspected that the cyanobacteria might therefore be .better-than-average at absorbing the infrared radiation that makes it through Their hunch proved correct, but rather than familiar chlorophyll in new formations, they found a completely new type of chlorophyll chlorophyll f made by an as-yet unnamed .filamentous bacterium

Look and learn

Because over half of the light from the sun comes in at infrared wavelengths, the makers of photovoltaic panels have been working on ways to extend the section of the spectrum that .solar cells can absorb to beyond red Nature can use such simple modification of chlorophyll to acquire more sunlight," says" "?Chen. "Why can we not learn from it Shuguang Zhang of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology thinks that he and his .colleagues can do more than learn from the chlorophyll they can use it directly Zhang's previous work includes making solar cells using proteins from spinach leaves. These proteins, known as photosystem I, contain arrays of some 200 light-gathering chlorophyll .molecules that use photons to free up electrons for fixing carbon dioxide into sugars If the electron is not immediately harvested from the photosystem for use in a solar cell, it will recombine with its hole the region of positive charge it left behind and re-emit a new photon. But in Zhang's set-up, the photosystem is anchored to a semiconductor nanowire capable of transferring that electron to a metal, putting photosystem I to work generating a .current

Widen the net

Adding different types of chlorophyll to these sorts of solar cell makes sense, says James Barber of Imperial College London. "Having a range of different chlorophylls with different absorption properties allows more of the viable solar spectrum to be captured," he says. "This is important for the design of photovoltaic cells and artificial photosynthesis ".technology Zhang agrees: "It's like a wider net to catch more fish." He is currently working with Michael Grtzel of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, developer of low-cost dyesensitised solar cells that use inorganic molecular dyes to absorb light in the same way that chlorophyll does. The pair is exploring whether new models of the cell could use .cyanobacteria photosystems instead The discovery of the new chlorophyll is also important from an evolutionary standpoint: the anaerobic bacteria which dominated early earth absorbed infrared wavelengths, but the oxygen-loving bacteria of today tend to live on the visible spectrum. "There are very few examples of 'bridging organisms' which absorb in the 700 to 800 nanometres region," says .Barber Journal reference: Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1191127

If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a .variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to

Electrochemical impedance characterization and photovoltaic performance of N719 dye-sensitized solar cells using quaternized ammonium

iodide containing polyfluorene electrolyte solutions

,*,Rong-Ho Lee1.1 ,Yu-Wei Huang1.2 ,Jhih-Wei Chang1.3 ,Jenn-Chiu Hwang2.4 ,Yung-Chung Chen3.5 Ru-Jong Jeng3.6

Article first published online: 12 JAN 2010 DOI: 10.1002/pat.1653 .Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Issue

Polymers for Advanced Technologies

(Early View (Online Version of Record published before inclusion in an issue Additional Information
How to Cite

Lee, R.-H., Huang, Y.-W., Chang, J.-W., Hwang, J.-C., Chen, Y.-C. and Jeng, R.-J. (2011), Electrochemical impedance characterization and photovoltaic performance of N719 dye-sensitized solar cells using quaternized ammonium iodide containing polyfluorene electrolyte solutions. Polymers for Advanced Technologies. doi: 10.1002/pat.1653
Author Information
1

.1

Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin 640, Taiwan
2

.2

Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan
3

.3

Department of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan

(Email: Rong-Ho Lee (lerongho@yuntech.edu.tw Correspondence: Rong-Ho Lee, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering,* .National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin 640, Taiwan
Publication History Issue published online: 12 JAN 2010.1 Article first published online: 12 JAN 2010.2 Manuscript Accepted: 15 DEC 2009.3 Manuscript Revised: 20 OCT 2009.4 Manuscript Received: 22 APR 2009.5 Funded by The National Science Council of Taiwan, ROC. Grant Number: NSC97-2221-E-224-002
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:Keywords
;dye sensitized solar cell ;photovoltaic cell polymer electrolyte

