OTF Complete

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

INDEX CHAPTER 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. SUBJECT INTRODUCTION HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE TANK ARRANGEMENTS OPERATIONS MARINE POLLUTION SAFETY ON OIL TANKERS PAGE NO. 1-13 14-19 20-23 34-53 54-59 60-84
CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1.1.0 ) HISTORY & DEVELOPEMNT:
In the industrial economy of the modern world, in which the oil economy plays a major role, in tankers which are the main means of oil transportation and have attained an important place in the international business, and global trade. In the context of the above, tankers demand specialized knowledge, training and techniques both in their design, construction and the personnel who are responsible to manage them on board at sea. The history of oil exploration dates back to 1859 when the first oil well was sunk in Pennsylvania, which was followed by the production of oil on 27th of Aug. 1859. Since then the production of oil has achieved phenomenal rise as far as its exploration and production is concerned. The increased industrialization in the recent past, led to the increased demand of oil and hence tremendous increase of oil production and transportation. ELIZABETH WATTS a wooden sailing ship was the first transported cargo of oil of England forms the U.S. in 1861. The oil was carried in barrels stowed as general cargo in the ship holds. The development of oil carriers was slow due to the reason that the ship-owners were apprehensive about the leakage of oil form the barrels into the cargo holds which would create dangerous gases in the under deck spaces. There was a heavy demand based on the needs of the newly industrializing economies of the late 19the century for the oil. It needed the transportation of the oil form the oil production countries to the oil consuming countries across the nations and across the sea. Carriage of bulk amount of oil amounted to the requirement of installing of large cylindrical tanks within the holds of the ship which would have involved a great deal of cargo space to be wasted, the iron-hulled ship were developed in the meantime. Several iron-hulled sailing ships were building and used for the trade. Large ironhulled sailing ships fitted with iron tanks and equipped with hand pumps for rapid and safe discharge of cargo came into use of mass scale. ZORASTER was the first ship to use the hull as an oil tank was built. In 1886, the first steamship named GLUCKUF (Good luck) was designed and put into service to carry the petroleum in the bulk amount. It was ordered by a merchant of Hamburg Wilhelm A.Reidmann, to serve the German American Petroleum Company.
It was a small ship of 300 ft. long with dwt. of 3020 tons. It served as a prototype of the modern tanker, fitted with steam driven pumps segregated form cargo tanks by steel bulkhead and with the engine room at the other end, separated form the cargo tanks area by cofferdams formed by twin bulkheads. Broadly the pattern of the construction has not been charged since then. The first 20 years of the 20th century seen the tankers getting large in size. The greatest dangers of ship carrying bulk liquids are free surface effect. The movement of ship in a seaway affects the stability of the ship. The engine room aft design awes widely adopted in 1920s. The standard deadweight of tankers was 12000 tons only. 1.2.0) EARLY DESIGN OF BULK OIL CARRIERS: The heavy demand of transportation of petroleum during Second World War far exceeded. The carrying capacity of the ships developed till that time, and called for new standards for bigger and faster ship tankers. As per the need U.S. built 532 tankers of T-2 class, with deadweight of 16750 tons, and with a speed of 14.50 knots. In the post World War II period the area of Middle East developed into a major oil exporter to the industrialized world, hence serving the major source of oil to the world. Suez Canal was the main link between Middle East countries and to the consumers of western world. The limitation of the canal, its width and length dictated the average size of the tanker trading between Middle East load ports and the US and European discharge ports were required to make their passage around the South of Africa. In order to make these passages economically viable larger ships were built and the average size of the tanker was increased to 47000 tons. A modification in the design of the tankers was introduced in 1930. The same design became an accepted norm of the industry in 1950. The summer tanks were eliminated along-with centerline bulkhead. The cargo tanks were further sub-divided transversely into three tanks by installing two longitudinal bulkheads. The free surface in the cargo tanks was just as effectively reduced and the new design allowed greater scope in design and construction of the tankers.
Any change in the economic as well as political scene in the world has a direct bearing on the economy of the world, which affected the trade as a whole and the tankers trade in particular. The size of the takers increased with each major was the also with the closure of Suez Canal. When the Suez Canal was close for the second time in 1967, it led to the stopping of traffic in the canal and the shortest route of Europe. The resulted in the sudden increase of tanker size to make the transportation of petroleum more economical. The closure provided much impetus to the already booming tankers market and led to the manufacture and utilization of giant size tankers-very large crude carriers (VLCC) and ultra large crude carriers (ULCC). It reached its zenith in 1979, with Sea wise Giant a crude oil carrier of 569,783 tons deadweight. Now days the tankers carry refined oil products and crude oil. The development of petroleum industry laid stress on the use of petroleum products as a cheap & convenient source for manufacture of chemicals. This led to the development of the sophisticated tankers carrying all forms of petroleum products. Petroleum production has numerous by-products, which are of very much utility of the mankind. Some of these are Natural gas and Petroleum gas. In the early stages these by products were considered only as waste and with the development of means of utilize gas as fuel and chemical feedstock, gas recovery plants were used to collect these gases and store them in liquefied form. Today liquefied natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are important fuels and chemical feedstock. Tankers have been specially designed for their transport. Tankers thus have played a major role in the economy of the modern world, its industrialization, the development of the nations etc. By virtue of carrying so much petroleum products, which the tankers contain, they always pose environmental threats in case of accidental leakage of oil, fire hazards, explosion etc. Strict International regulations have addressed these hazards. The regulatory environment in which the tankers operate are governed SOLAS (1974) and the International Convention of Prevention of Pollution form Ships 1973 and the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73-78) The standards of training for seafarers have had to keep up with the continually changing technology. To ensure uniformity of standards the maritime nation of world covered to adopt the Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for seafarers (STCW 78), which laid down certain minimum standards.
1.3.0) TYPES OF TANKERS: Oil tankers are divided into six basic types, namely: Crude oil tanker Product tankers Ore oil carriers Ore bulk oil carriers Bitumen carriers Gas carriers
1.3.1) CRUDE OIL TANKERS: They are single decked vessels, with at least two longitudinal bulkheads sub dividing the tanks into smaller tanks transversely. Double bottoms are located under machinery spaces, but not usually elsewhere. A deep tank is nearly always fitted forward of the cargo tanks and this is normally used for carrying bunker oil for the sip. The pump room is usually located aft of the cargo tank system. Slop tanks are provided aft of the cargo tank system. Modern crude tankers are provided with wing thanks for the carriage of water ballast. Crude tankers are large ships. They are employed in transporting crude oil form the oil fields where it is produced to the oil refineries. The crude oil tanker has a relatively simple pipeline system and high capacity cargo pumps to reduce time spent in port of discharge of cargo. The pipeline system does not provide for a high degree of multigrade segregation of cargo. The cargo oil tankers may be provided with heating coils. New crude oil tankers of more than 20,000 tons deadweight and over are provided with an Inert Gas System (IGS) and Crude Oil Washing system (COW). 1.3.2) PRODUCT TANKER; In layout of cargo tank, ballast tanks, slop tanks, pump room, engine room, double bottom tanks etc Product tankers are akin to crude oil tankers. The are generally smaller in size than crude oil tankers. The tank internals are coated to protect against cargo contamination by rust and corrosivity of the cargo attacking the steel of the ship. The cargo tanks are provided with a cargo tank heating systems. They have a large number of small cargo tanks. These ships are provided with elaborate cargo piping system so designed as to enable the simultaneous carriage of more than one product without co-mingling of products during handling and carriage. The product usually carried is Naptha, Motor spirit, kerosene, diesel etc. The cargo pumping system is designed to handle at comparatively lower loading discharging rates. Lower rates are used because some product are extremely volatile, come are
viscous, some are unstable. Product tankers are provided with cargo pumps of lower capacities. A new product tankers of over 0,000 tons deadweight will be provided with an Inert Gas System. 1.3.3) ORE / OIL CARRIER; This is an oil tanker equipped to carry Ore in its center cargo compartments. Compared with similar sized conventional tankers the main difference revolves around the center compartments, which are located over double bottom tanks and have large heavy steel hatch covers. The center compartments so are arranged that the longitudinal plating slope inwards providing a self-stowing factor when loading Ore. The center compartment is generally free from all structural members, which would hinder loading or discharging ore. If coils are required for heating the oil, these are installed in the wings or under the holds and welded on racks to the plating near the bottom. Center compartments contain no piping and are pumped out by wells let into the double bottoms and connected to the cargo piping system through wing tanks. The wing tanks are arranged in the same manner as in conventional tankers and are capable of carrying oil or ballast as required. These ships are fitted with Inert Gas System (IGS) and Crude Oil Washing systems (COW) 1.3.4) ORE / BULK/ OIL CARRIERS; This type vessel is designed to basically carry Ore, Grain and other dry bulk cargo. The vessel has large clear holds with no tween decks. The engines are located aft as in a tanker and the hatches are provided with gas tight hatch covers. Hopper tanks and double bottom tanks are used to carry ballast to enable the OBO to load and discharge liquid cargo. The holds are connected by a duct system or pipeline system to the pump. The duct keep (in duct system) may be divided into a cargo holds to the cargo pump room and is used for loading and discharging liquid cargo to/from the holds. The ballast duct connects the double bottom tanks and the lower hopper tanks to the ballast tanks and used for ballasting and de-ballasting these tanks. The duct keel may in other cases be used as a pipe tunnel for all pipelines leading to and form the tanks and holds. Liquid, Cargo is loaded in the holds. OBOs are provided with Inert Gas and Crude Oil Washing systems. 1.3.5) BITUMEN CARRIERS; Bitumen can be described as a black to dark substance, which can be solid, semisolid, viscous liquid according to temperature. It is derived from certain types of crude oil and is generally classified according to its penetration number.
Bitumen is used in the manufacture of asphalt and several other similar products. It is transported in bulk by sea and on land by special rail cars which are equipped handle, it but in some case it is blocked and shipped as a solid. Bitumen ships are specially built to handle these products at high temperatures. Not only are the ships equipped with wing tanks and double bottoms to isolate the cargo tanks form the shell but also heating coils are rather more elaborate than in normal ships. Mattresses or layers of coils are to the covering the bottom of the tanks Additional mattresses or layers of coils are provided at different levels in the tanks. Piping and pumps in the room as well as on deck are provided with lagging and the deck lines are often provided with a steam trace. In addition to this most grades of bitumen are handled at temperatures that exceed 12c, below this temperatures they become hard to handle. This type of vessels are generally equipped with two pumping systems which are segregated form each other. The bitumen cargo system is served by one system, which is used for nothing else while the vessels in the bitumen trade. The wings tanks and double bottoms are served by the other system, which handles the ballast. While the vessels is in this trade can also be used to handle cargo should the vessel carry any cargo other than bitumen due to the fact that bitumen is a fairly heavy cargo. The center tanks provide sufficient cubic capacity to give vessels a full cargo and bring her to her marks. 1.3.6) GAS CARRIERS; Gases such as petroleum gas, Natural gas and chemical gases are shipped at sea in a liquefied form. There are two basic types of gas tankers viz. Pressurized and refrigerated ships. The gas cargo is carried in liquid form either under pressure in a pressurized container at ambient temperature or cooled to below its atmospheric temperature. {Boiling point temperature in a refrigerated containment at ambient pressure}. Another category of gas carrier is the semi-pressurized type. On such ships the cargo is carried in liquid form by partially cooling and partially pressurizing the cargo. On refrigerated and semi-pressurized ships the cargo tanks are insulated to avoid heat penetration. 1.4.0) TANKER TERMINOLOGY; The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) provides a reasonable comprehensive list of tanker terminology. It would be useful to discuss some of the more complicated and technical terms for definitions.
ANTISTATIC ADDIVITVE: It is a substance added to petroleum products to raise its electrical conductivity above 100 picosiemens/metre to prevent accumulation of static electricity. APPROVED EQUIPMENT: is an equipment of a design that has been tested and approved by an appropriate authority, such as Govt. or classification society. The authority should have certified the equipment as safe for use in a specified hazardous atmosphere. AUTO IGNITION: It is a process where the ignition of combustible material takes place without initiation by a spark or a flame, when the material has been raised to a temperature at which self-sustaining combustion occurs. BONDING: It is the connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity. CATHODIC PROTECTION: It is the prevention of corrosion by electrochemical techniques. It may be applied on tankers either externally to the hull or internally to the surfaces of tanks. At terminals, it is frequently applied to steel pipes and Fender panels. CLIMGAGE: Oil remaining on the walls of a pipe or on the surfaces of tank interiors after the bulk of the oil has been removed. COLD WORK: The work, which cant create a source of ignition. COMBINATION CARRIERS: A ship, which is designed to carry either petroleum cargoes or dry bulk cargoes. COMBUSTIBLE/FLAMMABLE: Is a substance capable of being ignited and or burning. COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (EXPLOSIMETER): Instrument for measuring the composition of hydrocarbon gas or air mixture, usually giving the result as a percentage of lower flammable limits. DANGEROUS AREA: This is an area on the tanker, which for the purpose of the installation and use of electrical equipment is regarded as dangerous. DRY CHEMICAL POWDER: A flame-inhibiting powder used in fire fighting. EARTHING: The electrical connection of the equipment to the main body of the earth to ensure that it is at earths potential. On board the ship the connection is made to the main metallic structure of the ship, which is at earths potential because of the conductivity of the sea.
ENTRY PERMIT: It is a document used by a responsible person on the ship permitting entry to a space or compartment during a specific time interval. EXPLOSION PROOF / FLAME PROOF: Electrical equipment is defined and certified as explosion proof/flame proof when it is enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding the explosion within it of a hydro-carbon gas/air mixture or other specified flammable gas mixture. It must also prevent the ignition of such a mixture outside the case either by spark or flame form the internal explosion. The equipment must operate at such an external temperature that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited thereby. FLAME ARRESTER: A permeable matrix of metal or ceramic or other heat resisting materials which can cool a deflagration flame and any combustion products below the temperature required for the ignition of the unrelated flammable gas on the other side of the arrester. FLAME SCREEN: A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion resistant wire woven fabrics of very small mesh used for preventing sparks form entering tank or vent opening for a short time preventing the passage of flame. FLAMMABLE RANGE: The range of hydrocarbon gas concentrations in air between the lower and upper flammable explosive limits. Mixture within this range is capable of being ignited and burning. FLASHLIGHT: a battery operated hand lamp. An approved light is one, which is approved by a competent authority for use in a flammable atmosphere. FLASHPOINT: The lower temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a flammable gas mixture near the surface of the liquid. It is measured in the laboratory in a standard apparatus using a prescribed procedure. FOAM: An aerated solution used for fire prevention and fire fighting. FOAM CONCENTRATE: The full strength received form the supplier that is diluted and processed to produce foam. FOAM SOLUTION: The mixture produced by diluting foam concentrate with water before processing to make foam. FREEE FALL: The unrestricted fall of liquid into a tank. GAS-FREE: When sufficient fresh air has been introduced into a compartment to lower the level of any flammable, toxic or inert gas, it is called as gas free.
GAS GREE CERTIFICATES: A certificate issued by an authorized, responsible person confirming that at the time of testing a tank, compartment or container, it was gas free for the specific purpose. HALON: It is a homogenate hydrocarbon used in fire fighting which inhibits flame propagation. HAZARDOUS AREA: This is an area onshore, which for the purpose of the installation and use of electrical equipment is regarded as dangerous; such hazardous areas are graded into hazardous zones depending upon the probability of the presence of a flammable gas mixture. HOT WORK: The work involving sources of ignition or temperature sufficiently high to cause the ignition of flammable gas mixture. This includes welding work, burning or soldering the equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools, portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically safe or contained within an approved explosion proof housing, sand blasting equipment or internal combustion engines. HOT WORK PERMIT: A document issued by responsible person permitting specific hot work to be done during a specific time interval in a defined area. HYDRO-CVARBON GAS: Gas composed entirely of hydro-carbons. INERT CONDITION: This is a condition in which the oxygen content throughout the atmosphere has been reduced to 8% or less by volume by addition of inert gas. INERT GAS: A gas or a mixture of gases such as flue gas containing in-sufficient oxygen to support the combustion of hydrocarbons. INERT GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: All piping, valves and associated fittings to distribution inert gas form the gas plant to cargo tanks, to vent gases to atmosphere and to protect tanks against excessive pressure or vacuum. INERT GAS PLANT: All equipment specially fitted to supply, cool, clean, pressurize, monitor, and control delivery of inert gas to cargo tanks systems. INERT GAS SYSTEMS (IGS): An inert gas plant and inert gas distribution systems together with means for preventing back flow of cargo gases to the machinery spaces, fixed and portable measuring instrument and control devices. INERTING: The introduction of inert gas into a tank with the object of attaining the inert condition.
