AVR AVR's

R1-Sets volts value R2-Trimming resistor (Power factor correction) R3-Trimmer Carbon pile-Control resistance for AVR Operating coil-Along with carbon pile form the controlling elements CCT and PT-Are the detecting elements, the CCT acts as a feed forward device indicating future voltage changes by detecting variation in current flow Stabilising element-Is the capacitor across the Exciter (may be replaced by a resistor) The A.C. voltage is applied to the operating coil through a full wave rectifier. This A.C. voltage supply induced in the potential transformer and the circulating current transformer may vary under varying load conditions such as direct on line starting of relatively large motors. The capacitor connected across the coil smoothes the D.C. output from the rectifier. If the A.C. applied voltage falls, the field of the solenoid weakens, and the resistance of the carbon pile decreases. With less exciter circuit resistance the current in the exciter field increases thus increasing the output voltage of the A.C. generator. The automatic voltage regulator voltage output may be adjusted with the hand regulator R1 in the exciter field. Before synchronising the alternator the open circuit voltage is adjusted with the hand regulator R1. After synchronising, and after the kW loading has been adjusted on the prime mover governor, the field excitation under steady load conditions may be adjusted using the Trimming resistor R2. Using the trimming resistor the power factor of the incoming machine will be equalised with the machines already in use. If the load power factor now changes then the terminal voltage will regulate badly, e.g. a rise from 0.8 to Unity Power factor will cause a rise in terminal voltage of about 20 %. So a small Voltage Trimmer R3 is provided across each current transformer to adjust terminal voltage when there is a change in overall power factor Modern A.V.R. (Zener Bridge)

Voltage across the Zener diodes remains almost constant independent of current variations. Smoothed D.C. output is applied to the voltage reference bridge. This bridge is balanced at the correct generator voltage output with no potential difference between 'A' and 'B'. If the generator voltage fails, current through the bridge arms falls and current flows from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier. If the generator voltage falls, current through the bridge arms falls and current flows from 'B' to 'A' through the amplifier. If the generator voltage rises, Current through the bridge arms rises with current flow from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier. The signal from the amplifier will automatically vary the field excitation current, usually through a silicon controlled rectifier ( Thyristor) control element.

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor) is a four layer, three terminal, solid state device with the ability to block the flow of current, even when forward biased, until the gate signal is applied. This gate signal could come from a Zener diode Voltage reference bridge. The gate signal will switch on the forward biased S.C.R. and current flows through the exciter field. When reverse biased the S.C.R. will again block current flow. Due to inductance of the field winding the S.C.R. would continue to pass current for a part of the negative cycle. By fitting a 'free wheeling' diode the current though the

Thyristor falls quickly at the end of the positive cycle. In some circuits the excitation current is designed to be excess of requirements, so that the gate signal reduces flow. Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

Examination Notes For Marine Officers Neutral system Advantages This system avoids the risk of loss of essential services e.g. steering gear If the neutral was earthed and a short circuit on one phase causes the fuse in that phase to blow the system would now be singled phasing and may burn out motors In an insulated neutral, one earth fault does not interrupt the supply but an earth leakage detection system will give warning. Low earth fault currents in insulated systems gives a much less fire risk. Disadvantages On the insulated system the voltage to earth is 1.73 Vph e.g. 440v vs 250v Tracing an earth fault is more difficult because although selective tripping may trace the earthed circuit, the actual position on the circuits may still be difficult to locate. Resonant or intermittent faults in say a contactor solenoid or a transformer with an insulated neutral can cause voltages to be magnified to say 4 times the normal voltage to earth (250v x 4 = 1000v) Note: electrical shock is not reduced by using a non-earthed neutral as large voltages are involved. Both systems are equally dangerous Earthed neutral system When an earthed neutral system of generation is used earthing is to be through a resistor. The resistor is to be such that it limits the earth fault current to a value not greater than the full load current of the largest generator on the switchboard section and not less than three times the minimum current required to operate any device against Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