Abstract
This study develops a series of titanium oxide electrode-based N719 dyesensitized solar cells (DSSCs) using quaternized ammonium iodide containing main-chain and star-shaped polyfluorene (MPF-E and SPF-E) electrolyte solutions. The electrochemical impedance and photovoltaic properties of the polyfluorene electrolyte-based DSSCs were studied and compared to those of the poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) electrolyte-based DSSCs. As with the PEO electrolyte-based DSSCs, the recombination impedance increased with increase in the polymer content for the MPF-E electrolyte-based DSSCs, whereas the photovoltaic performance did otherwise. Nevertheless, the reduction in the photovoltaic properties was not significant for the SPF-E electrolyte-based DSSCs. The electrochemical impedance and photovoltaic properties of the different polymer-based DSSCs are also discussed as a function of the polymer concentration. .Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

:Properties Computed from Structure Molecular Weight Molecular Formula XLogP3-AA H-Bond Donor H-Bond Acceptor Rotatable Bond Count Exact Mass MonoIsotopic Mass Topological Polar Surface Area Heavy Atom Count Formal Charge Complexity Isotope Atom Count Defined Atom StereoCenter Count Undefined Atom StereoCenter Count Defined Bond StereoCenter Count Undefined Bond StereoCenter Count Covalently-Bonded Unit Count [g/mol] 126.90447 I 0.9 0 1 0 126.904468 126.904468 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 1

:Oxford Dictionary of Chemistry

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Chemistry Dictionary The chemical process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. It occurs in the chloroplasts (most of which are in the leaves) and there are two principal types of reactions. In the light-dependent reactions, which require the presence of light, energy from sunlight is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments (chiefly the green pigment chlorophyll) and :used to bring about the photolysis of water .H2O 2H++2e+O2

The electrons released by this reaction pass along a series of electron carriers (see electron transport chain); as they do so they lose their energy, which is used to convert ADP to ATP in the process of photophosphorylation. The electrons and protons :produced by the photolysis of water are used to reduce NADP + 2H++2e+NADP+ NADPH+H The ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent reactions provide energy . and reducing power, respectively, for the ensuing light-independent reactions (formerly called the 'dark reaction'), which nevertheless cannot be sustained without the ATP generated by the light-dependent reactions. During these reactions carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrate in a metabolic pathway known as the Calvin cycle. :Photosynthesis can be summarized by the equation CO2+2H2O [CH2O]+H2O+O2 Since virtually all other forms of life are directly or indirectly dependent on plants . for food, photosynthesis is the basis for all life on earth. Furthermore virtually all the .atmospheric oxygen has originated from oxygen released during photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

:Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

photosynthesis
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(click to enlarge) The light reaction of photosynthesis. The light reaction occurs in two photosystems (units of (credit: (. Merriam-Webster Inc

Process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light into chemical energy. In green plants, light energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of the leaves and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds (simple and complex sugars) that are the basis of both plant and animal life. Photosynthesis consists of a number of photochemical and enzymatic reactions. It occurs in two stages. During the lightdependent stage (light reaction), chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which excites some electrons in the pigment molecules to higher energy levels; these leave the chlorophyll and pass along a series of molecules, generating formation of NADPH (an enzyme) and high-energy ATP molecules. Oxygen, released as a by-product, passes into the atmosphere through pores in the leaves. NADPH and ATP drive the second stage, the dark reaction (or Calvin cycle, discovered by Melvin Calvin), which does not require light. During this stage glucose is generated using atmospheric carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is crucial for maintaining life on Earth; if it ceased, there would soon be little food or other organic matter on the planet, and most types of organisms .would disappear .For more information on photosynthesis, visit Britannica.com :Oxford Food & Nutrition Dictionary

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Food & Cooking > Food and Nutrition The synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by plants in sunlight, .with the release of oxygen :Oxford Dictionary of Geography

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Geographical Dictionary The chemical process by which green plants make organic compounds from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight. Since virtually all other forms of life are directly or indirectly dependent on green plants for food, .photosynthesis is the basis for all life on earth :Columbia Encyclopedia