INSULATION FLANGE: A flanged joints incorporating an insulating gasket sleeves and washer to prevent electrical continuity between pipelines, hose strings or loading arms. INTERFACE DETECTOR: An electrical instrument for detecting the boundary between oil and water. INTRINSICALLY SAFE: An electrical circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe if any spark or thermal effect produced normally (i.e. joy breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally (i.e. by short circuit or earth fault) is incapable under prescribed test conditions of igniting a prescribed gas mixture. LOADING OVERALL: The loading of cargo or ballast over the top through an open ended pipe or by means of an open-ended hose entering a tank through a hatch or other deck opening resulting in the free fall of liquid. LOWER FLAMMABLE LIMIT (LFL): The concentration of hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is insufficient hydrocarbon to support and propagate combustion, sometimes referred to as lower explosive limit (LEL). MOORTING WHICH BRAKE DESIGN CAPACITY: The percentage of the breaking strength (when new) of the mooring rope or wire it carries at which the winch brake is designed to yield may be expressed as percentage or in tones. NAKED LIGHTS: Open flames or fires, lighted cigarettes, cigars, pipes or similar smoking materials, any other unconfined sources of ignition electrical and other equipment liable to cause sparking while in use and unprotected light bulbs. NON-VOLATILE PETROLEUM: Petroleum having a flash point of 60 degree Celsius (140 degree f) or above as determined by the closed cup method of test. OBO / OIL ORE: See combination carrier. OXYGEN ANALYSES/METER: An instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen in a sample of the atmosphere drawn from a tank pipe or compartment. PACKAGED CARGO: Petroleum or other cargo in drums packages or other containers. PETROLEUM: Crude oil and liquid hydrocarbon product derived form it. PETROLEUM GAS: gas evolved form petroleum. The main constituents of petroleum gases are hydrocarbons but they may also contain other substance such as hydrogen supplied or lead alkyls as minor constituents.
POUR POINTS: The lowest temperatures at which petroleum oil remains fluids. PRESSURE SURGE: A sudden increase in the pressure of the liquid in a pipeline brought about by an abrupt change in flow velocity. PRESSURE/VACCUM RELIFE (P/V VALVE): A device, which provides for the flow of small volumes of air or inert gas mixture caused by thermal variations in a cargo tank. PURGING: The introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition with the object of 1. 2. Further reducing the existing oxygen gas content; or Reducing the existing hydrocarbon gas content to a level below which combustion cannot be supported if air is subsequently introduced into the tank.
PYROPHROIC IRON SULPHIDE: Iron supplied capable of a rapid exothermic oxidation with incandescence when exposed to air, which is capable of igniting flammable hydrocarbon gas/ air mixture. REID VAPOUR PRESSURE (RVP): The vapor pressure of a liquid determined in a standard manner in the Reid apparatus at a temperature of 100 degree f (37.8 degree c) and with ration of gas to liquid volume of 4: 1. RESPONSIBLE OFFICER / PERSON: A person appointed by the employer or the master of the ship and empowered to take all decisions relating to his specific task having necessary knowledge and experience for the purpose. RESUSCITATOR: Equipment to assist or restore the breathing of a man overcome by gas tries lack of oxygen. SELF-STOWING MOORING WINCH: A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which wire or rope is made fast and automatically stowed. SOUR CRUDE OIL: A crude oil containing appreciable amounts of hydrogen supplied or mercaptans. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION: The ignition brought about by heat producing (exothermic) chemical reaction with in the material itself without exposure to an external source of ignition. STATIC ACCUMULATOR OIL: oil with an electrical conductivity less than 100 pico siemens/metre (ps/m) so that it is capable of retaining significant electrostatic charge.
STATIC ELECTRICITY: The electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and separation. STATIC NON-ACCUMULATOR OIL: An oil of electrical conductivity greater than 100 picot siemens/ meter (ps/m) which renders it incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge. STRIPPING: The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from tank or pipeline. TANKERS: A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk including combination carrier when being used for the purpose. TENSION WINCH (automated or self-tensioning mooring systems): A mooring winch fitted with a device, which may be set to maintain the tension on a mooring line automatically. TERMINAL: A place where tankers are breathed or moored for the purpose of loading or discharging petroleum cargo. TERMINAL REPRESENTATIVE: The person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an operation or duty. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV): The time-weighted average concentration of a substance to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed for a normal 8hour workday or 40 hour workweek day after day without adverse effect. TOPPING OFF: The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage. TOPPING UP: The introduction of inert gas into a tank, which is already in the inert condition with the object of raising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air. TORCH: see Flashlight. TOXIC: Poisonous to human life. TRUE VAPOUR PRESSURE (TVP): The true vapor pressure of a liquid is the absolute pressure exerted by the gas produced by evaporation form a liquid when gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing temperature and the gas/liquid ratio is effective zero. ULLAGE: The depth of the space above the liquid in a tank.
UPPER FLAMMABLE LIMIT (UFL): The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above, which there is insufficient air to support and propagate combustion sometimes, referred to as supper explosive limit (UFL). VAPOUR: A Gas below its critical temperature. VAPOUR SEAL SYSTEM: Specially fitted equipment which enable the measuring and sampling of cargoes contained in inerted tanks without reducing the inert gas pressure. VOLATILE PETROLEUM: Petroleum having flash points below 60 degree c (140 degree f) as determined by the closed-cup method of testing. WATER FOG: A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually delivered at high pressure through a fog nozzle for use in fire fighting. WATER SPRAY: A suspension in the atmosphere of water divided into coarse drops by delivery through special nozzles for use in fire fighting. WORK PERMIT: A document by a responsible person permitting specific work to be done during a specific period in defined areas.
CHAPTER 2
HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
2.1.0) INTRODUCTION: The organic compounds consisting of only hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbons On the basis of structure these are divided into 3 Open Chain (acyclic) ---- aliphatic hydrocarbons 3 Closed Chain (cyclic) Open chain hydrocarbons are further divided into: 3 Saturated>Paraffins 3 Unsaturated hydrocarbons In the IUPAC nomenclature, Paraffins are called as ALKANES. The main source of alkenes is 3 Petroleum Natural gas 3 Natural gas Petroleum contains large amounts of liquid hydrocarbons along with little solid paraffin wax dissolved in it. It is the main source of Alkenes containing unto 40 carbon atoms. Natural gas contains mainly lower Alkenes. It consists of Methane 80% Ethane 10% Mixture 10% The natural wax found near petroleum wells is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons. Fuel gas obtained form coal contains about 32% methane. Methane is found near marshy places. It is formed by decomposition of vegetable and animal waste with bacteria. Methane can be said to be simplest hydrocarbon and is the main constituent of natural gas. One Methane molecule consists of 4 hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom. In order to separate the gases form the crude oil, it has to pass through the process units called as Stabilizer and the residual crude oil thus obtained is called as Stabilized Crude. Crude stabilized oil gives off hydrocarbon vapors form its surface. Both gaseous hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, propane, butane) & liquid hydrocarbons (pentane, hexane) evaporate out of the crude oil.
The molecules of hydrocarbons compounds are termed as a light & heavy according to the number of carbon atoms contained in each molecules. Methane is substantially lighter than air. Ethane has approximately the same density as air. Propane, butane & higher hydrocarbons are heavier than air. The gas mixtures given off form crude oil & sediments are all heavier than air. The process of refining crude oil will produce a number of fractions. Each fraction consists of a range of petroleum molecules, which at atmosphere temperature & pressure will be gas, liquid or solid. Each fraction has properties specific to itself. Common fractions (products) obtained form crude oil are: Methane Propane Butane
2.1.1) GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF HYDROCARBONS: State: Methane, ethane, propane, and butane are colorless, odorless gases. The Next thirteen members (from C5 to C 13) are colorless odorless liquids. From C 18 onwards they are solids. Density: all of them are lighter than water. Solubility: the solubility decreases with increase in molecular weight they are non polar in character. Boiling points: with the increase in molecular size the B. P. increases Physical constants of some hydrocarbons Name METHANE ETHANE PROPANE BUTANE PENTANE HEXANE Formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 CH10 C5H1 C6H14 Melt. Pt. co - 182.5 - 172 - 187.7 - 138.4 - 129.7 - 95.3 Dens .424 .546 .582 .579 .66 .659 B.P. co - 161.5 - 88.6 - 42.1 - .50 36.1 68.7
When crude oil is forced or pumped out of well, both hydrocarbon gases and solid materials are dissolved in the oil. When the pressure will reduce the gases will bubble out. Following is the example of liquid hydrocarbons: 3 3 3 3 3 Petrol Paraffin Gas oil Diesel oil Heavy fuel oil
Solid hydrocarbons are: 3 Grease 3 Wax 3 Bitumen Petroleum or its sediments give of hydrocarbon gases when petroleum or its sediments burn hydrocarbon gases are released form its surface and they react with oxygen in the air and hear is generated. During a fire the strong generation of heat will tend to release increasing amount hydrocarbon gases form the surface thus making fire extinguishing more difficult. When hydrocarbon gases form petroleum or its sediments are mixed in the right proportion with air resulting mixture is liable to be explosive. The similarity between a cargo tank explosion and an oil fire is that in both cases it is the hydrocarbon gases react with the oxygen in the air resulting in the generation of hears. The difference between such an explosion and an oil fire is that in the case of an explosion the hydrocarbon gases and the oxygen are already mixed before ignition takes place so that combustion takes place very rapidly the temperature increase rapidly accompanied with a consequent increase in pressure which results in the tank bursting open whereas in the case of an oil fire in open air the hydrocarbon gases are given off from the surface in limited amounts and the oxygen supply is limited by air circulation whether a mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air is flammable depends upon the ratio of the Mixture. The diagram above shows the concentration of flammable gas in a flammable gas/ air mixture. Too rich denotes a mixture where the concentration of flammable gas is so high that is cannot be ignited. To lean denote a mixture where the concentration of flammable is too low to be ignited. The points at which a lean mixture becomes flammable is called the LFL and the points at which the flammable mixture becomes rich is called UFL for hydrocarbon gases emitted form crude oil the LFL is assumed
to be 1% the UFL is assumed to be 10% by volume of hydrocarbon in air. Shows the explosion danger depends on the concentration of oxygen (increasing towards the right) and of the concentration of hydrocarbon gas (increasing upwards), a corresponds to a tank containing 9% by volume of HC (hydrocarbon gas) 3% by volume of O2 (oxygen) the mixture has such low oxygen concentration that it cannot be ignited if it is diluted with air it can be ignited by a sparks or heat b corresponds to a tank containing 1% HC by volume and 4% oxygen by volume the mixture cannot be ignited even if it is diluted with air, c corresponds to a tank containing 0.5% HC by volume and 21% oxygen by volume the mixture is too lean to be ignited. 2.2.0) HAZARDS OF PELTROLEUM CARGOES: Potential for fire and explosion; The ability of petroleum to create flammable vapor is a major factor contributing to its hazardous nature. Liquid petroleum does not ignite. It is the vapor given off by the liquid petroleum, which burns as a visible flame. The quantity of petroleum vapors available given off by a petroleum liquid depends on its volatility. Petroleum liquids, which vaporize easily, are considered more volatile. There is direct relationship between the vapor pressure of a petroleum liquid and its volatility. Higher the true vapor pressure of a petroleum cargo higher its volatility because its capability of vaporizing is higher. Vapor pressure increases with temperature and reaches a maximum at the boiling temperature of the petroleum. FLASHPOINT: The lowest temperature at which oil gives sufficient vapors to form an explosive mixture with air is referred to as flash point of the oil. When hydrocarbon vapor is mixed with oxygen, in the right proportion, an explosive mixture is produced. A mixture of vapor and oxygen will only ignite when it is within the flammable range. The concentration of percentage by volume in air is used to define flammable range. The working flammable range of mixture of petroleum vapor in air can be taken as 1% to 10% by volume. The three essentials necessary for a fire to commence are: Oxygen Flammable material Source of ignition Three sides of the triangle may represent the three essentials. The complete triangle represents an active fire. The removal of any one side will extinguish the fire. The methods of extinguishing a fire are: Removal of oxygen (smothering) Removal of ignition source (cooling)
Inhibition of the burning process. The removal of flammable materials is not practicable on ships carrying liquid petroleum in bulk. The removal of oxygen with a view to achieve fire prevention is done by the use of inert gas. The use of inert gas can reduce the oxygen content in the cargo tank below that necessary to produce a flammable mixture. Covering the surface of the oil with a blanket of inert gas will prevent oxygen form making contact with the vapor form the oil. The reduction of ignition sources is achieved by strict fire precautions. On board an oil tanker flammable mixture may be found where they are least expected. Every effort is made in the design, construction, equipment and operation of an oil tanker to avoid ignition sources coming in contact with a flammable gas/ air mixture. Water spray is an efficient cooling agent. Water sprays have been successfully used on board oil tankers to fight oil fires by achieving cooling. Toxic effects; The hazards to health on board oil tankers are Skin contact with liquid petroleum Swallowing of liquid petroleum Breathing of petroleum vapors Compounds of lead contained in cargo
The following precaution should be taken to avoid the above health hazards: Strict control of entry into pump room, cargo spaces and other enclosed spaces. Through ventilation of any spaces to be confirmed before entry. Use of adequate protective clothing. Through cleaning of body and personal clothing after contact with petroleum. Continuous monitoring of atmosphere in working space for petroleum vapors and hydrogen sulphide.
Skin contact with light petroleum products causes irritation and dermatitis because they remove the essential natural oils of the skin. Petroleum can block skin pores and causes rash. This rash is sometime referred to as oil acne. Some heavy petroleum such as lubricating oil can produce more serious long-term effects in contact with the skin over long periods they may cause skin cancer. There is particular risk of cancer of the scrotum. Swallowing of petroleum causes acute discomfort and nausea. If liquid is inhaled into the lungs there is severe risk of suffocation through interference with the normal oxygen / carbon dioxide transfer taking place during breathing the liquid swallowed will tend to vapourise and the vapors could be breathed into the lungs.
The inhalation of petroleum vapors will create the following symptoms progressively. Dullness of sense of small Dizziness Diminished sense of responsibility Headache Eye irritation Staggering Loss of consciousness Arrest of breathing Arrest of heart Death
Some petroleum cargoes release a dangerous gas called hydrogen sulphide. This gas smells of rotten eggs. It dulled the sense of smell thus it is doubly dangerous. Some people can tolerate petroleum vapors better than other. The lack of early ill effects should not be taken to mean that there are no dangerous vapors present, as the onset of the effects of the vapors may take longer than expected. 2.4.0) OXYGEN DEFICIENCY: The oxygen content of air is 21% by volume. The oxygen content is enclosed space may be lower. One of the reasons for such low oxygen content may be because the atmosphere in the space is inerted. Oxygen content may also be reduced owing to chemical reactions (e.g. rushing burning paint drying).
CHAPTER 3
TANK ARRANGEMENTS
Form the first simple design the tanker grown unit it has become one of the most highly developed and efficient contemporary ships type the oceangoing tanker is a very large ship with flush upper deck and a large multi flat deckhouse and bridge structure aft in outward appearance a tanker has a clearly distinguishable silhouette. 3.1.1) FORE PEAK AFTGER PEAK TANKS : These spaces are used for the carriage of ballast only it is not unusual for takers to be provided with a forward pump room abaft the fore peck tank within which is located the ballast pump for ballasting and de-ballasting the fore peak tank the ballast pump located in the engine room is used for ballasting and de-ballasting the after peak tanks the teak tanks are never used for the carriage of oil cargo or bunker fuel oil. 3.1.2) DEEP TANKS; Tankers are usually provided with tanks forward and aft for fuel oil. A fuel transfer pump located in the forward pump room forward services the deep tanks and the deep tanks aft are serviced by fuel transfer pump located in the engine room. Due to the nature of the oil (fuel oil) carried in the deep tanks it is not necessary for the deep tanks to be internally coated with paint. Deep tanks are most often fitted with heating arrangements to heat the oil fuel and enable it to flow easily. 3.1.3) CARGO TANKS; The cargo tanks of oil tankers located abaft fore peak tank or forward fuel oil tanks (if any) and forward of the main pump room aft. Longitudinal and transverse oil tight bulkheads into tanks subdivide the ship hull in this region. The cargo are provided with very small opening on the weather decks these openings are provided with oil tight closing appliances. Liquid cargo to is loaded through pipelines, which are permanently installed within the tank deck areas. Pipelines are also utilized for emptying the cargo tank of the liquid cargo. Depending upon the grade of oil carried the internals of the cargo tank may be coated with special quality of paint which will not contaminate the cargo carried. This becomes particularly necessary when carrying white oil as rested tanks may tend to contaminate the cargo and the cargo may also corrode the steel of cargo tanks. It is not a usual practice on crude oil carriers. Cargo tanks may also be provided with heating arrangement to enable heating of viscous cargoes.
3.1.4) PUMP ROOM The cargo pump room of an oil tanker is the nerve center of the cargo system of the ship. It is located at the after end of the cargo tanks area. Pipelines for the cargo tank lead to cargo oil pumps located in the pump room. This place on board an oil tanker is the most potentially hazardous spaces. This is the only compartment frequented by personnel on an oil tanker in to which oil cargo enters (within pipelines) if due to any malfunction or breakdown of pumps pipeline or valves oil leakage occurs personnel will immediately be susceptible to the hazardous of the petroleum cargo. The pump room is provided with efficient forced ventilation systems. It is kept operating prior and during the course of any cargo ballast related operations. 3.1.5) COFFERDAM: This name given to empty compartment between double transverse bulkheads, which provide a space between oil tanks and other compartment. The rules require that a cofferdam be fitted at each end of the cargo area. Cofferdam or pump room is also provided between sections of cargo oil. Ballast space may be accepted as cofferdam. Cross-bunker tanks are also accepted as cofferdam. 3.1.6) SEGREGATED BALLAST TANKS: Most tankers are required to be fitted with segregated ballast tanks (SBT). These tanks are connected to a completely separate system of pumps and pipelines for clean ballast only. SBT are defined as tanks, which are completed, separated form the cargo oil and fuel oil systems and which permanently allocated for the carriage of ballast. Sets should be located so as to offer some degree of protection against stranding and collision. Ideally this would mean the ship is provided with double skin and double bottoms of specified width and depth. Newly built tankers are required to be of double hull construction. The double bottom and wing tanks of the double hull to be solely for the carriage of ballast. 3.2.0) PIPING ARRANGEMENT: Internal piping in tanks & pump room; A modern tankers internal piping in the cargo tanks consists of straight pipelines running longitudinally through the cargo tanks with branches form each longitudinal line to feed a group of tanks. The pipelines in the cargo tank are located about a meter form the tank bottom. The longitudinal lines in the cargo tank terminate in cargo pump room at the cargo pump.
Over the years four main systems of pipelines arrangement within the cargo tanks were developed namely: 1. 2. 3. 4. Direct line system Ring main system Free flow system Combined system