Examination Notes For Marine Officers Preferential tripping t is essential to prevent interruption of services necessary to maintain propulsion and navigation. These must be safeguarded even if the other services such as domestic supplies are temporarily sacrificed. There are two ways to safeguard these services. First there must be at least two generators, the rating of which must be such that essential services can be maintained if one set is out of commission. Secondly, a protection must be provided that if sea load is too much for one generator a system of preferential selection will operate. In some cases the non essential load is relatively too small to warrant additional switchgear. It is generally in larger installations where loads not under direct control of the engineer that they must be fitted. If the heating, lighting and galley were all switched on without prior warning, then the generators could become overloaded. Without preferential trips this may so overload the generators as to cause a complete shutdown. Therefore non essential services are fed through one or more circuit breakers fitted with shunt retaining coils or shunt tripping coils. Over current relays with time lags are provided for each generator. When overloaded, appropriate relays operate and trip out the non essential services. Some being more important than others, degrees of preference may be given. Setting Usual setting is 150% (50% overload) with a time delay of 15 seconds for generator overload protection and the following times come into operation when the generator reaches 110%. First tripping circuit 5 seconds Second tripping circuit 10 seconds Third tripping circuit 15 seconds Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

Examination Notes For Marine Officers Reverse power tripping A.C.

A non magnetic metal disc can rotate in a magnetic field between two electro magnets. The disc is restrained by a coil spring. The flux produces a torque on the side which rotates the trip lever away

from the trip contacts. In reverse power conditions the flux from the voltage coil and current coil interact to rotate the disc in the reverse direction. The amount of torque/current (and hence power) is set on the current coil tapping. A permanent magnet is provided on the disc to provide damping. A 3 to 5second delay is incorporated into the trip circuit to allow for transients when paralleling. D.C.

Low voltage coil Overcurrent trip Reverse current trip Reverse current trip 2a and 2b are fitted in case of circulating current via the equalising connection. Under normal running , fields of '3' and '4' act together to hold the trip contact down. With reverse current fields are in opposition and a spring pushes the plunger against a trip bar to open the reverse current trip relay. Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

Examination Notes For Marine Officers

Synchroscopes Synchroscopes

The armature of the synchroscope carries two windings at right angles to each other and is capable of rotation between field poles F F1 R is a non inductive resistance and XL is a highly inductive resistance both connected to one phase of the bus bars. This produces a field which rotates relative to the armature at the bus bar frequency. When the incoming machine is connected to the coils of the field poles a pulsating field is produced at the same frequency as the incoming machine. If the two fields are not at the same frequency then the armature will rotate at a speed equal to the difference.

In the modern rotary synchroscope there are no slip rings. The rotor has two soft iron pole pieces and with its shaft carrying the pointer it is magnetised by coil R from the bus bars. With this coil is fixed adjacent to the shaft, therefore, there are no moving coils, contacts or control springs. Single Phase Single phase synchronising with lamps Lamps Dark

Lamps bright

If using single phase synchronising it is considered better to use the lamp bright method as it is easier to judge the middle of the bright sequence rather than the middle of the dark sequence Three phase synchronising Synchroscope with two lamps (lamps dark)

The secondary windings of transformer T1 supplies field coil F of the synchroscope. The secondary

windings of T2 supplies the rotating coils R of the synchroscope. If the incoming machine is in antiphase with the bus bar the voltage difference between the output of the secondary of T1 and T2 is double the normal voltage giving normal volt drop across each lamp. When in phase there is no voltage difference between the outputs of T1 and T2 and therefore lamps are dark when synchronised. Synchroscope with two lamps (Lamps bright)

Three phase synchronising with lamps (Lamps dark)

No1 Vector is stationary, if the incoming machine is running two slow then the No2 vector moves away from No1 vector in an anti clockwise direction. In the position shown as the No2 vector moves progressively anti clockwise then 'a' will brighten, 'b' will brighten shortly reaching maximum luminosity then darken, 'c' will darken . When the machines are in phase, then 'R1' and 'R2' will be in align therefore 'a' will be dark, 'Y1' and 'B2' will be 120o apart and therefore 'b' will be approaching maximum luminosity, and the same will be for 'c' with 'Y2' and 'B1' 120o apart. Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