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Columbia Encyclopedia

photosynthesis (f'tsn'thss), process in which green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria utilize the energy of sunlight to manufacture carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll. Some of the plants that lack chlorophyll, e.g., the Indian pipe, secure their nutrients from organic material, as do animals, and a few bacteria manufacture their own carbohydrates with hydrogen and energy obtained from inorganic compounds (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) in a process called chemosynthesis. However, the vast majority of plants contain chlorophyll.concentrated, in the higher land plants, in the leaves In these plants water is absorbed by the roots and carried to the leaves by the xylem, and carbon dioxide is obtained from air that enters the leaves through the stomata and diffuses to the cells containing chlorophyll. The green pigment chlorophyll is uniquely capable of converting the active energy of light into a latent form that can be .stored (in food) and used when needed The Photosynthetic Process The initial process in photosynthesis is the decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen, which is released, and hydrogen; direct light is required for this process. The hydrogen and the carbon and oxygen of carbon dioxide (CO2) are then converted into a series of increasingly complex compounds that result finally in a stable organic compound, glucose (C6H12O6), and water. This phase of photosynthesis utilizes stored energy and therefore can proceed in the dark. The simplified equation used to represent this overall process is 6CO2+12H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O. In general, the results of this process are the reverse of those in respiration, in which carbohydrates are oxidized to release energy, with the production of carbon dioxide .and water The intermediary reactions before glucose is formed involve several enzymes, which react with the coenzyme ATP (see adenosine triphosphate) to produce various molecules. Studies using radioactive carbon have indicated that among the intermediate products are three-carbon molecules from which acids and amino acids, as well as glucose, are derived. This suggests that fats and proteins are also products of photosynthesis. The main product, glucose, is the fundamental building block of carbohydrates (e.g., sugars, starches, and cellulose). The water-soluble sugars (e.g., sucrose and maltose) are used for immediate energy. The insoluble starches are stored as tiny granules in various parts of the plant-chiefly the leaves, roots (including tubers), and fruits-and can be broken down again when energy is needed. Cellulose is .used to build the rigid cell walls that are the principal supporting structure of plants Importance of Photosynthesis Animals and plants both synthesize fats and proteins from carbohydrates; thus glucose is a basic energy source for all living organisms. The oxygen released (with water vapor, in transpiration) as a photosynthetic byproduct, principally of phytoplankton, provides most of the atmospheric oxygen vital to respiration in plants and animals, and animals in turn produce carbon dioxide necessary to plants. Photosynthesis can therefore be considered the ultimate source of life for nearly all plants and animals by .providing the source of energy that drives all their metabolic processes Bibliography See I. Asimov, Photosynthesis (1969); R. M. Devlin and A. V. Barker, .(Photosynthesis (1972); O. Morton, Eating the Sun (2009

:Biology Q&A

?What is photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Biology Q&A Photosynthesis (from the Greek word photo, meaning "light," and synthesis, from the Greek work syntithenai, which means "to put together") is the process by which plants use energy derived from light in order to make food molecules from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis is a dual-staged process with multiple components. Light reactions or light-dependent reactions compose the first steps of photosynthesis. During the light reactions, light energy derived from sunlight is converted to chemical energy. Oxygen (O2) is produced as a waste product of this process. The steps of the second stage are the carbon-fixation reactions known as the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle is a series of reactions that assemble sugar molecules from carbon dioxide (CO2) and the energy-containing products of the light reactions. Carbon fixation is the .conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds
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?Why is light important for living organisms ?How do chloroplasts work

:Cosmic Lexicon

Photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Cosmic Lexicon The process by which plants convert water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, .using sunlight as the source of energy and the aid of chlorophyll

:Taylor's Dictionary for Gardeners

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Home & Garden > Dictionary for Gardeners As the etymology of the word suggests, an activity carried on in the light. It is the most important function of leaves. Powered by the energy from light, chlorophyll (the green pigment in leaves) combines carbon dioxide from the air with water, releasing .oxygen and producing glucose sugar, the basic building block of plants

:Word Tutor

photosynthesis
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IN BRIEF:

Transforming compounds with the aid of radiant energy, like sunlight .((especially in plants .The process of photosynthesis in plants is very complicated

LearnThatWord.com is a free vocabulary and spelling program where you only pay !for results :Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: Science