3.2.1) The direct line system: It consists of longitudinal lines in the center tanks branching to suction bell mouth in the center and wing cargo oil tanks. The direct line system enable faster loading and discharging rates and is also claimed to provide better suction due to the lack of many bends in the line. This system is most popular on the crude oil carriers. 3.2.3) Ring main system This system provides for handling of several different types of oil simultaneously. The main pipelines in the tanks are laid in a ring format. Cargo is pumped out through one direct suction line or through systems of crossover valves and master valves by an intersecting suction line. The system is very versatile. Mimic diagrams of line layout and a skeleton drawing of a complete ring main Dig pipeline are shown above. During loading operation oil can be passed downward through the drop line to the bottom loop passing along the wing tanks. When this being carried out closing the bulkhead master valves in the pump room isolates the pump room lines. Study o f the drawing will reveal that grades of oil can be carried at the same time. Each grade can be loaded along a separate section of line and discharging in like manner a separate line being used for each grade. 3.2.3) Free Flow System: The flow of oil form a ship tanks can be improved if it is does not have to pass through pipelines but can run freely through valves in the bulkheads themselves. Such systems are now in use, more ships are being built to this design, and for a certain number of the larger ships in the crude trade there is much to commend what has become known as the free flow systems. Large rectangular sliding valves are set in the tank bulkheads and when these are open throughout the ship she is literally opened up directly to the pumps. There will be a natural tendency for her to lighten forward first forming a wedge of oil towards the pump room at the after end so the main centrifugal pumps can be used almost to the last without any stripping be required. In fact when the main pumps are used in conjunction with educators, although these are by no means universal or accepted by all, striping pumps are often
not fitted at all. Some free-flow layouts also have a ring line to make tank cleaning and blasting easier. 3.3.0 VALVES: A valve is a device used to control or regulate the flow of fluid (liquid or gases) through a pipeline. There are different types of v/vs. used in the various systems of which most common types are; 1. 2. 3. 4. Globe valves Non return valves Gate (sluice) valves Butterfly valves
3.3.1 GLOBE VALVES: It can be either screwed down (SD) or screwed down non return (SDNR) type of valves. Normally it consists of a v/v lid, (circular type of closing device) with some arrangement of wings or centrally located guide rod on the base of the disc. This guides the v/v lid up & down in the v/v seat bush which a fitted in the v/v chest. The fluids enters the body form underneath the v/v lid and passes through from the top of the v/v lid hence the fluids has to make change in the flow direction causing energy wastage. In SD type the v/v lid position is determined by the position of the operating spindle whereas in SDNR type the v/v lid will remain seated even when the spindle is drawn up the v/v lid will move off its seat only by fluids pressure acting form below & will remain open till pressure below the v/v lid is more than pressure form above. For preventing fluids form leaking past the v/v spindle a gland is provided with packing material. The packing material / flange jointing depends upon the type of fluids flowing through the v/v. The packing is cut to size to suit the sealing area. The cutting edges can either be straight or beveled. The butts are staggered in place in such a way that the built ends are not in one straight line. The gland tightening torque should be just sufficient to allow free movement of the spindle without leakage. Also enough allowance is retained for nipping of the glands in case of leakage. The maximum v/v lift is quarter of the lid diameter. The body of the v/v is of casting and seat is either integral with the v/v body or is detachable bush type. The seating face is machined to mate with v/v lid seating surface to seal the passage through the v/v. 3.3.2) NON-RETURN VALVE;
3.3.3) GATE VALVE; A gate v/v is also known as sluice v /v. In this type a wedge shaped v/v disc is used as closing device. The v/v disc fits into a wedge shaped opening in the v/v body. The sealing faces are machined to mate in the closed position. The main feature of this v/v is high flow rate with minimum wastage of energy. This v/v also allows the flow in either direction while providing a proper sealing due to its shape. The v/v spindle normally has square threads. If required this type can be designed to operate remotely as well as manually. The v/v operated by jacking up the lid in the bonnet of v/v body through spindle form its closed position. 3.3.4) BUTTERFLY VALVE This type has a v/v disc which swivels about the central axis in either open or close position. The sealing faces are Eastover rings, which eliminates the conventional lapping of mating surface. In overhaul of this type renewal of v/v lining and 0 ring rubber seal on the v/v shaft is required. Advantage of Butterfly v/v over Gage v/v: The butterfly v/v is compact in size hence requires less headroom. The butterfly v/v requires much less time to operate form open to close or vice versa however in case of gage v/v the gate has to be raised completely in to the v/v body bonnet requiring longer duration for operating v/v. The butterfly v/v requires low cost of over hauling.
Disadvantages: The butterfly v/v may tend to slam shut in any throttle position unless interlocking device is provided. Precaution while operating a v/v care should be taken not to use undue amount of force for opening or closing it. 3.3.5) OVERHAULING OF A VALVE: Mark the flanges prior to slack ending the nuts so as ensure the proper relocation of v/v on replacement after o haul. Before removing any v/v form place ensure the pipeline has been isolated and there is no pressure in the line. Dismantle the v/v and clean all the parts thoroughly. Check the condition of the v/v lid seat. Lap the mating face by using appropriate grinding paste depending upon the condition of the surface. Following are the various grade of grinding paste, which can be used (i) (ii) (iii) Coarse/rough Medium Fine
(iv)
Extra fine
Remove the old gland packing and clean the area. Select proper size/ materials of the packing and insert in the place provided the number of packing should be sufficient to give proper sealing as well as nipping up of the gland if required. Clean all the flanges preferably without using any abrasive tools to prevent any damage to the surface. Required number of new joints of proper dimension and thickness are cut to size. Make sure that all nuts blots and studs are free. Assemble all the parts in order as per the marking made before dismantling the v/v. Fit the v/v in place put the line in service and check leakage. Nip up the gland as required. 3.4.0) PUMPS A pump is a machine used to pressure and transfer fluids form one point to another. This is achieved by imparting energy to the fluids thus enabling it to flow under pressure. A prime mover imparts this energy to the fluids via the pump. Fluid flow takes place by maintaining a pressure difference between points. Normally the pump draws the liquid into a by over eating a vacuum effect on the suction side (this drops the pressure below atmosphere level if so required). The fluids drawn into the pump is discharged under pressure into the pipeline. Pumps are designed for certain optimum capacities so ate piping and valves in the system should be suitably dimensioned. A pumping system comprises pumps, prime movers with associated pipeline and valves. A pump has suction side and discharge/ deliver side. Pumps are subdivided into two basic groups: (A) Dynamic Type, (B) Positive displacement type
3.4.1) DYNAMIC TYPE: In this type energy is continuously added to the pump to increase the fluids velocities egg Centrifugal pump (single or multi stage), Educators or Ejectors. (i) Centrifugal pump
It is non-self priming pump. This pump cannot operate efficiently if vapors are induced along with fluids into the pump. The separate out these vapors and eliminate them, provision has to be made using a purging cock or some other vapors / air extracting pump/ device. This pump is relatively simple in construction and has small resistance, to flow of fluids through them. It has large through put capacities (that is there size / capacity ratios are very high) Pump may either be horizontally or
vertically operated. Prime mover, which drives the pump, could be an electric motor, diesel engine, turbine or hydraulic motor. Basic design consists of a split casing of volute spiral form. An impeller, which runs in wear/ mouth, rings and mounted on a drive shaft, which rotates in bush or any selfaligning type of bearing. The fluids are prevented form leaking along the shaft, but conventional type packing glands or mechanical seals. The mouth or wear ring in which the impeller revolves serve as a separation between the suction and pressure sides of the pump. Impellers are usually fixed to the shaft by keys. Fluids are induced into the eye of the impeller at their center due to suction effect caused by centrifugal force and the design of the vanes of the pump. Energy is supplied by the prime mover via the impeller vanes and volute casing. Multistage pump consists of a number of impellers running on the same shaft and forming a number of stages in the pump. The fluids form one impeller is discharged via suitable passages into the eye of the next impeller and so on. The final discharge pressure is the addition of head per stage. In this way high-pressure discharge can be obtained with moderate pump speed. The centrifugal pump can theoretically be run with their discharge valves shut with no differential effect to the pump. As suction and discharge sides are connected within the impellers and fluids merely churns within the casing. In actual operation this churning causes heating of the pump and if allowed to continue will vaporize the fluids, this leading to overheating and wear of the pump parts. Centrifugal pump is started with discharge valve shut. This facilitates priming and allows the pump to start with least load on the prime mover. Once the pressure comes to rate value the discharge valve is gradually opened. (ii) Educator / Ejector; Its operation is based on Bernoullis is principle, which states the the rate of increase of fluid velocities is very rapid then the pressure at that point of the system drops to below the atmospheric level. Thus fluid will be induced into this specially designed pump. In Educator a convergent/divergent nozzle is designed to create very rapid velocities at the outlet of the throat of the nozzle (narrowest point). Thus a vacuums develops in this region & if connected by a pipe and values to the tanks to be stripped, it will educt or remove the fluids efficiently. Here the fluids are discharged along with the stripped fluids, so they must be compatible. Pump delivering the drive must supply the designed pressure to this Educator to operate efficiently as pump has no moving parts, the educator is not damaged if air is drawn into it is capable of producing 85% vacuum which makes it effective for stripping and draining operations. 3.4.2) DISPLACEMENT TYPE:
In this type, the energy added periodically by application of force, resulting in direct increase in pressure this are also known as self priming type of pumps following pumps are some of the examples of this type Reciprocating pump Gear pump Screw pump Axial piston variable Displacement pump
(I) Reciprocating pump: This type of pump can be mounted either horizontally or vertically, the reciprocating motion can be either through connecting rod form electric motor and reduction gearing or other forms or from direct steam drive reciprocating pump can be either single acting or double acting. In single acting pump, every alternate stroke will give discharge, where in double acting pump, every stroke will give discharge suction and delivery chambers are isolated form each other by means of diaphragm well and set numbers of valves in each chamber. The pump consists of a piston plunger which is reciprocating a cylinder liner the piston is made airtight in the using piston range with butt end the rings can be of metal or of any other suitable materials, depending upon the fluids being handled and its properties. Appropriates appropriate glands are provided to seal the chambers at the connecting rod. Normally, an air vessel is provided on delivery side to dampen the vibrations. The movement of piston will expand the air underneath it, causing pressure drop. The pressure difference thus obtained forces the fluids to be drawn in till piston reverses its direction of motion. Now, piston will force the fluids out of the pump as it starts moving in the opposite direction. If delivery side is blocked, the pump casing may be damaged due to the pressure of the fluids. Hence a relief v/v provided on the discharge side to safeguard the pump form over pressure on reciprocating pump an air vessel is provided on the discharge side to dampen the pressure pulses caused while pumping. (ii) Screw pump: The pump consists of set of screws, which are giving pumping action. These are called screws because of its surface profile. It consists of central drive screw, coupled to prime mover the other screw also known as idler is mashed with drive screw the
screws the screw are encased in a close fit casing the surface are shaped that they form a tight seal in relation with themselves and the casing the idler screw rotates in opposite direction to that of central drive screw as the screw rotate the tight seal thus formed moves axially and uniformly acting as piston moving in one direction continually the drive screw shaft has suitable sealing arrangement provided at the pump casing. Unlike reciprocating pump it does not set up vibrations a very high speeds secondly this given constant delivery head this pump is normally used for oils sludge discharge. (iii) Gear pump This pump is very similar to screw pump however the impellers are shaped like gears mashed with each other in a pump casing one is known as drive gear coupled to the prime mover through either chain or wheel and other idling gear is mashed with it in such a way to give perfect tight seal and allowing fluids to be carried round between the teeth and the casing appropriate sealing arrangement is provided at the drive shaft and pump casing the pump can also be arranged with wheels to operate in series for pressure pump. In both the screw and gear type pump a relief cum by pass v/v is provided for control of discharge pressure as well for preventing any overpressure in the discharge line. (iv) Deep well /submersible pumps: Are used in specialized tankers (e.g. chemical / product / gas) here a pump is placed in the tank in a well at the bottom of the tank hence the name deep well pump these pump are centrifugal type and are single stage or multiple stage depending on pressure required on the discharge side centrifugal pump are chosen as main discharge pump because of their relatively simple design and high capacities however the disadvantage of these pump are the necessity to prime and in-efficiency if vapors enters the pump by placing the pump in the tanks both these are eliminated thus use of deep well pump though expensive make for quicker discharge time and simper piping systems drive could be electric or hydraulic with drive motor and deck or submerged in tanks the size of the well is usually large enough to allow the dies line of the pump to drain it and be stripped using a screw pump or other suitable arrangement bearings of these pumps are cooled and lubricated by the fluids being discharge which flows around of bearing in the discharge / riser pipe. (v) Booster pump Usually deck mounted and used in conjunction with deep well / submersible pumps. The deep well / submersible pump deliver the cargo to the suction of the booster pump which raised the discharge pressure to shore requirements.
3.5.0) DRAINING AND STRIPPING: Draining with centrifugal pumps depends entirely on being able to keep air out of the pump whirlpools and eddies around the suction often allows sufficient air to reach the pump for suction to be lost for this reason when using this type of the pump on tanks where the level of the liquid is dangerously low, it is advisable to shut in the suction and party crack open another tank to help feed the pump in this manner the rush of oil from the low tank is reduced and less likely to create whirlpool and at the same time the pump is obtaining sufficient oil form the full tank to compensate for the oil lost when the suction valves was shut in centrifugal pumps are often fitted with a vacuum line which leads to a draining pump the principal being that any air or gas entering the pump is immediately drained off by the vacuum or draining pump before the main pump has time to lose suction. Reciprocating pumps are far better suited for draining than centrifugal pumps they will not loss suction when small quantities of air mixed with oil enter the pump and as a result will drain tanks far drier than a centrifugal pump which does not require much air to make it lose suction when draining with a reciprocating pump the speed of the pump should be reduced till the pump has a nice easy stroke and the gauge shows a maximum vacuum the pump can safety be left running until it is heard to suck air in the tank by shutting down the suction valves and reducing the aperture the pump is assisted in draining the tank dry. 3.6.0) MEASUREMENT OF CARGO LEVEL: To ascertain the liquid level in tanker cargo oil tanks it is necessary to measure manually mechanically or electronically. (a) (b) The amount of liquid in the tank measuring form the bottom of the tank of the surface of the liquid the resulting measurement is known as the sounding. The amount of spaces between the top of the tank (allege plug) and the surface of the liquid the measurement was known as allege.
In the older tankers, ullaging with an ullage stick was common practice. Fast loading or discharging with numerous tanks open at once meant several members of the crew amount of manpower required was considerable, particularly when loading at fast rate the risk of asphyxiating personnel continuously leaning over open ullage hatches could not be ignored. Automatically tank gauging used in oil tankers are largely adapted form similar systems used the oil industry ashore. The float systems is probably most common of the automated tank gauge systems. In the earlier versions the float was suspended for a special hatch by means of an
ordinary ullage tape. The tape was passed over a flywheel directly under a clear view screen complete with screen wiper. The other end of the tape was secured to a weight suspended in a tube fitted with cleaning solvent extending to the bottom of the tank. The float is heavier than the weight in air but when the tank is being filled or emptied it floats on top of the liquid, rising or falling as the liquid level alter, the tape records the ullage automatically. The float systems is tried and reliable and a broken tape at once lets the operator know he must revert to hand ullaging. A reasonable amount of maintenance will keep the systems trouble-free. The steel tapes provided by the manufacturer have the measurement scale either painted on them or embossed on the actual metal. They are less likely to be defected by cargo with inert gas or other corrosives. Large and more modern ships fitted with the float ullage systems are equipped with a remote read out in a central control room. There are a large number of automated tank gauging systems based on hydrodynamic principals. Such systems have a marked similarity, and it should suffice if we cover them in outlines. Each tank is fitted with one or more open-ended pipes connected to a read gauge and reservoir in the control room. They length of the gauge and the type of liquid with which it is fitted depends on the accuracy required. A small gauge using a heavy liquid like mercury can be used, where accuracy is not required. Where accuracy is required such as when topping up tanks a larger gauge and a lighter liquid are used together with separate pipe to cover the upper section of the tank. How do such systems work. The open ended pipe in the tank is connected to a liquid reservoir in the base of the gauge glass. Nitrogen or another suitable gas is inserted into the pipe until it has purged all the air and its fills the whole length of pipe. The end of the pipe is restricted but the gas is allowed to leak out of the open end in the tank charge in liquid level within the tank result in changed pressure on the gas in the tube which in turn transfers to the liquids in the gauge glass and the level can be read off the calibrated gouge. Electrical capacitance gauge measures the electrical capacitance of a number of submerged segment (3600 mm long) plus the immersed portion of the segment which intercepts the liquid surface capacitance measurement are used to determine automatically the number of submerged segments and the immersed fraction of one segment the fraction is measured by the ratio of two current the current flowing in the partially filled segment and the current flowing in the filled segment immediately below it.
This is true digital measurement in which the tank is divided into a number of segments typically 5 to 10 that the range of measurement is only the length of one segment and the measured value is added digitally to the height of the bottom of the segment. In theory the capacitance of an elements or segment is depended on the di-electrical constants of its metal and the liquids in which is is immersed however in practice where is ratio measurement is used the properties of liquids are eliminated. The device has district advantage over the mechanically operated float gauge and the servo-operated gauge as it measurement the depth on the liquids whereas the latter measure the ullage. The comparative capacitance gauge therefore consists of number of elements of equal length staked one on top of the other in a vertical tube which rests on the floor of the tank the main advantage of this type a gauge is that is has no moving parts and therefore no friction.
Tank radar gauge