Examination Notes For Marine Officers AC switchboards

If voltages exceed 250 volts d.c. or 55 volts A.C. then the switchboard must be dead front (no exposed live parts at the front) of the metal clad type. Bus bars High conductivity copper rated to withstand the thermal and electromagnetic forces which would arise in the event of a short circuit at the bus bars with all the generators in parallel. The bus bars will withstand these conditions for the length of time it takes for the alternator circuit breakers to trip or back up fuse to blow. Certain instruments and controls require a feed direct from the bus bars. Any connection between the bus bars and protecting fuses must be capable of withstanding maximum fault level. Standard practice is to provide a three phase set of fuses, known as 'Back Up' fuses, as near to the bus bars as possible. Connections are then led to the racks of the many instruments fuses fitted. Circuit breakers Must be capable of making and breaking under normal conditions and also abnormal conditions such as a short circuit. As the circuit breaker must be able to withstand closing onto a fault conditions without sustaining damage, it is of heavy construction. Fitted with an over current release and overloads with time lags, a circuit breaker can be used as follows; To control the output of a generator As a direct on line starter Control outgoing feeder circuits On modern switchboards 'draw out' circuit breakers may be fitted. In the open position the whole circuit breaker can be wound clear of the bus bars, thus full inspection and maintenance can be achieved without the necessity of de-energising the bus bars so providing a separate isolating switch. The 'plug in' contacts joining the circuit breaker to the bus bars are not capable of taking the breaking load and it is essential that the circuit breaker is in the open position before any attempt is made to withdraw it. A mechanical interlock is fitted arranged to trip the circuit breaker before the winding handle can be inserted, The breaker also has a mid position, in this position the control circuits are still connected with the bus bar connection isolated. The electrical operation of the breaker can then be tested. Circuit breakers are normally fitted with under voltage protection and tripping is accomplished by shorting or open circuiting the no-volt coil which releases the latching in mechanism. The no-volt coil may also be open circuited by a reverse power relay and an overload trip fitted with a time delay Instruments The following instruments are the minimum that must be fitted; Bus bar voltmeter and frequency meter Volt meter and frequency meter, with selector switch to measure incoming machine conditions Ammeter with phase selector switch for each alternator Watt meter for each alternator Synchroscope and if check synchroscope not fitted lamps Earth leakage indicator Additional instruments that may be fitted Watt hour meter Power factor meter Alternator excitation ammeter Alternator excitation volt meter kVAr meter Share connection supply meter Emergency batteries on discharge meter When a check synchroniser is fitted it is there to prevent connecting an incoming machine to the bus bars whilst out of phase, it is not there as aid to synchronising. In an emergency the 'in synch' light may be used to indicate when the breaker may be closed. When an incoming machine is selected, its no-volt coil and circuit breaker contactor relay coil are connected in series with contacts on the check synchroniser. These contacts must be closed, that is the machine in phase with the bus bars, before the breaker contactor relay may be energised. If starting from a dead ship the check synchroniser must be switched to off before the first generator is put on the board. Protection Overload protection-fitted to circuit breakers

Reverse power-When motive power is removed an alternator will try to become a synchronous motor and draw current from the circuit. A reverse power relay will operate after about 2 seconds and about 2-3% reverse power for turbines, 10-12% reverse power for diesels. The time delay prevents tripping during paralleling and taking the alternator off the board. Preference trip-automatically , and sometimes sequentially, sheds load from board to maintain supply to essential services during periods of overload. Fuses-Usually of the HRC type Discrimination-The protective device closest to the fault should operate and protect other services Group starter board-Large demand sections may be separated from the main switchboard by fuses and circuit breakers. Automatic voltage regulators Shall be supplied separately from all other instrument circuits. Protection should be by fuses mounted as close to the supply connections as possible. Shore supply connections Where arrangements are made for the supply of electricity from a source on shore or other location a suitable connection box has to be installed in a position in the ship suitable for the convenient reception of flexible cables, it should contain a circuit breaker or isolating switch, fuses, and terminals of adequate size to receive the cable ends. For three phase shore supplies with earthed neutral terminals are to be provided for connecting hull to shore earth An indicator for shore side connection energised is to be provided. A means for checking polarity or phase rotation is to be provided At the connection box a notice indicating ships requirements with respect to supply as well as connection procedure. Alternative arrangements may be submitted for consideration. Home Pages Home Circuit Breakers AVR Neutral system Synchroscopes Reverse power tripping Time delay devices associated with safety circuits... Thermal Inspection of Switchboards Discrimation and Fuses Earth fault detection Preferential tripping