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Science Dictionary Use by green plants of the energy in sunlight to carry out chemical reactions, such as the conversion of carbon dioxide into oxygen. Photosynthesis also produces the .sugars that feed the plant .Green plants depend on chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis :Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Science > Biochemistry Dictionary in biology) the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp.).1 carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds (compare chemosynthesis). In higher plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria, water is the electron donor and dioxygen is evolved; in other photosynthetic bacteria, however, various other simple substances (e.g. H2S) may act as electron donors, dioxygen is not formed, and the photosynthetic pathway is simpler. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions of photosynthesis. The system in higher plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria brings about an overall reaction in which electrons are released from water molecules and are transferred through complexes of chlorophylls, cytochromes, proteins, and small molecules to NADP+, reducing it to NADPH. Protons are released from water and form a chemiosmotic gradient that results in the formation of ATP by a process similar to that operating in mitochondria (see chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis). These are the light reactions. The NADPH and ATP formed by these reactions then drive the dark reactions i.e. the reductive pentose phosphate cycle. The electrons and protons are released from water by the oxygen-evolving complex (abbr.: OEC), and dioxygen is formed in the process. The sequence of reactions involves the OEC, from which electrons pass to photosystem II (see photosystem), thence to plastoquinone reducing it to a quinol which then reduces the cytochrome b6 f complex. This in turn reduces plastocyanin which passes electrons to photosystem I (see photosystem) which then reduces NADP+ to NADPH. In

photosynthetic bacteria, a simpler system exists, in which water is not split, dioxygen is not evolved, and NADP+ is not reduced directly. In this system, photons excite molecules of bacteriochlorophyll b in a photosynthetic reaction centre to transfer electrons through a cyclic electron-transfer system. Cyclic electron flow can also occur under some conditions in plants, and involves only photosystem I, electrons being released by photon activation from photosystem I and returned to it through cytochrome b6 f and plastocyanin, with pumping of protons to generate ATP. Under these conditions there is no .+reduction of NADP .in chemistry) any synthesis by a photochemical reaction).2 :Previous :Next .photosynthetic adj.; photosynthetically adv photosynthate, photosuicide inhibitor, photosensitizer photosynthetic phosphorylation, photosynthetic quotient, photosynthetic reaction centre :Saunders Veterinary Dictionary

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Animal Life > Veterinary Dictionary A chemical combination caused by the action of light; specifically the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the chlorophyll tissue of plants under .the influence of light :Random House Word Menu

'categories related to 'photosynthesis

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:For a list of words related to photosynthesis, see Cell Structure and Function - photosynthesis: process by which chlorophyll in green plant produces organic compounds from radiant light energy Botany and Plant Parts - photosynthesis: production of organic substances from carbon dioxide and water in green plant cells which chemically transform radiant energy of sunlight Practice, Tools, and Techniques - photosynthesis: production of organic substances from carbon dioxide and water in green plant cells, which chemically transform radiant energy of sunlight

:Rhymes

photosynthesis
Top Home > Library > Literature & Language > Rhymes ".See words rhyming with "photosynthesis :Wikipedia on Answers.com

Photosynthesis
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Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic phytoplankton and vegetation

Overall equation for the type of photosynthesis that occurs in plants Photosynthesis (English pronunciation: /fotosnss/; from the Greek [photo-], "light," and [synthesis], "putting together", "composition") is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight.[1] Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. As well as maintaining the normal level of oxygen in the atmosphere, nearly all life either depends on it, either as a direct source of energy, or indirectly, as the ultimate source of the energy in their food[2] (the exceptions are chemoautotrophs that live in rocks or around deep sea hydrothermal vents). The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts,[3] which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization.[4] As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all,

photosynthetic organisms convert around 100115 petagrams of carbon into [ biomass per year.[5][6 Although photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. Some of the light energy gathered by chlorophylls is stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The rest of the energy is used to remove electrons from a substance such as water. These electrons are then used in the reactions that turn carbon dioxide into organic compounds. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, this is done by a sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle, but different sets of reactions are found in some bacteria, such as the reverse Krebs cycle in Chlorobium. Many photosynthetic organisms have adaptations that concentrate or store carbon dioxide. This helps reduce a wasteful process called photorespiration that can consume part of the sugar .produced during photosynthesis