This type of level gauge consists of a deck mounted transmitter unit a computing unit in the control room and a display unit in the control room the transmitter sends out intermittent radar energy pulses on to the surface of the cargo in the tank echo pulses are reflected back form the surface of the cargo these echo pulse are received at the transmitter unit and conveyed to the computing unit the computing unit converts the time internal between transmission and reception of the radar pulse into depth ullage and displays it on the display unit.
Portable ultrasonic multifunction tank gauging unit

This gauge can measure ullage and interface (oil / water etc) it works on the principles of frequency of a vibrating members in the probe when immersed in different media when the probe is lowered into the cargo tanks the probe vibrating at a high frequency when the liquids cargo in the tank covers the vibrating members the frequency of vibration is changed this change is recognised by the electronic circuit in the portable unit the cause a relay in the amplifier to actuate an audible signal this signal indicates the moment at which ullage must be read off the tape the hand held portable unit may also provided a digital display of ullage. 3.7.0) CARGO HEATING SYSTEMS : Heavy cargoes such as fuel oil becomes very thick and sluggish when cold and in order that such oils can be loaded and discharged without delay it is necessary to keep them heated.
Today the oil trade is so vast and widespread that the average oil tankers may be trading in the tropics one voyage and in arctic condition the next it is therefore necessary that cargo heating system be designed to cope with extreme conditions. Due to the fact that a loaded tanker has completely little freeboard the temperature of the sea water through which the vessels is passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the ships sides and bottom and across the decks rapidly reduce the temperature of the cargo and makers the task of heating it much harder warm sea water however has the severe effects and can be very useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with the minimum of steam. Steam is used to heat the oil in the ships tanks, it is piped form the boilers along the length of the vessels deck generally the catwalk or flying bridge is used for this purpose the main cargo heating steam and exhaust pipes being secured to either the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately below the foot treads at intervals, manifolds are arranged form which the steam for the individual cargo tanks is drawn each tanks has its own steam and exhaust valves which enable the steam to be a shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will generally the main steam lines are well lagged but obviously it would of the tanks at will generally the main steam lines are well lagged but obviously it would not be a practical proposition to the log the individual lines leading form the manifold to the cargo tanks. The heating arrangement in the actual cargo tanks consists of a system of coils which are spread over the bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches form the bottom plating in wing tanks it is the usual practice to extend the coils systems as for as the turn of the bilge, but not up the ships the side. When it becomes necessary to heat cargo, the stem is turned on the individual tanks the coils in the bottom of the tank heat the oil in the immediate vicinity the warm oil rise slowly and is replaced by colder oil thus setting up a gradual circulation system in each tank. The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides while they themselves are subject to the cooling action of the sea not only through the bottom plating but through the ship side. It is therefore advisable to set the steam values so that wing tanks obtain a larger share of the steam than the centre tanks this is particularly true in some of the more modern vessels where the coils are passed through the longitudinal bulkheads between the centre and wing tanks Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 45OC and 65 OC, (45 deg. C) & (65 deg. C) within this temperature range they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the heavier types requires heating are always the subject of special instructions as they very widely in quality gravity and viscosity.
Some types of heavy grade gas oil have high pour points and it is necessary to kept the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid provided the temperature of this type of oils is ten to fifteen degree above its pour point. If offer no difficulty when loading or discharging though a wax skin well form the sides and bottom of the ship. Some crude which contain paraffin wax or have high vapor points are also heated when transported by sea. The main aim should be to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on cooling surfaces. The heating requirement of such cargoes varies considerably. Wax crude with pour points over 38 OC may require heating to 60 OC. Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships as it requires for more heat than the normal cargo systems is capable. For this reason bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo tanks are insulated by wing thanks which are reserved for ballast and by double bottoms under the cargo tanks. This coupled with extra coils arranged on platforms at different level helps to keep the bitumen heated. In ships carrying heavy lubricating oils which requires heating the coils are generally ordinary steel pipe type but vessels carrying crude oil which are to be heated are now equipped with cast iron or alloy coils. The reason for this is that the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive corrosion form the lighter fractions in the crude and ordinary steel pipe does not stand up the corrosive action so well as the other materials mentioned.
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CHAPTER 4
OPERATIONS
4.1.0) LOADING: After the tanker arrives at the berth and prior commencement of loading the tankers will have to provide following information: Details of last cargo carried, method of tank cleaning (if any) state of the cargo tanks and lines. Where the vessels has part cargo on board; grade volume and tank distribution. Maximum acceptable loading rate and topping off rates. Maximum acceptable cargo temperature. Maximum acceptable TVP. Venting method proposed. Ballast disposition and maximum freeboard during operation.
The exchange of information as outlined above will form the base for the conduct of a safe loading operation once the tankers is at the loading berth. The tankers cargo officers and the terminal representative must discuss the proposed operation in detail. The discussion must culminate in an operational agreement which should be in writing between the tankers cargo officer and the terminal representative. The written agreement should contain the following: Ships name, berth date and time. Name and signature of the ship and shore representative. Cargo distribution on arrival Product information namely 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. quantity ships tanks(s) to be loaded shore tanks(s) to be unloaded lines to be used ship/shore cargo transfer rate operating pressure maximum allowable pressure temperature limits venting system
Special electrostatic precautions (if any)
Special precautions to use of automatic shut-off valves Loading plan indicating the sequence in which ships tanks are to loaded with expected timings taking into account 3 3 3 3 3 3 deballasting operations ships/ shore tank change over avoidance of cargo contamination pipelines clearing for loading other operations that may affects flow rate trim and draught of tankers ships stress constraints, The initial maximum and topping off rates Loading stoppage timings (normal & emergency) Venting methods Any bunkering operation planned to run concurrent with cargo operations. The loading plan of a combination carrier must take into account the ships stability constraints and the need to avoid excessive free surface and the loss of stability. Signals of commencement, stoppage, emergency shutdown fire, pollution, emergency or any other emergency should be agreed upon.
An emergency shutdown procedure (ESD) should be agreed between the ship and the terminal and recorded on an appropriate form. The agreement should designate the circumstances in which operation must be stopped immediately. Due to regard should be given to the possible dangers associated with any emergency shut down procedures. After the agreed loading plan has been drawn out the cargo officers must brief the duty officers regarding the same. It is desirable that a copy of the loading plan is made available to the duty officer, the crew on deck attending to the cargo loading operation should also be made aware of the salient features of the loading plan. Prior commencement of loading the shore authorities may insist upon an inspection of the ships cargo tanks especially in the case of clean product cargoes where possible. Inspection of ships tank before loading cargo should be made without entering the tanks. A tank inspection can be made form deck using ullage or sighting ports with, where applicable, the inert gas within the tank at minimum positive pressure. Care must be taken not to inhale vapours or inert gas when inspecting tanks which have not been gas greed. Tanks which are inert may have a blue haze which may make it difficult to see the bottom even with the aid of a powerful torch or strong sunlight reflected by a mirror. Under these circumstances other method such as dipping and measuring of oil having the stripping line or educators to draw form the tank and listen for suction may have to be used. It may sometime be necessary to remove tank
cleaning opening covers to sight parts of the tank not visible form the ullage ports this should only be done when the tank is gas free and the covers must be replaced and secured immediately after the inspection. Where the cargo to be loaded has a cirtical specification. It may become necessary for the inspector to enter the tank. Whenever tank entry is made all due precautions should be taken. Tanks must be tested and found gas before any man entry is attempted. The inert gas plant should be shout down and the inert gas pressure in the tanks to be loaded should be reduced prior commencement of loading unless simultaneous loading of cargo and discharging of ballast form the cargo tanks is to take place. Unless the ships design dictates otherwise cargo must be loaded with the ullage sounding and sighting port securely closed, the gas displaced by the incoming cargo should be vented out to atmosphere via the vent stacks or through the high velocity vent vales. Either of these methods of venting will ensure that gases are taken clear of the cargo. Deck devices fitted to vent stacks to prevent the passage of flame must be checked prior loading to confirm that they are clean, in good condition and correctly installed. The pump room ventilation should be kept operating during loading even if the ships pumps are not running, so that any leakage in the pump room must not cause dangerous gas accumulation. In lining up for the loading, every effort must be made to ensure that cargo pipelines are set in such a manner that cargo need not pass through the pump room to thecargo tanks. In certain tankers it may not be possible to avoid setting lines for loading without passing through the pump room. When all necessary terminal and tankers valves in the loading system are open and the ship has given readiness loading can commence whenever possible. The initial flow should be gravity the shore pumps not being started until the complete system has been checked and the ship advice that cargo is being received in the correct tanks(s). When the pumps have been started the ships shore connection would be checked for tightness prior loading is connected at full rate. Checks for leaks in the pump room and cofferdams tanks not being loaded, double bottoms (if any) ballast tank deck pipelines and over the side should be conducted. If the checks reveal no leaks rate may be increased to maximum. The loading rate should not be changed substantially without informing the ships. many terminals require standby time for stopped pump and it should be understood and noted in the operational procedures form. Before commencing loading at a sea line berth the ship should confirm its full understanding of the communications system which will be used to control the operation a secondary communication system should be provided ready to be brought into immediate action in the event of failure of the primary systems. Before commencing loading through a stern loading line the dangerous area extending not less that 3 meters form the manifold valve aft should be clearly marked and unauthorized personnel should not be allowed within this area during.
The entries loading operation. All openings air inlets and doors to enclosed spaces should be kept tightly closed fire fighting equipment should be laid out and ready for use near the stern loading manifold. A close watch should kept on the sea around ship so that pollution due to leaks are detected earls. The ship should advice the terminal when the final tanks are to be topped off and request the terminal in adequate time to reduce the loading rate sufficiently to permit effective control of the flow on board the ship after topping off individual tanks. Tank filling valves should be shut where possible. Two valves segregation of the topped off tank from other tank should be provided, village should be checked frequently at regular intervals to ensure that overflow do not occur as a result of leaking valves at incorrect operation. The number of valves to be closed during the topping of period should be reduced to minimum the tanker should never close all its valves against a flow of oils as this may lead to serious accident before topping off operations commence at a sea line completion of loading should be done by gravity if pumps have to be used to the end their delivery rate during the standby time should be regulated so that shore control valves can be used as soon as requested by the ship. Control valves should be closed before the ships valves. After completion of loading, responsible officer should check that all valves in the cargo system are closed and that all appropriate tank opening are closed and that all pressure/ vacuum relief valves are correctly set. After oils is refined and in refinery storage tanks it is sampled tested whenever oil is transferred either form a ship to shore storage tanks or the reverse sample tanks place before the operation is commenced and after it is completed. If a tanker is about to load a cargo or oil the ships tanks are inspected and passed as fit or the particular grade of cargo with which it is intended to load her at the same time the oil in the shore tanks is sampled and tested to make sure that it is not contaminated or deterioration form the result of storage after the vessels has started to load. Initial samples are taken in this manner, any drop in specification of the oil will be checked before much of the cargo is loaded if necessary the loading operation can be stopped before too much oil is contaminated with special grade of oil the sampling may be repeated several times during the loading operation. Final samples are taken on the completion of loading operations. They are the final check on the quality of oil loaded and form the basic form which chemists take data for the quality certificate. A copy of this certificate will be placed on board before the vessels sails. Sample can containing samples of each of the grade loaded are sealed and dispatched with the vessels to her destination.
Composite samples are generally taken in the case of cargoes such as crude oil the sample may merely take a portion of the sample obtained form each tank and pour it into a large sample can containing similar samples form other tanks. A meticulous record of the whole loading operation must be maintained. A record of each event must state the time of each event also. 4.2.0) LOADED VOYAGE: During the loaded passage the volume of oil in the cargo tanks will increase / decrease depending upon the ambient temperature. This phenomenon can cause either high pressure or near vacuum conditions in the cargo tanks ullage space during the loaded passage. Tank pressures are monitored if tank pressure reach dangerously high levels, tanks will have to be vented. On all ships if the high pressure develop in the ullage spaces of a cargo tanks it is vented through the breather valve on inserted ships if low pressure develops in the ullage space the inert gas low-low pressure alarm is activated this alarm signal may actuate the control systems for starting the inert gas topping up generator which in turn will compensate for the pressure loss in the cargo tanks by introducing inert gas into the ullage space of the cargo tanks. Where such an automatic system is not available the inert gas topping up generator inert gas plant will have to be manually started and the pressure loss in the cargo tanks must be compensated. If the cargo require temperature control during the loading passage (heating or cooling, this must be carried out). 4.3.0 DISCHARGING Before a tanker arrives at the unloading berth there should be an exchange of information between ship and shore. A large portion of the information mentioned in a chapter will also be applicable in the case of a unloading vessels calling port in addition to the aforementioned information the following information will have to be given by the tanks to the shore authorities. Cargo specification Whether or not cargo includes sour crude oil Any other characteristics of the cargo requiring special attention for example aromatic benzene on lead contents or true vapours pressure (where applicable). Flash points (where applicable) for products and their temperature upon arrival Cargo quantities loaded and disposition in ships tanks Quantity and disposition of slopes. Any unaccountable change of ullage in the ships tanks since loading
Water drop in cargo discharge rates Whether tank cleaning or crude oil washing at berth Approximate time or commencement of ballasting into segregated / permanent ballast tanks and cargo tanks.
The terminal must inform the tanker the following ; Order of discharge of cargo acceptable to the terminal. Nominated quantities of cargo to be discharged. Maximum acceptable discharge rates. Maximum pressure acceptable at the ship/shore cargo connection. Any shore booster pumps that may be on stream. Number and sizes of hoses or arms. Any other shore limitations. Communication system for discharge control including the signal for emergency stop.
On the basis of the information exchanged, an operational agreement should be made between the responsible officer on board and the terminal representative covering the following. Names and signature of the ships and shore representative. Cargo distribution on arrival. Expected cargo distribution on departure. Product information as follows: Quantity Shore tank(s) to be filled Lines to be used ship/shore Cargo transfer rate Operating pressure Maximum allowable pressure Temperature limits Venting system
Restrictions necessary because of: Electrostatic properties Use of automatic shout down valves.
The agreement should include a discharging plan indicating the expected timing and covering the following:
The sequence in which the ships tanks are to be discharged, taking into account: Ship/shore tank changeover. Avoidance of cargo contamination Pipeline clearing fordischarge Crude oil washing/tank cleaning Other operation which may affect flow rates Trim and freeboard of tanker Ships stress limitations Ballasting operations
The initial and maximum discharge rates, having regard to Nature of cargo to be discharged Arrangement and capacity of the ships cargo lines, shore pipelines and tank Precautions to avoid accumulation of static electricity Maximum allowable pressure/flow rates in ship/shore connection Any other limitations
Bunkering operations Emergency stop procedure
A bar diagram is considered to be one of the best means of visualising this plan. The discharge plan of a combination carrier must take into account the ships stability instructions and need to avoid excessive free surface and consequent loss of stability. Ships using an inert gas system must have the system fully operational and producing good quality i.e. low oxygen content inert gas at the commencement of discharge. The inert gas system must be fully operational and working satisfactorily throughout the discharge of cargo or whenever cargo tanks are de-ballast. The cargo discharge must not start until all the relevant cargo tanks are common with the IG main. All other cargo tank openings, including vent valves, are securely closed the inert gas main is isolated form the atmosphere and, if a cross connection is fitted, also from the cargo main. The inert gas plant is then started. Finally the deck isolating valve is open a low but positive inert gas pressure in the cargo tank after completion of discharge will permit the draining of the mainfold drip tray into a tank, and if required, allow manual dipping of each tank. After the agreed discharging plan has been drawn out the cargo officer must brief the duty officer regarding the same. It is desirable that a copy of the discharge plan is made available to the duty officer. The crew on the deck attending to the cargo
discharge operation should also be made aware of the salient features of the discharge plan. Unless the ships design dictates otherwise, cargo must be discharged with the ullage, sounding, and sighting ports securely closed. The volume vacated by the cargo, in the ships tanks should be replaced by inert gas form the ships inert gas system. Pumproom ventilation blowers should be kept operating right through the discharge operation. The lining up for discharge must be done under the direct supervision of a responsible officer. When the necessary terminal and tanker valves in the system are open, and the shore has signified readiness to receive cargo, discharging can commence. The initial flow should be at a very low rate, rate not to be increased untill the complete system has been checked and the shore advises that cargo is being received in the correct tanks(s). When the pumps are started the ship/shore connection should be checked for tightness. Prior pumping at all full rate, checks for leaks in the pumproom, cofferdams, tanks not being unloaded, double bottoms (if any), ballast tanks, deck pipelines and overside. If the checks reveal no leaks, rate may be increased to maximum. The discharge rate should not be changed substantially without informing the shore. Many ships require a stand by time for stopping pumps, this should be understood by the shore personnel and acknowledged in the operational procedures form. Before commencing discharge at a sea line terminal, communication between ship and shore should be tested and fully understood., The ship must not open its mainfold valves or start its pumps until a clear signal has been received form the shore that the terminal is ready. Before commencing discharge through a stern loading line the dangerous area extending area extending not less than 3 meters form the mainfold valve aft should be clearly marked and no unauthorised personnel should be allowed within this area during the entire discharge operation. All opening, air inlets and doors to enclosed spaces should be kept tightly closed. Fire fighting equipment should be laid out the ready for use near the stern loading mainfold. A close watch should be kept on the sea around the ship so that pollution due to leaks are detected early. If during the discharge of main bu8lk of cargo a slop tank or other selected tank is used to receive the drainings of the tanks being stripped, personnel should be alert to the fact that ullage in the receiving tank will be decreasing. In these cases great care should be taken to avoid an interview. During the discharge, flow of cargo should be controlled by the tanker in accordance with the agreement reached with the terminal.
If ballasting of cargo tanks is carried out simultaneously with the discharge of cargo, petroleum gas may be emitted form the cargo tank which is being ballasted. Proper precaution should be taken to ensure that these vapours are vented in a controlled manner. 4.40) BALLASTING AND BALLAST PASSAGE: The size of the oil tankers are the variety of equipment with which such vessels are fitted make it impossible to cover every case. Oil tankers have to take ballast when the tanker is free of all cargo. Ballasting is necessary so as the ensure proper propeller submission and maneuverable trim. Whenever a segregated ballast tanker is required to carry additional ballast due to heavy weather such ballast will have to carried in the cargo tanks. This ballast is put into dirty cargo tanks. Such ballast is heavy contaminated with oil. To comply with the pollution regulation it is necessary that the tanker arrives the load port with either clean or segregate ballast. The produces for a tankers arriving with the clean ballast is described below. (A) Basic method assumptions The procedures described in this section assume that the tanker is using stripping pumps and has a single slop tank. The is the basic load on top method. (B) Sequence of procedures Thoroughly drain cargo tanks and lines on completion of discharge Take on dirty ballast thoroughly flushing cargo lines and pumps initially Wash cargo tanks and collect oily wash water in the slop tank. Flush cargo lines where necessary. Take on clean ballast. Allow dirty ballast to settle Discharging clean part of dirty ballast to sea beyond 50 miles form nearest land Strip dirty part of dirty ballast to slop tank. Flush the stripping system Settle and decant water form slop tank. Discharge clean ballast Dispose of slop tanks residues.
(C) Line draining and taking on dirty ballast;
1.
2.
All Lines containing cargo should be pumped ashore on completion of discharge. This involves opening cross connections between cargo and stripping lines a small bore line is used to discharge the line contents such lines sometime referred to as the MARPOL line. Dirty ballast should then be taken on making sure that a pump started before opening the main sea valves in the process all cargo lines should be flushed.
(D) Tank washing 3. 4. 5. Cargo tanks should next be washed stripped to the slop tank. Case should be taken to ensure that water does not build up on the tank bottom. It should be understood that the quantity of oil discharge to the sea can be minimized by eliminating unnecessary washing thus minimizing the quantity of water brought in to contact with oil within the tanker. As the clean ballast is to be discharge directly to the harbor it is imperative that the tanks in which it is carried are clean.
(E) Setting of dirty ballast 6. Before starting to load clean ballast make sure that the main cargo pumps and lines are clean by further flushing into a suitable dirty ballast tank or slop tank.
(F) Setting of dirty ballast 7. A good oil/water separation of the dirty ballast takes time depending upon the movement of the ships as well as the previous type of oils cargo carried under favorable conditions. It may take no more that 12 hours but in most circumstance 24 hours or more are needed to achieve optimum results.
(G) Disposal of dirty ballast 8. When settling is compete the ballast tanks will contain water with an oil layer on top the bulk of this water may not be discharged to the more than 50 miles form the nearest land with ODMCS operating to ensure that the instantaneous discharge does not contain more than 30 liter per nautical mile. Slow down pumping rates reading of oil increased to avoid drawing surface oil into the suction by vortex or weir effects. Stop discharge of individual taks when a specific oil level has been reached. At this stage the officer in charge should verify that the slop tank can take the volume of dirty ballast remaining Start transferring the remaining dirty ballast into the slop tank using the stripping system. Before final clean up transfer to the slop than the contents of the pump room bilges and any other bilges connected to the cargo stripping system.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
14.
The stripping systems will then be dirty and should be flushed into the slop tank.
(H) Slop tank discharge 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Decanting of the slop tank contents is a critical step in the load on top operation hence the timing of the various steps in the operation is important. The slop must be allowed to settle 36 hours or more should be allowed time permitting. Before starting discharge an accurate interface and ullage reading must be taken to determine the depth of the oil layer. The interface profile may cover several inches in depth hence discharge form the tank must case well before the measured interface is reached. Agitation of the slop tank contents must be kept to minimum to avoid drawing surface oil into the suction by vortex or weir effect particularly as the oil/interface approaches the top of the structural members in the tank bottom pumping rates must be strictly controlled.
The following detailed procedures should be followed, (a) (b) (c) (d) Pump down the slop tank using one main cargo pump at slow speed until a water depth at abut 15 per cent of the tank depth is reached. Stop the cargo then take and oil / water interface ullage reading and recalculate the remaining water depth Resume discharge shows on the slop tank using stripping pump until permissible oil discharge show on the ODMCS display. Further setting of the slop tank contents should be allowed for as long as possible before repeating steps (c) and (d).
(I) Final lines and pump flush 20. As an added precaution after these operations have been completed and while the ship is still more than 50 miles from coast, the lines and pumps which will be used to discharge clean ballast must be thoroughly flushed to sea.
(J) Discharging cleaned Ballast 21. If the tank washing has been carried out as described, there should be no risk of any oil being discharged overboard in the loading port. Nevertheless the ballast outlet should be watched particularly when draining a tank bottom as this is the most likely time for oils to be picked up if this happens discharge must be stopped immediately and the remainder in the tanks stripped to the slop tank.
(K) Disposal of slop tanks residues
22.
Before reaching the loading port the master should advice his owners or chatterers of the amount of retained residues on board these may be disposed of in several ways. (a) (b) (c) Pump is residues ashore at the loading terminal subject to reception facilities being available. Retain the residues on board on board and load the new cargo on top of them. Retain the residues on board but segregated form the new cargo if this is done it may be possible to pump them ashore at the discharge terminal if reception facilities are be available it may however be necessary to carry them forward for more than one voyage.
The process of changing ballast decanting the contents of slop tanks and loading alop tanks is called the Load On Top procedures (LOT) a) TANK CLEANING: On sealing form discharge port of the ship would have been ballasted. If she is a segregated ballast tanker she will be carrying segregated (clean) ballast in her segregated ballast tanks otherwise she will have ballasted (departure ballast) such always as leave empty those tanks in which it is proposed to carry clean ballast (arrival) later ballast in her departure ballast tanks will be dirty ballast as it will contain oil remains to the last cargo she should not arrive at load port with dirty ballast as any effort to pump out ballast (deballast) arrival ballast tanks clean of oily residue and take clean ballast in product carriers when the vessels is changing over grade, it may become necessary to wash (tank clean all cargo tanks of the ship before gas freeing gas freeing a ship for lay-up repairs dry-docks it is necessary to tank clean all the cargo tanks of the ship. Vessels are equipped to machine wash their cargo tanks. Tankers may use protable or fixed washing machines portable tank cleaning machines are connected to bonded rubber hoses which are in turn connected to the tank cleaning line on deck the portable machines are lowered to predetermined levels through a tank cleaning hatch and are operated for a period which permits them to complete atleast one full cycle before being lowered to the next level (stage) in the tank. The portable tank cleaning machine rotates slowly in the horizontal plane and the twin nozzles rotate in the vertical plane. The motive power for this movement is provided by the wash water under pressure. Jets of water under high pressure are projected onto the tank internals. A stripping pump or educator has to be kept operating on suction form the tank to ensure that the tank is maintained dry. Fixed machines are provided on large ships one of popular models has a deck mounted integrated turbine driven power and programming unit that is mounted onto the gun the turbine is driven by the wash liquids under pressure the turbine in turn
moves the gun through a system of gears below deck a vertical stand pipe leads to a single nozzle. If is programmed to perform slow horizontal rotation combined with slower vertical oscillation that is making a helical pattern, a powerful compact jet is direct at the tank surface to blast of sediment that will disintegrate into small particles and be flushed away to the suction points. A stripping pump or eductor bas to be kept operating on the suction form the tank to ensure that the tanks is maintained dry. On crude oil tankers tank which are to take clean or dirty ballast water must necessary be crude oil washed every voyage other tanks will be washed crude oil in a phased manner so as to avoid accumulation of residues clean ballast tanks and tanks needing to be gas-greed for man entry or repairs have to then be water washed. Water washing is done on ballast passage sometime the wash water is does with chemicals to aid the cleaning system incorporating water heater. Tank cleaning should be carried out in a controlled atmosphere. If an Inert Gas System (IGS) is not fitted tank washing should preferable take place in a inerted atmosphere. Gas freeing is carried out to ventilate a tank to a lean atmosphere. GasFreeing should be continued during tank washing because the tank residues will generate flammable vapours during tank cleaning. Tank cleaning may be carried out in open cycle mode or in the closed cycle (re-circulation mode). (4.6.0) CRUDE OIL WASHING (COW) In the face of increasingly restrictive legislation and the need to stop oil pollution completely the oils industry stepped up its search for improved methods of cleaning tanks. The majority of oils tankers are actively engaged carrying crude oil and it is the crude oil tanker that poses the biggest pollution threat. Many experts argued that an international agreement was required to stop all oils tankers carrying salt water ballast in cargo tanks the implication of this line of thinking was far reaching it meant very much higher transportation costs resulting. From the reduced carrying capacity of the individual oil tankers fitted with more segregated ballast tanks. The extensive modification required to existing ships.