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Troubleshooting Electrical Problems Light Fixture Won't Work Appliance Won't Work Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in One Circuit -- Works in Others Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in One Receptacle of Circuit

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Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in Switch-Controlled Receptacle Some Lights on Circuit Won't Work No Lights on Circuit Work Tracing a Short Circuit or Overload Don't find any of the above signs of trouble? Problem still not solved? Light Fixture Won't Work Check for: Burnt out bulb or fluorescent tube Defective fluorescent starter Faulty switch Loose wiring Faulty socket Remedies: Replace bulb or tube Replace fluorescent starter Replace switch Tighten connections at switch or fixture WHAT ABOUT SOCKET? Appliance Won't Work Check for: Overloaded circuit Damaged plug Damaged cord Loose wiring Defect in appliance or lamp Remedies: Test for overload -- shift appliance or lamp to another circuit Replace plug Replace cord Tighten connections at switch or receptacle Test in another circuit -- repair if faulty Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in One Circuit -- Works in Others Check for: Overloaded circuit Loose connection at receptacle Short circuit Remedies Test for overload; shift appliance or lamp to another circuit Tighten connections at receptacle Test for short circuit; make necessary repair Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in One Receptacle of Circuit Check for: Loose wiring Faulty receptacle Short circuit Remedies: Tighten connections at receptacle Replace receptacle Test for short circuit; make necessary repair Appliance or Lamp Won't Work in Switch-Controlled

Receptacle Check for: Loose wiring Faulty switch Faulty receptacle Remedies: Tighten connections at switch or receptacle Replace switch Replace receptacle Some Lights on Circuit Won't Work Check for: Loose wiring Faulty switch Remedies: Tighten connections at switch or fixture Replace switch No Lights on Circuit Work Check for: Overloaded circuit Short circuit Loose wiring Faulty switch Remedies: Test for overload; make necessary adjustment Test for short circuit; make necessary repair Tighten connections at switch Replace switch Tracing a Short Circuit or Overload A blown fuse or tripped circuit breaker is a signal that you may have either a short circuit or an overload in the electrical system. Look for black smudge marks on switch or receptacle cover plates, or for frayed or damaged cords or damaged plugs on lamps and appliances connected to the dead circuit. Replace a damaged cord or plug. Then replace the fuse or reset the breaker. If the circuit goes dead after an appliance has been in use for a short time, you probably have an overloaded circuit. Move some of the lamps and appliances to another circuit and replace the fuse or reset the circuit breaker for the first circuit. Don't find any of the above signs of trouble? Trace your way through the circuit using the steps below. Turn off all wall switches and unplug every lamp and appliance on the dead circuit. Install a new fuse or reset the tripped breaker. If the fuse blows or the breaker trips right away, the problem may be a short circuit in a switch or receptacle. With the circuit dead, remove each cover plate and inspect the device and its wiring. Look for charred wire insulation, wire shorted against the metal box or a device that's defective. Replace a defective device. Call in an electrician to replace faulty wiring. If the new fuse doesn't blow or the breaker doesn't trip right away, turn on each wall switch, one by one,

checking each time to see if the fuse has blown or the circuit breaker has tripped. If turning on a wall switch causes a fuse to blow or the breaker to trip, there's a short circuit in a light fixture or receptacle, controlled by that switch, or there's a short circuit in the switch wiring. With the circuit dead, inspect the fixture, receptacle, and switch for charred wire insulation or faulty connections. Replace a faulty switch or fixture. Call in an electrician to replace wiring. Problem still not solved? You probably have faulty wiring. Call an electrician to correct the problem. If turning on a wall switch doesn't blow a fuse or trip the breaker, the trouble is in the lamps or appliances. Test them by plugging them in one by one. If the circuit doesn't go dead, the circuit was overloaded. Move some of the lamps or appliances to another circuit. If the circuit does go dead just after you've plugged in a lamp or appliance, then you've found the offender. If the circuit goes dead as soon as you plug in a lamp or appliance, the plug or cord is probably at fault and should be replaced. If the circuit goes dead when you turn on the lamp or appliance, the appliance or lamp or its switch is probably defective and should be replaced or repaired.

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