Overview of cycle between autotrophs and heterotrophs. Photosynthesis is the main means by which plants, algae and many bacteria produce organic compounds and .(oxygen from carbon dioxide and water (green arrow The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about 3,500 million years ago, early in the evolutionary history of life, when all forms of life on Earth were microorganisms and the atmosphere had much more carbon dioxide. They most likely used hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.[7] Cyanobacteria appeared later, around 3,000 million years ago, and drastically changed the Earth when they began to oxygenate the atmosphere, beginning about 2,400 million years ago.[8] This new atmosphere allowed the evolution of complex life such as protists. Eventually, no later than a billion years ago, one of these protists formed a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor of many plants

and algae.[9] The chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of these ancient [ symbiotic cyanobacteria.[10 Contents Overview 1 Photosynthetic membranes and organelles 2 Light reactions 3 Z scheme 3.1 Water photolysis 3.2 Light-independent reactions 4 The Calvin Cycle 4.1 Carbon concentrating mechanisms 4.2 On land 4.2.1 In water 4.2.2 Order and kinetics 5 Efficiency 6 Evolution 7 Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts 7.1 Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis 7.2 Discovery 8 Factors 9 Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature 9.1 Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration 9.2 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 Books 12.1 Papers 12.2 External links 13

Overview

Photosynthesis changes the energy from the sun into chemical energy, splits water to .liberate O2, and fixes CO2 into sugar Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are repositories of energy, they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide using energy from light. They accrue it as part of their potential energy. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.[2] In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes carbon dioxide but does not release .oxygen Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is a redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both a source of energy to drive this process, and the electrons needed to convert carbon dioxide into a carbohydrate, which is a reduction reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, where glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, water, and release chemical energy. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in .different cellular compartments :The general equation for photosynthesis is therefore 2n CO2 + 2n DH2 + photons 2(CH2O)n + 2n A Carbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor In oxygenic photosynthesis water is the electron donor and, since its hydrolysis :releases oygen, the equation for this process is 2n CO2 + 4n H2O + photons 2(CH2O)n + 2n O2 + 2n H2O carbon dioxide + water + light energy carbohydrate + oxygen + water :Often 2n water molecules are cancelled on both sides, yielding 2n CO2 + 2n H2O + photons 2(CH2O)n + 2n O2

carbon dioxide + water + light energy carbohydrate + oxygen Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role; the microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate:[11] :The equation for this reaction is CO2 + (AsO33) + photons (AsO43) + CO [12 carbon dioxide + arsenite + light energy arsenate + carbon monoxide (used (to build other compounds in subsequent reactions Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent .reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide Most organisms that utilize photosynthesis to produce oxygen use visible light to do [ so, although at least three use infrared radiation.[13
[

Photosynthetic membranes and organelles

:Chloroplast ultrastructure outer membrane .1 intermembrane space .2 (inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope .3 (stroma (aqueous fluid .4 (thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid .5 thylakoid membrane .6 (granum (stack of thylakoids .7 (thylakoid (lamella .8 starch .9 ribosome .10 plastidial DNA .11 (plastoglobule (drop of lipids .12 Main articles: Chloroplast and Thylakoid The proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded within cell membranes. The simplest way these are arranged is in photosynthetic bacteria, where these proteins are held within the plasma membrane.[14] However, this membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids,[15] or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.[16] These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore [ increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.[15 In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space between them. Within the

membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. The stroma contains stacks (grana) of thylakoids, which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are flattened disks, bounded by a membrane with a lumen or thylakoid space within it. The site of photosynthesis is the thylakoid membrane, which contains integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes, including the pigments that absorb light energy, which .form the photosystems Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls.[17] Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a .wide variety of colors These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in special antenna-proteins. In such proteins all the pigments are ordered to work well together. Such a protein is also .called a light-harvesting complex Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy is captured in the leaves. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is uniformly coated with a water-resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the .photosynthesis takes place

Light reactions

Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane Main article: Light-dependent reactions In the light reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, allowing the start of a flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane; its dissipation is used by ATP synthase for the concomitant synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron from a water

molecule through a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O2) molecule. The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions [of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:[18 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi + light 2 NADPH + 2 H+ + 3 ATP + O2 2 Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with peaks for violet-blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum overlaps with the absorption spectrum of phycobilins for red blue-green light, which allows these algae to grow in deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths used by green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) .and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms

Z scheme

"The "Z scheme In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and use light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. The lightdependent reaction has two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). When a chlorophyll molecule at the core of the photosystem II reaction center obtains sufficient excitation energy from the adjacent antenna pigments, an electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin, through a process called photoinduced charge separation. These electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain, the so called Z-scheme shown in the diagram, that initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential across the membrane. An ATP synthase enzyme uses the chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. The electron is excited due to the light absorbed by the photosystem. A second electron carrier accepts the electron, which again is passed down lowering energies of electron acceptors. The energy created by the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is used to reduce the coenzyme NADP, which has functions in the light-independent reaction. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in the form that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes

place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, .from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction

Water photolysis
Main articles: Photodissociation and Oxygen evolution The NADPH is the main reducing agent in chloroplasts, providing a source of energetic electrons to other reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll with a deficit of electrons (oxidized), which must be obtained from some other reducing agent. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll in photosystem I are replaced from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II includes the first steps of the Z-scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green-plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge-separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electron yielded in each step is transferred to a redox-active tyrosine residue that then reduces the photoxidized paired-chlorophyll a species called P680 that serves as the primary (light-driven) electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen-evolving complex binds two water molecules and stores the four oxidizing equivalents that are required to drive the water-oxidizing reaction. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, [ including photosynthetic organisms.[19][20

Light-independent reactions
The Calvin Cycle
Main articles: Calvin cycle, Carbon fixation, and Light-independent reaction In the light-independent or dark reactions the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO2 from the atmosphere and in a process that requires the newly formed NADPH, called the Calvin-Benson Cycle, releases three-carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in green [plants is:[18 CO2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H+ C3H6O3-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 Pi + 6 3 NADP+ + 3 H2O

Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon fixation To be more specific, carbon fixation produces an intermediate product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The carbon skeletons produced by photosynthesis are then variously used to form other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, as precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals .when the energy from plants gets passed through a food chain The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), to yield two molecules of a three-carbon compound, glycerate 3-phosphate (GP), also known as 3phosphoglycerate (PGA). GP, in the presence of ATP and NADPH from the lightdependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This product is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or even as triose phosphate. Triose is a 3-carbon sugar (see carbohydrates). Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the G3P produced is used to regenerate RuBP so the process can continue (see CalvinBenson cycle). The 1 out of 6 molecules of the triose phosphates not "recycled" often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and .lipids

Carbon concentrating mechanisms

On land

Overview of C4 carbon fixation In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent the loss of water. Under these conditions, CO2 will decrease, and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will decrease in the stem, not leaves, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved .mechanisms to increase the CO2 concentration in the leaves under these conditions Main article: C4 carbon fixation C4 plants chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three-carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four-carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO2 released by decarboxylation of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon sugar 3-phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO2 fixation and, thus, photosynthetic capacity of the leaf.[21] C4 plants can produce more sugar than C3 plants

in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C4 plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEPcarboxylase in carbon fixation are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon sugar 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use C3 carbon fixation, [ compared to 3% that use C4 carbon fixation.[22 Main article: CAM photosynthesis Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C4 metabolism, which physically separates the CO2 fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C3 plants, and fix the CO2 at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO2 mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO2 inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand [ species of plants use CAM.[23 In water Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO2 around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. This operates by carbonic anhydrase, producing hydrocarbonate ions (HCO3-), which are then pumped into the carboxysome, before being processed by a different carbonic anhydrase to produce CO2.[24] Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO2 around rubisco.

[[25

Order and kinetics

:The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages Stage 1 2 3 4 Description Time Scale Energy transfer in antenna chlorophyll (thylakoid femtosecond to (membranes picosecond Transfer of electrons in photochemical reactions picosecond to ((thylakoid membranes nanosecond Electron transport chain and ATP synthesis (thylakoid microsecond to (membranes millisecond Carbon fixation and export of stable products millisecond to second
[6]

Efficiency
Main article: Photosynthetic efficiency Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 36%.[26] Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.[27] Ideally, the photosyntheitic system stores 469 kilojoules of free energy, and in reality even more, namely, 502 kJ. By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 620% for mass-produced panels, and up to 41% in a research [ laboratory.[28

Evolution

(Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, Plagiomnium affine Early photosynthetic systems, such as those from green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, using various molecules as electron donors. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as an electron donor. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological [ evidence that the atmosphere was highly reduced at that time.[citation needed Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been [ dated at 3.4 billion years old.[29][30 The main source of oxygen in the atmosphere is oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular .oxygen (O2) in the photosynthetic reaction center

Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts

Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes.[31] In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the molluscs to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time.[32][33] Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so [ that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.[34 An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic-type ribosomes, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. [35][36] The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like

mitochondria, chloroplasts still possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those in cyanobacteria.[37] DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for .Redox Regulation

Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis

The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450 2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier.[38] Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of blue-greens. Cyanobacteria remained principal primary producers throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation.[citation needed] Green algae joined blue-greens as major primary producers on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but only with the Mesozoic (25165 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did primary production in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids [ of marine algae.[39 A 2010 study by researchers at Tel Aviv University discovered that the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) converts sunlight into electric power using a pigment called xanthopterin. This is the first scientific evidence of a member of the animal kingdom [ engaging in photosynthesis.[40

Discovery
Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the .overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, .not the soil itself Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure" air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured" by the .candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, court physician to the Austrian Empress, repeated Priestley's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that .could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light.