Clearly to obtain international agreement on such a controversial matter was for more segregated easy though the idea was seriously considered by IMO early in the 1970s. The oil companies themselves commenced investigating other alternative. It was argued that water was not a good cleaning agent for crude oil and that a solvent was required.
Under controlled conditions a serious of experiment were conducted in Aruba in the Netherland Antilles. After discharging a cargo of crude oil the tanks were washed with naphtha supplied form shore but using the ships tank cleaning machines the atmosphere in each cargo tank was monitored carefully to keep it over righ or above the upper explosive limit thus ensuring that there was little or no risk of an explosion or fire caused by static or other factors. The cleaning operation was very successful and clearly indicated that naphtha was a much better cleaning agent than water. The only problem is that naphtha is expensive and not readily available for cleaning tanks on crude ships. The next step was to try machine washing the tanks with the actual cargo as the crude oil was being discharging. It was no easy matter to persuade terminal and port authorities to permit the tanks to be washed with crude as the cargo was being discharge. Evidence had to be provided that the conditions governing such practices were safe and the benefits were worthwhile. As a result of carefully monitored and controlled experiments the currently accepted methods of tank washing with crude oil during the discharge has been accepted by most oil terminals and port authorities and approved IMO. Limiting conditions for crude washing The develop of crude washing has been gradual. Equipment of various types have been tested and approved or discharge while the result were evaluated. Slowly, If become clear that crude washing during the discharge was a major breakthrough and gradually procedures were developed acceptable to both ship and shore authorities. Today crude oil washing is largely confined to ships fitted with suitable equipment as fallow: a) b) c) The ships should be fitted with an inert system and the ability to control and limit the amount of oxygen in the cargo tanks (an upper limit of 8% is fairly normal). Cargo tanks have to be fitted with fixed in place machines mounted through the deck with suitable nozzles for crude washing and fixed piping with pumps mounted in the cargo pump room and not the engine room. Alarms and monitoring fails safe devices must ensure that the inert gas system exerts sufficient pressures at all times and spillage does not occur from deck piping or slop tank.
Advantage and disadvantage of crude washing The advantage and disadvantage of crude oil washing are summarized below 1) As the tanks are washed with cargo during discharge The crude oil residue left clinging to the ships side and internal members is reduced substantially The build up of sludge and wax in the tank bottoms is largely eliminated. Experience has shown that cargo loss during tanker transportation is reduced as a result of a comparison between ships using C.O.W. and other cleaning by conventional means in other words by washing with crude oil during discharge more of the cargo is discharge ashore the individual tanks are left a lot cleaner. Tanks which have been washed with crude oil require far less cleaning and water washing either for clean ballast or for entry into a repair year. Less dirty ballast and wash water are required after C.O.W.so that potential for pollution is reduced during tank cleaning at sea. With less salt water washing steel corrosion within the cargo tanks is reduced.
2)
3) 4) 5)
There are two main disadvantages of C.O.W. 1) 2) If does not entirely eliminate the need for washing with salt water either for clean ballast or entering a repair year. It also does not nothing to clear and gas-free pipelines within the ship. C.O.W. can only be undertaken when ship is discharging her cargo. It means that the normal discharge of cargo will be prolonged in accordance with the number of tanks washed with normal short facilities the discharge may be prolonged up to 25 per cent of the normal discharge time if the whole ship is washed. If C.O.W. is confined rotationally to clean ballast tanks and other selected thank this figure can be reduced to approximately 10-15 percent of the normal discharge time if berth occupancy time is a problem but obviously the amount of crude recovered will be less.
4.6.1) CRUDE OIL WASHING OPERATION: The main objective of crude washing is to remove crude oil reside form the cargo tanks which can be anything upto 1 percent of the cargo loaded in 300.000 d wt tankers this could be as much 3000 tons if the ship is crude washed effectively this Figure could be cut to around 500 tons (most of which will be entrapped in the pipelines systems and slop tanks). At present crude oil is not a complete substitute for water washing and does not in any way dispense with the need for L.O.T. if water ballast is carried in crude tanks or pumped through cargo piping. Large crude tankers fitted with inert gas system and closed loading and discharging system need to have an individual check list to ensure all safety and Monitoring
equipment as well as the actual and cleaning equipment is working efficiently and free form leaks failure of any of the equipment may justify shutting down crude oil washing for safety or other operational reasons. Obviously it is impossible to discuss all the equipment and methods used to crude wash individual ships varies considerably with the ship and the circumstances. The OCIMF have issued a handbook called guidelines for tank washing with crude oil which outlines procedures governing COW operations. The most poplular method at the present time appears to divide crude oil washing of individual tanks in to two distinct phases Top wash (sometime divided into two separate operation) Bottom wash Top wash This commences when the tanks is still bout one third. Full deck mounted machines are turned on and the exposed areas of the tank are washed with jets of crude under a pressure of 10 to 12 Kg/cm2 according to the type and number of machines used. The exposed areas are left with a thin film of crude while wax and clingage dorp into the bottom of the tank and are discharging with the cargo ashore. Normally a cargo pump is used to provide crude oil to the washing machines. The tank washing machines have an individual capacity of 150 to 175 cubic metres per hour. Bottom wash When the crude oil in the tanks is getting fairly low, washing commences. In some cases this will involve bringing into use machines fitted on mounted or platform near the bottom these machines are normally submerged when cargo is in the tank but are very useful not only to wash sludge off the tank bottoms but to reach areas of the tank secreened by some structural members and farm from being effectively cleaned by the through deck mounted machines. Bottom washing depends largely on the bottom being kept uncovered so that the crude jets can move the sludge. To do this stripping must be effective and if possible should be conducted by use of one or more eductors driven by a cargo pump. The eductor would normally discharge into one or both of the slop tanks. Slop tank level must be carefully monitored. a) USE OF INERT GAS: 4.7.1) General Hydrocarbon gas normally encountered in petroleum tankers cannot burn in an atmosphere containing less than approximately 11% oxygen by volume. Accordingly one way to provide protection against fire or explosion in the vapours space of cargo tanks is to keep the oxygen level below that figure. This is usually achieved using a
fixed piping arrangement of blow inert gas into each cargo tanks in order to reduce the air content and hence the oxygen content and render the tank atmosphere nonflammable. Possible sources of inert gas on tankers and combination carriers are Uptake gas form the ships main or auxiliary boilers An independent inert gas generator
A final oxygen level of 8% or less in a tank will be more easily achieved. If the oxygen content of the inert gas in the inert gas main is considerably less than 8% ideally the inert gas should not contain oxygen but this is not possible in practice. When using flue gas from a main or auxiliary boiler an oxygen level of less than 5% can generally be obtained depending on the quality of combustion control and the load on the boiler. When an independent inert gas generator or a gas turbine plant with after burned is fitted the oxygen content can be automatically controlled within burner usually within the range 1.5% to 2.5% by volume and not normally exceeding 5%. Whatever the source the gas must be cooled and scrubbed with water to remove soot and sulpher acids before supplied to the cargo tanks Uptake gas (flue gas) inert gas system The figure shows diagrammatically a systems of inter gas supply for the cargo tanks of an oil tanker. Gas from boiler uptake passes through a scrubber into which water is sprayed to cool and remove Sulpher oxides, the gas than passes through a spray remove which return collected water to the spray system and then through filters to the blowers, two blowers are provided but only one would normally be operated the other be being a standby unit. The cleaned inert gas at a pressure of 12 to 16 kn/ m2 gauge pressure can be regulated by the pneumatically operated control valves and is distributed to the tanks through the vopurs line to which vacuum breaker and safety valves are normally fitted. Safety feature are, a) b) c) d) High temperature gas valves open/shut indication on control room panel close automatically when soot blowing of the boiler is put into operation. If inert gas temperature gets too high, automatically delivery valves are closed and fans stopped. Low water flow alarm to seals and scrubbers High gas temperature and blower casing high temperature
e) f) g) h)
Scrubbing tower overflow alarm High oxygen content in alarm. Two non return valves and a deck seal are provided to eliminate the risk of petroleum vapours back flow. Instrumentation with alarm is atleast duplicated one set at the scrubber and one set in the cargo control room with possible a third set in the wheelhouse. The advantage of the system are No explosive mixture can form in the tanks Slight reduction in pumping time due to the positive pressure in the tanks. Inert gas systems
a) b)
The inert gas system use boiler flue gas to produce inert gas in the ship boiler. Oxygen combines with all the constituent of fuel oil namely hydrogen carbon and sulpher to produces water vapurs carbon dioxide and sulpher oxides. 4.7.2) INERT GAS GENERATOR The inert gas generated consists mainly of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. If it is first coos the gas then comes in contact with a water spray the resultant gas comprises of Oxygen 2% by volume Carbon dioxide 13% by volume Nitrogen 85% by volume Due to stoichiomertic combustion there is a nearly complete absence of soot the temperature of the cooling water during operation should there be a reduction in the demand of inert gas the excess gas is vented to atmosphere the operation is continuously monitored for flame or water failure and excessive cooling water level. Should emergency conditions arise the generator automatically shuts down and sound an audible alarm. The inert gas generator can also be used for gas freeing in which case the burner is not ignited. The inert gas generator does not other work beside generation of inert gas. It is good for topping up purpose but may have a low capacity which discharging cargo. (large capacity inert gas generator are also available) it is an independent unit and can be used at any time to reduce corrosion of the equipment a low sulpher fuel is normally used. A complete inert gas generator type systems can be installed instead of the inert gas systems but is more expensive than the fuel gas system plus topping up generator besides the size would be considerably large and also large quantities of fule cooling
water and electrical power would be needed. The usual capacity of topping up generator is in the region of 500 cubic mtres/ hour. 4.7.0) PURGING AND GAS FREEING : Gas freeing is the replacement of hydrocarbon vapours in a cargo tank with fresh air. A tank or compartment is gas free when sufficient fresh air has been introduced into it to lower the level of flammable toxic or inert gas to that required for a specific purpose eg hot work entry etc. Purging is the introduction of inert gas into a tank already in an inert condition with the object to reducing the oxygen content of hydrocarbon gas to a level below in which combustion will not be supported if air is subsequently introduced into the tank. Hydrocarbon vapours form a petroleum cargo remain in the cargo tank after cargo discharge on a ship fitted with IGS. These hydrocarbon vapurs are mixed with inert gas on a ship not fitted with IGS. These hydrocarbon vapurs are mixed with air however in an inerted cargo tank due to the lack of oxygen an explosion atmosphere is not created if such a tank where to be gas freed the correct the correct procedures to follow would be to first purge the tank with inert gas until the hydrocarbon content in the tank is below the critical dilution level then only should air be introduced in order to gas free it gas freeing is done by portable or fixed fan. It must be noted that soot particles in inert gas provide them additional ignition hazards in an explosive tank atmosphere. Gas freeing of an non - inerted tank will bring the tank atmosphere within explosive range for some time. Oil tankers are provided with instrument to check oxygen and hydrocarbon contents in the cargo tank. There are two methods of purging Displacement Dilution Displacement In this method it is essential that the replacement gas density is less than the density of the gas being replaced. Ideal replacement requires a stable horizontal interface between the lighter gas entering at the top and the heavier gas being displaced form the bottom of the tank through a purge pipe to minimize turbulence at the interface the gas should enter the tank at a relatively low velocity (3-5 metres/sec).
Because of the low velocity requirements all the tanks atmosphere should be changed at the same time if this method is attempted with high velocity gas entering the tank area could be left undisturbed by the passing gas. Assuming that a gas free tank is being inerted the oxygen content at the purge pipe outlet will remain 21% until the inert gas has reached the lower end of the purge hope. The oxygen content will then fall suddenly to the measured in the inert gas line if gas samples are taken at various levels in the during the inerting operations the oxygen. Dilution In this method a stream of replacement is mixed with the original content of the tank atmosphere and the mixture expelled form the compartment resulting in a progressive decrease in the concentration of the original gas the rate of replacement depend on the flow rate entry velocity of the incoming gas and the dimensions of the tank. The principals of the dilution methods is the turbulent mixing of the compartment contents by a strong jet of replacement gas for best result. It is important that the entry velocity of the incoming jet be high enough to reach the bottom of the tank in a medium of equal density a strong jet on reaching the bottom of the compartment will spread readily outwards and return round the other walls to be entrained in the points of entry. Assuming that a gas free tank is being inerted samples of the gas/air air mixture taken at different levels inside the tank will show nearly the same concentration with the oxygen decreasing as the inerting progresses until the tank is inert. If the dilution method is attempted with the incoming gas entering a low velocity there is liable to be an area of the original atmosphere which will not be penetrated causing improper replacement for this reasons only one tank atmosphere should be changed at a time. Internal structure such as deep transverses may restrict mixing to that areas upon which the incoming gas jet impinges directly and to its immediate surroundings thus any singles jet can be expected to operate effectively over only a limited areas perpendicular to its main axis mixing will be improved by the adoption of multiple jets in large compartment.
CHAPTER 5
MARINE POLLUTION General concern over oil pollution appears to have originated in the first decade after world war I when first the united states are then the league of nations undertook to obtain explicit international agreement of measures to combat oils pollution very few states had in the past sought to extend legislation regarding pollution beyond their territorial sea and no states had unit the present sought to apply prohibitory regulations beyond this area it can therefore be said that almost all prescriptive activity has taken the form of international agreement. In 1926 at the international maritime conference in Washington the problem was discussed in both technical and legal terms but the convention failed to be ratified by any nation. Oil pollution particularly on the shore of the Atlantic ocean was very considerable during the after world war 1 as a direst result of the many torpedoed sunken and other wise damage vessels by the 1950s rising world economy resulted in an ever increasing demand for hydrocarbon fuel and also contributed to a renewed concern over the pollution problem nothing concrete however was achieved unit 1954 when the international convention for the prevention of oils pollution was concluded after a conference in London this convention known as OIL POL 54 entered into force in 1958 and prohibits the discharging of oil mixture from certain vessels in specified ocean area although it has contributed to cleaner seas it did not established any enforcement system other than flag state enforcement the OILPOL convention has been superseded by MARPOL 73/78. 5.1.0) MARPOL MARPOL is the most important international marine pollution convention to enter into effects in maritime history. The original 1973 MARPOL convention attempted to eliminate ship pollution from all sources almost at one stroke unfortunately a number of very complex technical problem primarily related to measures designed to prevent pollution form chemicals were such that may states could neither accept nor implement the new convention in the very ambitious time- frame originally planned however added incentive for accepting and even further strengthening MARPOL arose due to the series of the very grave tanker accidents which took place in 1977/78. This led the IMO to convene an international conference on tanker safety and pollution prevention in 1978 there is of course a very real relationship between major marine disasters and new international measures.
The annexes to MARPOL set out the actual preventive regulation Annex I Pollution by oil Annex II Pollution by noxious liquid substance Annex III Pollution by harmful substance carried in packaged form portable tanks, freight containers or road or rail tank wagons etc. Annex IV Pollution by sewage form ships Annex V Pollution by garbage form ships (5.1.1) MARPOL regulations : The salient points of MARPOL (annex I) are follows: Oil has been defined to mean petroleum in any form including crude oil fuel oil Sludge oil refuse and refined products (other than petro-chemicals). Certain enclosed seas of the world have been called special areas because they are considered particularly vulnerable to pollution these seas are Mediterranean sea, Baltic sea, Black sea, Red sea, Persian gulf and gulf of Oman. All parties to the MARPOL are required to provided adequate facility for reception of residues and oils mixture at oil loading terminal repair ports etc. The terms clean ballast means ballast in tank which since oil was last carried there is has been so cleaned that the discharge form it does not produce visible traces of oil on the water surface when discharging form a stationery ships ballast with a oil content less than the 15 ppm is considered clean. The term segregated ballast means water introduced into a tank completely separated form the cargo oil and oil fuel systems and permanently alloted to the carriage of ballast. MARPOL Annex 1 applies to all tankers above 150 GRT and all other vessels above 400 GRT. Within a special area no discharge except clean or segregated ballast is allowed form the cargo tanks areas of an oil tankers. Out side a special area within 50 nautical miles form land no discharge except clean or segregated ballast is allowed form the cargo tanks areas of an oil tanker. Outsides a special area more than 50 nautical miles form land an oil tanker is permitted to discharge oily water mixture or oil under the following circumstance. The ballast is clean or segregated or (1) Tankers is en route and
(A) (B)
(2) (3) (4)
The instantaneous rate of discharge of oils does not exceed 30 liters per nautical mile, and The total quantity of oil discharged does not exceed 1/1500 (for existing tankers or 1/30000 (for new tankers) or the total quantity of cargo which was carried on the previous voyage and The tankers has in operation discharge monitoring and control systems and slop tanks arrangement as required by MARPOL.
Discharging criteria for machinery spaces; Oil tankers of all sizes and other ships of more than 400 GRT must comply with the following criterion for discharge of oil form machinery spaces. (a) (b) (c) The oil content of the discharge without dilution does not exceed 15 ppm. This is applicable whether the ships is Within or outside the special area Within or outside 12 nautical miles form the nearest land En route or not
The ships must have in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system (ODMCS), oily water separating (OWS) or filtering equipment or other similar installation approved by the administration. For oils tankers, the bilge water should not originate form the cargo pump room bilges or is not mixed with oil cargo residues. New tankers over 20000 DWT must be provided with segregated ballast tanks (SBT) of sufficient capacity to enable safe operation on ballast voyages without the necessity to use cargo tanks for ballasting. Operation in service weather conditions is the only exception. Since SBTs are not used for marrying oil, no oil and water mixtures are produced and no pollution can be caused. Sub division and stability requirement are designed to ensure that tankers can survive assumed hull damage to a degree specified on the ships length. All ships must carry a oil record book in which all operation involving oil and ballast are recorded. This book may be inspected by any state which is a party to MARPOL. SBTs must be protectively located that is they must be positioned in such a way that they would protect the cargo tanks in case of stranding or collision. Crude oil washing (COW) is accepted as an alternative to SBTs on existing tankers, and is an additional requirement for new tankers. With COW, tanks
are washed with the crude oil cargo itself. The solvent action of crude oil provides a very effective cleaning mechanism. Although there is usually a final water rinse the amount of water used is very low. Existing crude oil tankers are provided with an option. This is the clean ballast thanks (CBT) system which dedicates certain tanks only for ballast purposes. Tank stripping, drainage and discharge arrangements should provide efficient drainage of tanks and lines.
(5.2.0) CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION: Marine pollution at sea can occur as a result of; Standing and collision Lightening operations Tank washing and line flushing De-ballasting Marine polluti8on in port can occur as a result of : Leaking hoses and loading arms Over flow form tanks Equipment failure Improperly set sea valves (5.3.0) PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION : The general principles to be observed to prevent marine pollution can be summarized as follows : Regulatory requirements for discharge of oil into sea must be observed. LOT procedure must be observed during de-ballasting, decanting and tank cleaning operations Crude carriers must crude oil wash their cargo tanks to minimize oily waste Ship movement alongside must be restricted by adjusting moorings All pipeline joints and valves must be kept under observation whilst handling cargo. Drip trays must be placed at vulnerable points Strict control must be exercised whilst loading to prevent tank overflowing. All scuppers must be closed to prevent discharge of oil form deck over board. All valve and blanks must be checked prior to cargo operations. Valve not used should be secured if possible. Sea connections not in use should be closed by double valves or blanked off.
If oil is spilt, cargo operations must be stopped and warnings given to all involved. (5.4.0) CHECK LIST The following sub-sections indicate the points which require checking in the various phases of operations. If printed check lists are used they must be ticked off prior to the commencement of the operation shown in the following sections. (1) Prior to discharge of cargo or dirty ballast check that:
All sea and overboard discharge valves connected to the cargo systems are effectively closed. Loadisng drop valves are closed, stripping discharge into main lines are closed to deck and in the pump room cargo manifold valves not in use are closed cargo manifold connection which will be used are blank flanged and oil tight. All deck scuppers are effectively plugged where oil booms are available they are ready for quick launching in the event of an oil spill unless otherwise fitted drip trays of ample capacity are in position below the cargo manifold connections adequate supplies of a dry absorbent materials are readily available. Centrifugal cargo pumps are started segregated whenever possible to their respective discharge line and working satisfactorily. Before opening discharge manifold valves this is to ensure that where non return valves are not fitted ashore and the shore tanks are situated on high ground oil does not gravitate in to the oil tankers perior to commencement of pumping by the ship. (2) Prior to ballasting through cargo systems
Check that Cargo manifold valves used during discharge are closed and the connections blanked. Cargo pumps are started prior to the opening of sea valves to establish a positive vacuum in the sea suction line thereby preventing the escape of any oil may be contained in the section of line between sea valve and cargo pump. All deck scuppers are effectively plugged. (3) Prior to completion of ballasting check that;
Pumps are slowed down sufficiently in advance of tanks being filled in order to avoid overflow from the tanks being ballasted. Ample ullage space is left in the tanks on completion of ballasting, even if this means having to top them up to the normal ullage following departure form the berth. (4) Prior to loading bunkers or cargo, check that:
A system of signals covering commencement of loading, slowing down, completion of cargo and an emergency stop are clearly understood and agreed between the oil
tanker and facility. All sea are overboard discharge valves connected to the bunker cargo system are effectively closed. Manifold valves not be used are closed. Bunker/cargo manifold connections not to be used are blank flanged and oil tight. All deck scuppers are effectively plugged where oil booms are carried, they are ready for quite launching in the event of an oil spill. Drip trays of ample capacity are in position below the bunker cargo manifold connections. The bunker cargo hoses and loading arms are in good condition, properly connected and supported correctly. Adequate supplies of a dry absorbent material are readily available. The valves to the tanks designated to receive the first of theincoming bunkers cargo are open and the piping system is lined up correctly. (5) During loading of bunkers or cargo check that;
Tanks which ave been loaded are effectively closed and that the finishing ullage in maintained whilst other tanks are in the process of being loaded. Bunker/cargo hoses, loading arms and connections are not leaking. All personnel involved have been instructed never to close down against the incoming bunkers/cargo, unless permission to do so is given by the facility staff. Pressure is relieved on tanks which are being topped up either by slowing down the rate of the incoming oil or by controlled opening up of the next set of tanks to be loaded. Amply warning is given to slow down the rate of the incoming oil during the final state of loading, and a similar warning is given before the flow is finally stopped. (6) On completion of loading bunkers or cargo check that:
Manifold valves are closed. Hoses and loading arms are drained before disconnection. On disconnecting, hoses and loading arms are blank flanged or otherwise sealed before being removed ashore. Manifold connections are blank flanged as soon as hoses and loading arms are disconnected. The bunker/cargo system valves are secured together with all bunker/cargo tank openings. (5.5.0) AIR POLLUTION: Hydrocarbon vapour collects above the surface of the oil. Vapour/air mixture is displaced during loading, gas freeing and tank washing operation. Hydrocarbon gas and inert gas may be considered air pollutants. No measures are usually taken against air pollution. Some port have regulation restricting air pollution form oil tankers. Certain displacement and containment measure can be taken to restrict air pollution.
CHAPTER 6
SAFETY ON OIL TANKERS Danger can always be present in a tanker. Most of the risk is removed by the designer. What risk remains can only be avoided be taking care. This care must be taken by everybody aboard the ship. To be able to avoid risk you must know what they are, This lesson warns you of the risks. It explains how they can arise It instructs how they can be avoided by you. Terms are explained as we go long. If you already understand the terms, please be Patient-your ship mate may not, In this booklet petroleum means crude oil or products made form it. Petroleum can be handled safely Care is absolutely necessary-throughout the whole operation. To be able to exercise care you need to know some thing know about the petroleum. The characteristics of any substance which determine how it sill behave under various conditions are known as the properties of the substance. We shall deal with some of the properties of the petroleum. You ought to know these Evaporation: All liquids can change or be changed into vapours the process of changing into vapours called evaporation it is usual to refer to such. Vapours: Vapours as gases petroleum forms petroleum vapours. Burning: Liquids petroleum does not burn it is petroleum vapours that burns danger increase according to how readily a protect evaporates the lower the temperature at which a petroleum can evaporate the more dangerous it is. Mixtures : A petroleum vapours can only burn if it is mixed with oxygen. Oxygen is an important part of the air around us when we refer to a mixture in this booklet we normally mean a mixture of petroleum vapours and air. Flammable: You will recognise the word flame in flammable. Flammable means capable of being set on fire a mixture, which can be set on fire is a flammable mixture.
Flammable Limits : It is possible to have mixture containing so little or so much petroleum vapours that it cannot burn mixtures that have reached these strengths have reached the flammable limits. Flammable range : Between these flammable limits there lies a quite narrow range of mixture which are flammable this is known as the flammable range. Flammable limits and Flammable range are sometimes referred to as the Explosive limits and explosive range. Most substances when heated expand. Evaporation causes rapid expansion. Burning of the vapours causes heating and even greater expansion. If the expansion is confined pressure may increases still further. Flash points : The lowest temperature at which is liquid gives off enough vapours to form a flammable mixtures is called its flash points. Some products evaporate very rapidly they produce plenty of gass at normal pressure and temperature gasoline is an obvious example vapours is nearly always present a hot enough spark will set it on fire a word we shall use instead of set on fire is ignite. Volatile : Liquids which evaporate readily are known as volatile liquids any petroleum with a flash points below 60 deg. c (140 dig. F) or over are classed as non volatile gas oil and diesel oil are two examples. Petroleum mist : Petroleum sprayed form a leaking pump or pipe may form a mist of droplets flammable mixtures may be where you least expect them they are easily ignited. Spark can set them off. Smoking : Smoking can be very dangerous secret smoking is more dangerous than controlled smoking there may be flammable gas in a toilet (for instance) gas may have been drawn into the ventilation systems a crafty smoke could be disastrous. Smoking in bed : Smoking in bed is foolish anywhere it is dangerous in any ship it can be disastrous in a tanker. Lighters : If a cigarette lighter falls it may operate. Matches : Non-safety matches are a menace even safety matches may light accidentally. Torches : Ordinary hand torches (flashlights) sparks. Domestic equipment : Domestic equipment which can ignite flammable vapours include
3 3 3
shavers radios electric cooking appliances
Obey all instruction about smoking

The captain will say where smoking is allowed ONLY SMOKE WHERE IS ALLOWED In some ports the local authorities prohibit smoking any where in the ship, there are heavy penalties for breaches of these regulations.
NEVER SMOKE IN BED

If you are allowed a cigarette lighter on board Keep it in your cabin Keep in safety matches away form tankers keep all matches away from areas where you are not allowed to smoke. Use only special torches (flashlights) issued on board. Keep your electric shaver and radio in you cabin. If there is any possibility of flammable vapours entering galleys or accommodation. Do not use electric appliances. Aluminium : If aluminium or one of its alloys is knocked against rust there may be flash of heat the heat can be enough to ignite a flammable mixture. Aluminium paint : Aluminium paint over rust may be just as dangerous if that is struck the same heat may be generated. Rubbish : Dirty waste rage sawdust and other rubbish is dangerous if left laying about heat may be generated within bundles of rubbish the heat may be enough of ignite flammable mixtures if may become hot enough to set itself on fire the fisk in increased if materials is left near steam pipes. Cathodic Protection : Some ships tanks are fitted with cathodic protection. This is a methods of controlling corrosion metal slabs known as anodes are fitted into tanks they are on supports if an its support is struck or dislodged a spark any result. Electric tools : Electric tools and appliances used in tank cleaning and gas freeing can product sparks. 3 if they are not to approved design 3 if they are defective Tools : Metal hand tools could cause sparks by
3 3 3
striking together striking against other metal being dropped
non sparking tools could be hazardous as ferrous metals might become embedded in the materials.
Never drag aluminium or light metal objects across decks never allow heavy objects to strike rusty areas which are covered with aluminium paint. Never take portable equipment made of aluminium or its alloys into 3 cargo tanks 3 pump rooms 3 any space where flammable mixtures may accumulate
When removing scale or sludge never us scoops or shovels made of aluminium or aluminium alloy. Clear away all waste range waste range sawdust etc after use never knock anodes or their support in tanks when tank cleaning or gas freeing using portable equipment. 3 use only approved type 3 report any defects in this equipment In any area where there may be explosive vapours 3 prevent metal hand tools form knocking together 3 prevent metal hand tools form striking other metal 3 prevent metal hand tools form being dropped 3 lower metal hand tools into tanks in a canvas bag bucket 3 do not use so called non sparking tools Static electricity : Static electricity is generated within tanks is several ways 3 when filling with clean oil products 3 when washing with water jets 3 when steaming tank The products or water mist or steam becomes charged with electricity. will try to discharge to earth in time it will discharge itself harmlessly ships hull while sufficient charge remains a hot sparks capable or flammable mixtures may be produced there are several ways in which involving the introductions of metal objects into a tank. 3 3 Objects which are caused sparks include hand held metal ullage tapes metal sample cans The charge through the igniting. A this happen
3 metal sounding rode 3 ungrounded portable washing machines A static charge and spark may also be caused by carbon dioxide or steam being discharge at a high rate form a nozzles. Tank washing : Flammable gas remain in a tank after it is discharged this presents a hazards particularly during washing unless appropriate steps are taken a materials which conducts electricity is known as a conductive materials or a conductor. When a petroleum which is above its flash points is being loaded into gas free tanks the following must be made of non conductive materials 3 hand held ullage tapes 3 ullage sticks 3 sampling container At least thirty minutes must elapse after completion of loading before hand-held metal or other conductive equipment. An officer authorise the operation of fixed carbon dioxide or steam fire fighting equipment. When tank washing is an progress 3 keep tank opening closed as much as possible 3 do not introduce metal objects into the tank other than a grounded washing machines 3 do not disconnect tank cleaning hoses form their hydrants unit have removed form the tank. Toxicity : Fire is the most potent danger in the tankers. There is another risk with petroleum and that is toxicity, which can be defines as the ability of a substance to harm when it reaches to the sensitive part of the body. Effects of vapour : Petroleum vapours are toxic in nature. Their effect includes: 3 Dullness of sense of smell 3 Diziness 3 Headache. 3 Irritation of eyes. The dizziness and loss of responsibility are like drunkenness Your speech may become slurred. Increased quantities will lead to3 Staggering 3 Confusion 3 Loss of consciousness 3 Large quantities may result 3 Arrest of breathing 3 Arrest of heart 3 Death
Do not inhale petroleum vapour. When ullaging or sampling, 3 face across the wind 3 close all tank opening as soon as you finish It may be necessary for you to keep a watch on a man taking ullages. You may have to wear breathing apparatus when ullaging certain cargoes. A responsible officer must ensure that it is safe for you to enter any enclosed space by3 testing the atmosphere, or 3 specifying the life sustaining equipment you must wear and 3 taking all necessary precautions for your safety or escape This applies to 3 cargo tanks 3 pump rooms 3 holds used for carrying packed petroleum and of course to other enclosed spaces. Such as 3 double bottoms 3 cofferdams 3 peak tanks Ventilation must be continuous while you work in packed cargo holds. I ventilation or work is interrupted regard the space as unsafe. In some petroleum there is a dangerous gas called hydrogen sulphide with the smells of rotten eggs. It quickly dulls your sense of smell first your smell it then you dont you may suppose it is no present this may not be the case. Because they dull your sense of smell petroleum vapors are doubly dangerous if you can not smell them you may think. They are not present you certainly cannot judge how much there is.
The absence of smell does not mean the absence of petroleum vapors
We have said that some of the ill of breathing petroleum gas are a bit like drunkenness you will know some people who can hold their liquor they seem to be able to drink a lot without showing any sings of it that does not mean that the stuff in the bottle is any less potent. Tolerance of vapors : Some people can tolerate petroleum vapors better than other. Respirators : Anti gas respirator such as Military type are completely ineffective in the atmosphere deficient in oxygen and should never be used in enclosed spaces. Never rely on seeing ill effects in others as warning in deciding about the presence.
Protective clothing : Protective clothing is often necessary which protects form possible harm. It may be simply gloves or goggles, or a complete suit with helmet Protective clothing should be kept clean and dry. Special breathing apparatus may be issued depending upon circumstances. Protective mist : These can be harmful, in large quantities may cause irritation of lungs which may lead to pneumonia. Skin contact : Petroleum can damage your skin light petroleum kerosene for example can cause dermatitis heavier petroleum can block your pores an cause a rash you may hear this rash referred to as oil acne. Some heavy petroleum lubricating oil for instance can produce more serious long term effects in contact with the skin over long periods they may cause skin cancer there is particular risk or cancer of the Scrotum. Petroleum socked under clothes are obviously dangerous. Lead poisoning : Lead compounds are added to some petroleum ships tanks can become contaminated by these consecutive voyages carrying such cargoes can dangerously contaminate a tank. Reduced Oxygen : Your brain has to have an adequate supply of oxygen. The oxygen content of the air in a tank can become reduced oxygen reduction is particularly likely after inert gas steam or carbon dioxide has been used 3 in any unventilated spaces Carbon dioxide : Carbon dioxide is much heavier than air it will naturally linger in spaces into which it is injected. 3 remove it as quickly as possible 3 use soap and water or a specially prepared cleanser 3 so not use harsh soaps they may cause dermatitis 3 3
If you use waste of rage to remove splashes