Soon afterward, Nicolas-Thodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO2 but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to .produce food (such as glucose) was outlined Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first scientist to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent redox reaction, in which .hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll a, PSII contains primarily chlorophyll a with most of the available chlorophyll b, among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI [ and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.[6 Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b6 (now a plastoquinone) , another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction is :as follows H2O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) 2 AH2 + O2 2 where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced .and oxygen is evolved Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the .oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) .Cycle Nobel Prize-winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function .and significance of the electron transport chain Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis [ reaction that splits the CO2, activated by the respiration.[41 Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions .are in series

Factors

.The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. :The three main are Light irradiance and wavelength Carbon dioxide concentration .Temperature

Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature

In the early 20th century, Frederick Frost Blackman along with Albert Einstein investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of .carbon assimilation At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, initially increasing as the irradiance increases. However, at higher irradiance, this relationship no longer holds and the rate of carbon assimilation reaches a .plateau At constant irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased over a limited range. This effect is seen only at high irradiance levels. At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little .influence on the rate of carbon assimilation

.Carbon assimilation at a constant temperature These two experiments illustrate vital points: First, from research it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These

are, of course, the light-dependent 'photochemical' stage and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments .surround the reaction center.This unit is called a phycobilisome

Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration

As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the lightindependent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called .photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars :RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of.1 3-phosphoglycerate (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle .ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the Calvin-Benson cycle Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at.2 .a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the.3 glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the CalvinBenson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce ammonia .(NH3), which is able to diffuse out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen :A highly simplified summary is glycolate + ATP 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP +NH3 2 The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent .oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide

See also
Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal

(Jan Anderson (scientist Artificial photosynthesis Calvin-Benson cycle Carbon fixation Cellular respiration Chemosynthesis

Light-dependent reaction Photobiology Photoinhibition Photosystem Photosystem I Photosystem II Photosynthetic reaction center Photosynthetically active radiation Quantum biology Red edge

References
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Energy collection efficiency of holographic planar solar concentrators

Jose M. Castro, Deming Zhang, Brian Myer, and Raymond K. Kostuk Applied Optics, Vol. 49, Issue 5, pp. 858-870 (2010) doi:10.1364/AO.49.000858

(View Full Text: Acrobat PDF (1453 KB

:OCIS Codes
Holography : Holographic optical elements (090.2890) Holography : Volume gratings (090.7330) Optical design and fabrication : Concentrators (220.1770)

Other areas of optics : Solar energy (350.6050)

:ToC Category
Holography Citation Jose M. Castro, Deming Zhang, Brian Myer, and Raymond K. Kostuk, "Energy collection efficiency of (holographic planar solar concentrators," Appl. Opt. 49, 858-870 (2010 http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-49-5-858
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Abstract
We analyze the energy collection properties of holographic planar concentrator systems. The effects of solar variation on daily and annual energy collection are evaluated. Hologram diffraction efficiency, polarization, crosstalk in cascaded elements, and constraints imposed by the radiance theorem, as well as solar illumination characteristics, are considered. A planar holographic solar concentrator configuration is designed and modeled to maximize energy collection efficiency during the course of a year without the need for tracking. Results indicated that nearly 50% of the available energy illuminating hologram areas .can be collected by photovoltaic cells without the need of tracking Optical Society of America 2010 (View Full Text: Acrobat PDF (1453 KB History Original Manuscript: September 17, 2009 Revised Manuscript: December 17, 2009

Manuscript Accepted: January 12, 2010 Published: February 3, 2010

References
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Author Affiliations Jose M. Castro, Deming Zhang, Raymond K. Kostuk

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA

Brian Myer
College of Optical Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA

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