change them frequently do not keep them in your pocket
wear clean work clothes whenever possible particularly underclothes shower at the end of each days work remove at traces of oil form your skin. When working in tanks which have contained leaded petroleum for consecutive voyages 3 3 wear full protective clothing do not inhale any vapours
3 3 3 3
avoid contact between your skin and any sealed sludge remove immediately any scale or sludge which touches you skin wash the contaminated skin with lots of soap and water maintain ventilation
After carbon dioxide extinguisher have been used in any confined or partially contained spaces 3 3 only enter under officer supervision only enter wearing breathing apparatus and a life line.
Presence of gas : There may be flammable gas 3 after loading or discharging volatile petroleum 3 after loading non-volatile petroleum into a tank which is not gas free. It may be in the tank and it may be at any opening to the tank. Pressure in spaces declared gas free : Vapours in tanks may be under pressure. Further gas may be released 3 after loose scale or sludge is disturbed 3 after a heating coil is opened up 3 when a pipeline or valves is opened up 3 when a cargo pump or valves is opened up when a cargo vent line is opened up In other spaces : Flammable gas may be in any space into which volatile petroleum could leaked example are, 3 pump room 3 cofferdams 3 ballast tanks 3 empty compartment next to tank used to carry low flash points petroleum Gas free : A space declared gas free is free of gas at the time of the test the space may not remain gas free remember further gas may be released. The absence of flammable mixtures does not necessarily mean the spaces is gas free and safe remember toxic gases are not necessary flammable. Before you open a tank any pressure must be relieved this has to be done very carefully under controlled conditions. Opening must be closed as soon as possible. A space which is shown by test instrument to be free of flammable or toxic gas is started to be gas free a spaces may be certified gas free and be A space may be certified gas free and be 3 safe form men and cold work
safe for the work
Cold work includes jobs which can cause sparks or enough heat to ignite any nearby vapours eg hammering. Hot work is so hot that it can actually cause dirty parts of tanks to give off vapours eg welding this vapours can of course be ignited by the work. Test will be carried out by the responsible officer. He will have instruments which can measures the pro portion of flammable gas in the atmosphere it can indicate the presence of toxic gas he use a special mater test atmosphere likely to contain gases which are very toxic in small quantities. Dispersion : Most petroleum vapours are heavier than air. After they escape form tank openings and vents during loading they will tend to lie around the decks form there they can enter doors and openings facing the cargo tanks they may be drawn into machinery spaced and air conditioning intakes winds moving at about 5 M.P.H. or less cause little air movement little air movement means greater danger flammable or toxic mixtures may not disperse they may accumulate in deavy concentrations about decks they may persist at some distance form where they arise. Quite rich concentrations can however be dispersed by quite gentle breezes completge and rapid dispersion requires clear path for the air. Eddies : If you watch a river flowing past a support of a bridge you will see on the downstream side currents swirling in behind the support moving air behaves in a similar way air flowing swiftly past superstructure swirls in around it this happens especially on the lee side the passing air causes a slight drop in pressure some of the moving is drawn in swirling currents these currents are known as eddies. 3 3 3
During cargo operations a wind blowing may

contain petroleum vapours form eddies containing petroleum vapours deposit dangerous gas near superstructure
Vapours must be excluded form galleys. If this is not possible electric galley equipment must not be used vapours must be excluded form machinery spaces flammable mixtures must be kept form the electrical equipment in machinery spaces generally during cargo operations the main and auxiliary machinery has to be ready for immediate use if may not be possible in certain weather conditions to guarantee that vapours will not enter machinery spaces in these circumstances cargo work will be stopped until condition change. Whenever large amount of petroleum vapurs accumulate above the decks cargo operations will be suspended.
During cargo operations or whenever dangerous vapours present about the deck3 strictly obey orders regarding closing doors and ports 3 strictly carry out instructions regarding ventilation and air conditioning intake 3 use doors giving access to accommodation form the dise rather than from the cargo tank area 3 keep closed all ports and windows facing the cargo tanks area. Do remember eddies Where they form depends upon wind force and direction a wind blowing from forward to aft may help gas to accumulate aft of any superstructure in its path. A wind blowing across the ship will tend to deposit gas on the lee side. Spillage : Petroleum spilled is dangerous petroleum it can evaporate quickly toxic vapours may be released in large quantities flammable mixtures may form rapidly the sea may become polluted. Hoses and connections : Defective hoses can mean spillage. Defective or badly made connection are dangerous sudden strain on hoses can cause 3 Defective hoses 3 Defective connection Carelessly stowed gear is potentially defective gear Pollution : Of course, pollution is not a personal hazard or a source of risk to the ship. At least we might not think so at first sight. In fact it is a very real threat to the lives and livelihoods of all of us. Even relatively small amounts of petroleum discharged in to the sea particularly in coastal waters-can have a terrible effect on sea life in the area. Its effects on the shore line are only too well known. Life may have started in the ocean, do not let it come to an end there at the rates at which tankers load and discharge today, a severe leakage of petroleum is capable of depositing tones of pollutant overboard of seconds. Do not use hoses which appear defective avoid bending flexible hoses. Hoses should be suspended form suitable equipment metal. Flow booms should be regularly inspected for tightness connections and absences of strain on hinged joints. Sometimes an extension is fitted to manifold connection care must be taken to avoid excessive strain to the manifold. When a tanker is berthed alongside the moorings must be tended. This is to check movement of the vessel and prevent strain on cargo connections.
Should a cargo connection leak 3 report it to a responsible officer immediately avoid spillage of manifold 3 if no permanent fitting of provided use a portable drip try. During loading and discharge 3 all scuppers must be plugged 3 regularly check over board to ensure that no petroleum is escaping 3 sea valves and discharge overboard which are not being used should be shut and lashed. There is much more detailed information about safe operations available in your ship. Ask the chief officer he can help you with information and advice he will make them freely recommend books. 6.2.0) OTHER CARGOES: The majority of tankers service carry petroleum. It is for this reason that this booklet has concentrated on these cargoes but you will know that there are other commodities carried in tankers we through it might be of interest to you if we mention one or two points about some of them. Books and other publications will be made available dealing with the carriage of such cargoes as vegetable oils, chemicals and liquified petroleum gas. The international chamber of shipping and of course individual owners will give details of the risk and precautions associated with these commodities. Vegetable and animals oils and facts: Vegetable and animal oil and fats oxygen form the air and they can cause a deficiency of oxygen in tank this is most likely to happen when a tank been closed for a long time after the oils and fats have been discharge the residual oil or fat on the structure in the tank starts of decompose (rot) when it does, this not only absorbs oxygen but also produces various toxic and asphyxiating gases such as methane carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. These gases may also be present in pump room or pump room drain tanks where oils and fats of this nature remain it is there fore dangerous to enter a tank which has been used for vegetable or animals oils or fat unless it is being continuously ventilated with special attention being given to the lower reaches. Chemicals : The simply word chemicals covers a vast complex range of commodities there are already well over there hundred which can be carried at sea in liquids form. Many of these are entirely harmless others can be extremely dangerous if mishandled the risk
and precautions are basically similar to those for petroleum there are however further problems. Some chemicals contain enough oxygen to enable tem to burn without additional supplies form the air. Some chemicals are very dangerously toxic some must be inhaled even in the smallest quantities other can be absorbed through your skin into your bloodstream and so reach vital organs these must be obviously never be allowed to touch your skin. Special protective clothing is essential with corrosive chemicals goggles will be necessary a complete suit with helmet may be required. All chemicals have hazards warnings which describe how dangerous they are in a number off respects by proper attentions to these warning your officers can tell exactly what precautions are necessary. Liquefied Gas: Elsewhere is this book we have mentioned liquid forming vapours by evaporation to do this is liquids use heat this may seem strange when we think of very volatile liquids with flash points below 0oc (like gasoline for instance) yet even they are using heat as they evaporate to change form liquids to pure gas the liquids actually boil. Do you know how most domestic refrigerators work. A gas is compressed under pressure now it it cooled and turns to liquids if this liquids allowed to expand it evaporates boils and turns to has once again. The expansion is made to take place in pipes inside the cabinet of the refrigerators the only place form which the evaporating liquids can steal its required heat is form the contents of the refrigerators they cool down as they give up this heat. The expanded gas goes back to the compressor to start its journey all over again. When a liquefied gas escapes it evaporates (and boils) very rapidly indeed. It therefore needs a great deal of heat in a hurry it can only obtain this its form its surrounding metal air anything in the vicinity of the leak has to give up heat to the e evaporating liquids they become very cold. If you Approach the leak or touch its immediate surrounding without adequate protection you can be quite severely injured. The injury is like a burn in fact it is called a frost burn. Never approach a liquefied gas leak without adequate protection do not touch bare metal surrounding such a leak. Additional tip:
Incidentally this refrigeration effects is the reason why when you are using a portable carbon dioxide fire extinguishers you should never hold metal canister the rapidly expanding Co2 is taking heat from its surroundings so rapidly that the container dangerously could hold the shielf around the nozzle it is made of an insulating materials. Emergency procedures : It may necessary for you to enter an atmosphere which is unsafe. (you may have to rescue somebody) before you enter a tank a responsible officers will ensure that 3 you wear breathing apparatus 3 you wear a lifeline 3 the lifeline is properly tended 3 a watch is kept on you 3 a mean of communication exists 3 a systems of signals is agreed 3 you are everybody else involved understanding the signals He will also make sure that 3 a back up or rescue squad is equipped to render assistance 3 resuscitation equipment is on hand if you have to keep watch or tend a lifeline 3 keep a careful watch on your mater below 3 if you can not see them 3 call out to them from time to time 3 make sure they answer If they do not answer repeat calls or if they show signs of drunkenness or unusual behavior 3 3 3 RAISE THE ALARM IMMEDIATELY DO NOT ATTEMPT TO RESCUE THE VICTIM BY YOUR SELF DO NOT BECOME A VICTIM
6.3.0) SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND ITS USE: 6.3.0) Resuscitator: Because of the urgency with which resuscitation has to be applied in medical emergency. It is very important technique in the early stage of such an emergency resuscitation apparatus it available if relives the rescue of a great deal of the labour involved in manual or oral technique and greatly increase the patients changes of recovery owing to the fact that poisonous gases are expelled form the system more rapidly and after effects of oxygen starvation are reduced and complete recovery is
accelerated resuscitation apparatus usually providers oxygen or an air/oxygen mixtures. There are several types of hand operated resuscitator available which deliver air to a face mask when a bellows or bag is compressed by the operator. One such type is the ambu bag. When resuscitation with an oxygen enriched air is desirable tubing form an oxygen cylinder can be attached to an oxygen inlet connection. A spring loaded ball type non-return valves in the tubing prevents air escaping form the bag when the oxygen supply is disconnected and the resuscitator is used to provide atmosphere air only. Automatic resuscitators provide artificial respiration on a positive pressure principle and supply oxygen or an air oxygen mixture to the patient with this type of apparatus both the inflation and deflation of the patients lungs and automatically controlled by the resuscitators and so these sets can be used without the need for oral or manual artificial respiration is should be emphasized however that manual or oral artificial respiration should always be commenced immediately until the apparatus is available and should be continued until the apparatus operator is ready to take over. Several versions of fully automatic resuscitators are available but all operate on more or less similar principles. Essentially the apparatus consists of an oxygen cylinder) usually about 340 liters capacity) to which is fitted a valves assembly consisting of a cylinder contents gauge and pressure reducing valves regulations these govern the flow of oxygen from the cylinder into the automatic timing or supply mechanism. (6.3.2) The minuteman Resuscitator : In this apparatus, the face mask is attached to a piece of apparatus known as a midget resuscitator which is pressure sensitive, i.e. it cycles in response to positive and negative, pressure built up in the patients lungs. A rotatable ring round the body of the midget resuscitator enables the operator to very the mixture of air and oxygen delivered the patient, and the composition of the gas mixture determines the speed at which the resuscitator cycles. With the ring in the fully anti-clockwise position, a mixture of 50 percent oxygen (including atmospheric oxygen) and the maximum cycling speed is obtained. As the ring is rotated, the volume of air entrained by the oxygen stream is progressively reduced, thus increasing the oxygen percentage and reducing the cycling speed until, in the fully clockwise position, 100 percent oxygen is delivered at the minimum cycling rate. 100 percent oxygen should not normally be used for more than 3 or 4 minutes at a time, as prolonged periods may result is respiratory acidosis. The mixture control should be returned to the 50 percent oxygen position as soon as possible.
The selected mixture flows into the patients lungs until the designed positive pressure is reached, when the direction of flow is automatically reversed, negative pressure assisting in the withdrawal of gases form the lungs. The exhaled gases are expelled through the expiratory port in the midget resuscitator until the designed negative pressure is reached, when the direction of flow is again reversed to start a new inspiratory phase. An inspirator is also provided which may be used to clear the mouth, throat and nose of mucous or blood before resuscitation is started. Airway tubes in two different sizes (for adults and children) are for use when the patient is unconscious and not breathing, to prevent the tongue form falling back and closing the windpipe. 6.3.3) Self Contained Breathing Apparatus: Self contained compressed-air breathing apparatus is designed on he open circuit system. In this the exhaled air discharged to the atmosphere and is not purified for reuse as in the oxygen closed-circuit system. The main item of which compressed-air apparatus consists are : (a) (b) (c) A cylinder containing air under pressure A respiratory system which incorporates a means of reducing the pressure of the air form the cylinder and a supplying the wearer on demand with air according to his requirements, and A face mask. The principles of operation are the same for all types of sets; the difference between one make of set and other lies in the design of the reducing valves and the face mask.
In the majority of the cases, the apparatus has a single cylinder, and the standard one contains bout 1200 liters air (usually 1240 liters, but rounded off convenience) when fully charged to a pressure of 132 atmospheres. Large capacity cylinders are now available and are coming into more general use. These are two types. (a) (b) A cylinder holding about 1800 liters when fully charged to 200 atmospheres A special ultra-lightweight cylinder which contains 2250 liters when fully charged also to 200 atmospheres. In all cases the cylinder is carried on the wearers back attached to a suitable frame which forms part of the harness for securing the apparatus to the wearers body.
The respiratory system may consist of a single stage reducer or a two-stage reducer with the second stage incorporated in the face mask. The duration of compressed-air apparatus varies considerably according to the amount of work done and lung capacity of the wearer. When walking at the rate of 6.4 Km/hr., a man breathes about 37.3 liters of air per minute. At this rate of work a
full cylinder (1240 liters) will have duration of about 32 minutes. Fire fighting operations, however, often demand a higher rate of work and consumption of air may be as high as 60 liters per minute even more for short periods, in which case the duration of the set would be correspondingly less. The average consumption is assumed to be 40 liters per minute and compressed air breathing sets with cylinder containing 120 liters of air are generally referred to as having a nominal duration of half an hour. Because compressed air sets using the standard cylinder have a comparatively short duration can be affected appreciable by the wearer and degree of work he is doing, it became customary to fit a low cylinder pressure warning device in the form of whistle. However, since operational procedure for the use of breathing apparatus require a 10 minute safety margin, the full duration of set is reduced by this amount. As an additional safeguard to ensure that a wearer does not exceed the working duration of his set, low cylinder pressure warning whistles must be fitted to all sets regardless of the capacity of the cylinder carried. The provision of the whistle in no way relieves a breathing apparatus wearer of his responsibility to refer to his gauge from time to time to assess the contents of his cylinder. Particularly, as hard work may reduce the working duration time of the set as this is based on average consumption. The whistle should be regarded solely as an additional safeguard to ensure that men will not continue working beyond the safe working duration of their sets. The Seibe Gorman Mark IV compressed-air breathing apparatus is the development of the three previous makes which were produced after world war. There are three main parts, comprising. A full vision face mask, air respiratory system consisting of two stages for reducing the pressure of the air form the cylinder end automatically supplying the wearer with air as required and the cylinder with a nylon carry harness the weight of the apparatus is approximately 13.6 kg. The face piece, or mask, is of moulded rubber with a wide vision perspex visor or window. It incorporates a lung operated air demand valve which is the second stage of the two stage reducer. The mask has an adjustable head-harness and includes a neck strap or lanyard which lies around the neck for supporting the mask when it not being worn on the face. The apparatus consists of an alloy steel cylinder, a cylinder valve with protective rubber ring (2), a duraluminium carrying frame (3) to which is attached adjustable shoulder strap and body belt, a main air supply tube (4), first stage reducing valve (5), ny pass valve (6), air supply tube (7) from the first stage reducing valve, the face mask (8) second stage reducing valve (or demand valve) (9), pressure gauge tube (10), clip for pressure gauge (11), pressure gauge (12), pressure gauge shut off valve (13) and the low cylinder pressure warning whistle (14).
The pressure of the air form the cylinder is reduced by means of the tow-stage reducing valve, the first and second stage being shown in their relative position on the apparatus. It is important that every man who is required to wear breathing apparatus is not only adequately trained and thoroughly understands the procedure in all its aspects, but also that he faithfully and meticulously carries out the procedure at a fire or other incident, for on each member of the team or crew will depend the success of the operation in hand. It is not only questions of the mans own safety, but also that of his colleagues with whom he may be working at the time or subsequently. It is not sufficient for man to be completely confident in there ability to work with breathing apparatus in hazardous conditions; they must also have full confidence that the control the support arrangement out side the compartment are beyond reproach the whole success of any breathing apparatus job is team work, and it is incumbent on all those engaged in the operations to insure that they are competent and full conversant with their breathing apparatus and with the procedure for its use. Breathing apparatus is worn during a fire or whenever it is necessary for any person to enter a compartment whose atmosphere is toxic or will not sustain life. The general principle should be that breathing apparatus is worn whenever its use will facilitate the location and extinction of a fire, at any other incident when, by wearing breathing apparatus, discomfort and possible injury to a persons respiratory organ can be avoided. The decision to order breathing apparatus to be worn will depend on a number of factors, such as the volume and type of smoke; whether the atmosphere is deficient of oxygen, or whether the atmosphere is toxic. Breathing apparatus must always be donned and started up in fresh air, and men standing by should make sure that they remain in fresh air until required. The practice of men rigging in fresh air but not putting on their face masks, or not putting in their mouthpieces, until they reach hazardous atmospheres and then starting up their sets, is extremely dangerous and must not be permitted. The mouthpieces or face mask of a breathing apparatus set is designed to prevent any external atmosphere form entering the respiratory systems and it is exceedingly dangerous for the mouthpiece or face mask to be removed when the wearer is in the smoky or toxic atmosphere. Once the mouthpiece or face mask remove smoke carbon dioxide or other toxic gases can enter the respiratory system. 6.3.4) Portable oxygen meter: Most gases are diamagnetic (gases which are repelled by a magnet) while a few gases such oxygen nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide are paramagnetic (gases which are attached by magnet.
Oxygen is strongly paramagnetic and this is used for measuring the oxygen concentration. Figure illustrations the principal of an oxygen gauge the Analyser consists of a body resembling a dumbbell, which suspended by a tension wire together with a mirror. The bulbs are placed between the poles of strong permanent magnets and the dumbbell can be turned horizontally with the wire as axis through the whole magnetic field. The turning of the dumbbell will be a function of the density of the paramagnetic gases in the measurement chamber when a change in the gas mixture in the chamber takes place the dumbbell and the mirror will turn the light beam which is reflected by the mirror will move over to scale of the oxygen gauge the reading device is usually some what more sophisticated but is in principle the same as described. 6.3.5) Explosimeter: An instruments for measurement low concentration hydrocarbon gases (0-100% lel) is called explosimeter. The Explosimeter works on the principle tghat a lean mixture of petroleum gas in air burns on the surface of a hot platinum forming carbon dioxide and hydrogen vapours the oxygen in the air is necessary for the combustion to take place and we shall get misleading results if we try to measure the concentration of petroleum gases inert gas by the mean of an explosimeter misleading are also obtained if try to measure a rich or explosive gas mixture. It is important to emphasize the instrument cannot be used in inert atmosphere or to measure an explosive or too rich gas mixture. The calibration gas may be 50 percent LEL (lower explosion limit) Butane in air butane is suitable for control of explosimeter which are used for measurement of crude to be calibrated for such gas. Riken GP-204 is a portable battery operated gas measuring instrument for measurement of flammable gas in air below the LEL. Samples of air which may contain flammable gases or vapours are sucked through the instrument by means of suction bellows the content of flammable gases affects a heated filament (d detecting element) which forms apart of a Wheat stone bridge measuring circuit besides the measuring filament this circuit includes a compensating filament c and two fixed resistances R1 & R2.
The flammable gases or vapurs in the air sample are oxidized and burn at the surface of the measuring filament d and the evolution of heat causes a change in the resistance of the platinum wire which gives rise to an imbalance in the whetstone bridge this imbalance cause the needle of the of the direct current instrument m to give readings corresponding to the content of the flammable gas in the sample this instrument has a scale graduated 0-100% LEL deflection of the needle corresponds to the lower explosive limit for isooctane/air mixture (when is marked on the scale this is the calibration gas for the instrument. The filament part which consists of a encapsulated compensating filament and a similar measuring fitment must be replaced if setting of the needle to zero is not possible by the Zero Adj. Button or if the valves read not reach the value of a calibration gas sucked into the instrument during calibration. Directions for use (GP-204 combustible gas detector) In a gas hazardous area the instrument should always be in a carrying case and strapped to it (1) To insert the batteries (in a gas free area) the bottom plate is removed two batteries are inserted into the holder and the bottom plate is screwed back on before the instrument is strapped to the carrying case. The function switch is turned ON. The lamp should then illuminate the scale. The switch is set to VOLT ADJ. to check battery voltage. Left and turn the VOLT ADJ button for adjusting of the needle to the VOLADJ line on the scale. If this is not possible new batteries must be inserted. The function switch is turned back on. The suction hose is closed and the suction bellow is squeezed if the suction bellow remains collapsed for more than one minutes the suction circuit and the instrument may be used if not there is a leak in sample gas with air the leak must be detected is liable to read too valves due to dilution of fresh air the suction bellows are squeezed four to live times of flush the instrument the indicator needle should now read almost zero the zero adj button is raised and the needle adjusting to exactly zero. The instrument is now adjusted and ready for use. It may be set to OFF And brought to where it should be used.
(2)
(3)
(4)
The calibration potentiometer issued to set the needle to the correct value when introducing a known concentration of flammable gas (calibration gas) the potentiometer is located under the lop cover on the right hand side the top cover is attached to the case by four screws. 6.3.6) Combustible gas indicator: (Thermal Loss Meter)
The measuring principle is based on the heat-loss form a wire situated in a chamber inside the measurement chamber the sample gas cools the hot wire. The cooling will increase with the increasing petroleum gas concentration in the test gas mixture cooling of the wire changes the electrical resistance of the wire, this can be read on the instrument indicator. The thermal loss meter is some what similar to the explosion meter, but the measurement system is quite contrary. In the thermal loss instrument we are measuring the cooling of the wire while in the explosion meter a combustion of the petroleum gas increases the temperature of the filament. Thermal loss meter are used to detect the % volume of combustible petroleum gases in an atmosphere which is deficient on oxygen (e.g. inerted cargo tanks). MSA Tank scope is a typical example of a thermal loss meter. MAS Tank scope; The dry cells are replaced removing the bottom of the instrument case. This is held in place by two socket screws which can be removed by using the key supplied with the instrument. Care must be taken to ensure that the calls are inserted in accordance with the instruction at the bottom of the case. It is essential that the replacement is carried out in a safe area. Tow spare filaments are located below the top panel. Lift the panel straight up using the control knob as grips. The detector filament housing is marked white and the compensatory filament housing is marked black. The spare filament housing are marked spare. Good practice recommends that both filaments are replaced at the same time. Instruction of Use: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Place sample intake in fresh air Turn selector to check Pull straight up on switch Squeeze aspirator several times to purge the tank scope of any gases remaining form previous checks. Adjust volts adjust. Knob until meter pointer reads at check Turn selector to gas Adjust meter pointer to zero with zero adjust Knob turn knob slowly. Please end of sampling line in area to be tested. Place end of sampling line in area to be tested. Aspirate sample through tank scope until highest reading obtained.
(10) (11)
Cease aspirating and observe meter reading. Repeat operations 1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 frequently, before each gas sampling operation.
6.3.7) Toxic gas indicator On tankers and combination carriers we may have health hazardous gas concentration in certain spaces inert gas used on such ships contains a number of such hazardous gases. Before entering a tank compartment which has been filled withinert gas it has to be gas freed for man entry. Tests have to be carried out to ensure that the compartment is free of noxious gases one of the gases in inert atmosphere is carbon monoxide which even after long periods of ventilation by fresh air may be found in hazardous concentration in tanks and hold tankers carry sour crude oils contain hydrogen sulphide which is highly toxic. The toxic gas detector will have to be used in circumstances where it is doubted that any particular atmosphere contain dangerous levels of toxic gases. 6.3.8) Drager multi-Gas detector: This is one the most common types of toxic gas detector used on board oil carriers. Immediately prior use the ends of the gases of the glass sampler tube are broken, the glass tube is inserted into the bellows unit and the sample is aspirated through it. The reaction between the gases being sampled and the chemicals contained in the tube causes a change in colour in the tube usually readings are taken from the length of the colour stain against scale indicators marked on the tube (usually expressed in parts per million). Some tubes however require the colour change to be matched against a control provided in the instruction as tube have a shelf life they are stamped with a date of expiry the tubes are also accompanied by an instruction leaflet which lists is any gases which may interfere with the accuracy of the indication. It is important that the bulb is aspirated correctly to obtain reliable results.
6.4.0) EMERGENCY MEASURES : All tankers should have producers ready for immediate in the event of an emergency the producers must anticipate all type of emergency which might be encountered in particular activities of a tanker or terminal. The main purpose of the produce will be respond to fire. Other possible emergencies are: Hose of pipeline bursts Cargo overflow
spillage of oil pump room flooding men overcome with gas in enclosed spaces parting of vessels moorings bad weather blackout co2 discharge in engine room or pump room high level oil residue in overboard discharge high level of oxygen in inert gas
Planning and preparation are essential for dealing successfully with emergencies the following information should be readily available. type of cargo and its disposition location of other hazardous substances general arrangement plan ship stability information location of fire fighting equipment and instructions for its use
All members of the ships crew should known the location of safety equipment such as : breathing apparatus protective clothing approved portable electric light instruments form measuring oxygen and other gases content first aid kit tank evacuation equipment fire fighting equipment with instruction for its use
A plan for dealing with an outbreak of fire explosion or other emergency must be prepared on board. All crew members should be familiar with their duties according to the emergency plan. The main component of an emergency organization are : a command center located in a normally safe position of the vessels with communication facilities and equipment readily available. An alternative emergency position identified for use if the command center cannot be occupied Identification of a senior officer as being in control during if the emergency with another senior officer appointed as his deputy
formation of the second emergency team to assist the emergency team as necessary. Formation of a an engineering emergency team under the control of a senior engineer.
Realistic drills should be undertaken at regular intervals. To acquaint the crew with the emergency organization procedures and duties. In an emergency important actions to take would include Giving audible and visual warning that an emergency exists by means of bells whistles klaxons or other audible devices or flashing lights. Advising the command centre of the location and nature of the emergency. Stopping any cargo related operation; closing valves and openings in tanks. Removing any craft alongside
Personnel in the vicinity of an emergency should take appropriate action to try and control the incident until the emergency team can take over. All equipment which may be needed in an emergency must be maintained in good order and always be ready for use the important items are. Fire fighting equipment Breathing apparatus Protective clothing Alarm systems Communication systems Arrangement plans
6.4.1) In case of fire on a tanker at sea/anchor : Ships personnel who discover an out break of fire must immediately raise the alarm indicating the location of fire the ships fire alarm must be operated as soon as possible. Personnel in the vicinity of the fire should apply the nearest suitable extinguishing agent to attempt to limit the spread of the fire to extinguish it and there after to prevent re-ignition if they are unsuccessful their actions should very quickly be superceded by the operation of the tankers emergency plan. Any cargo ballast tank cleaning operation should be stopped immediately and all valve closed any craft alongside should be removed.
After all personnel have been evacuated form the vicinity all doors openings and tank apertures should be closed as quickly as possible and mechanical ventilation should be stopped. 6.4.2) Fire or explosion on a berth : (a) Action by ships personnel If a fire breaks out on tanker while at a terminal, the tankers must raise the alarm by sounding the recognized alarm signal consisting of a serious of long blasts on the ships whistle each ballast being not less than 10 seconds in duration unless the terminal has notified the ship of some other locally recognized alarm signal all cargo bunkering or ballasting operations must be stopped and the main engines and steering gear brought to a standby conditions. Once the alarm has been raised, responsibility for fighting the fire on board the ship will rest the master or other responsible officers assisted by the crew. The same emergency organisation should be as used as when the ships is at sea with an additional group under the command of an officer or senior rating to make preparation where possible for disconnection metal arms or hoses form the manifold. On mobilization of the terminal and when applicable the civil fire fighting forces and equipment the master or other responsible officer in conjunction with the professional fighter must make a united effort to bring the fire under control. (b) Action by terminal personnel On hearing a tankers sounding its fire alarm the person in charge of a berth must immediately advice the control room. The control room personnel will sound the terminal fire alarm inform the port authority and commence shitting down any loading discharging bunkering or deballasting operations which may be taking place. The terminal fire emergency plan will be activated and this may involve shutting down cargo bunkering and ballast handling operations on ships at adjacent or neighboring berths all other ships at the terminal should be informed of the emergency and where considered necessary make preparations to disconnect metal arms of hoses and bring their engines and steering gear to a state of readiness. Where there are fire fighting personnel the terminal control room will summon them to assist in fighting the fire until decision is made by the person in overall control whether or not to use them to assist in the evacuation of unaffected ships. The terminal control room will be responsible for summoning any outside assistance such as the civil fire brigade, rescue launches, medical aid and ambulances police harbour authority and pilot.
(c) Action by vessels : Should be a fire explosion occur on a birth the ship or ships at the berth must immediately report the incident to the terminal control room by the quickest possible method (VHF/UHF/telephone contact sounding ships siren etc.) shut down all cargo bunkering deballasting and tank cleaning operations and drain all arms or hoses ready for disconnecting.
Appendix
This appendix the ship / shore safety check list guidelines relating to the check list and a specimen letter for issue by the terminal representative to masters of tankers at terminals
SHIP /SHSORE SAFETY CHECK LIST

Ships name ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Berth--------------------------------------------------- port----------------------------------Date of arrival ---------------------------------------- time of arrival---------------------INSTRUCTION : The safety operations requires that all should be answered affirmatively by clearly ticking ( ) the appropriate box if an affirmative answer is not possible the reason should be given agreement reached upon appropriate precautions to be taken between the ships and the terminal where question is considered to be not applicable then a note to that effect should be inserted in the remarks column.

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CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

Tank radar gauge

Portable ultrasonic multifunction tank gauging unit

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW

OIL TANKER FAMILIARIZATION COURSE

CENTRE FOR MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING, LUCKNOW