Running head: Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools: An Evaluation Of The Effectiveness Of The TaMHS Classroom Practice Recommendations And Future Directions

Richard Skelton

Words: 10,843

Abstract

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Improving childrens mental health is increasingly recognised throughout many national and international policy objectives. This is because, not only does poor mental health lead to considerable long-term social and emotional consequences, but it also affects childrens capacity to achieve academically. Schools have been highlighted as an appropriate and effective medium through which childrens mental health can be promoted. In particular, the recent Targeting Mental Health in Schools (TaMHS) project sets out twenty two classroom practice recommendations which it considers can promote childrens mental health. While some of these recommendations are evidenced, others lack a clear evidence base. Accordingly, the unique and comparative impact that a change in each of these recommended areas can anticipate in promoting childrens mental health is unclear.

To address this issue, two hundred and fifty five children completed questionnaires measuring their current levels of mental health and perceptions of current classroom practice in relation to each of the TaMHS recommendations. By employing Exploratory Factor Analysis, I uncovered seven classroom practice factors which meaningfully summarise these recommendations. Subsequently, the extent that each of these seven classroom practice factors affect childrens levels of mental health was quantified through employing Structural Equation Modelling. This demonstrated that four classroom practice factors relating to Lesson Clarity, Rules and Boundaries Clarity, Teacher Expectations, and Positive Teacher Feedback and Environment each reliably predict childrens levels of mental health. The mediating psychological mechanisms through which these classroom practice factors affect childrens mental health are discussed, and future directions for practitioners are presented.

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools

Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Contextual Importance........................................................................................................... 8 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 8 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 8 Sampling and Participant Recruitment .................................................................................. 9 Mental Health Measurements ............................................................................................. 10 TaMHS RPO Measurements ................................................................................................. 11 Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 12 Ethical Principles And Considerations .................................................................................. 12 Results...................................................................................................................................... 13 Preliminary Statistics ............................................................................................................ 13 Group Comparisons. ........................................................................................................ 13 Representativeness Of Sample. ....................................................................................... 13 Factor Analysis...................................................................................................................... 14 Data Screening. ................................................................................................................ 14 Factor Analysis Methods. ................................................................................................ 15 Assumption Verifications. ................................................................................................ 16 Interpretation. ................................................................................................................. 17 Structural Equation Modelling ............................................................................................. 18 Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................ 24 Mental Health. ................................................................................................................. 24 Classroom Practice Domains. .......................................................................................... 25 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 25 Prevalence And Importance Of Promoting Mental Health In Schools ................................. 25 Factor Analysis...................................................................................................................... 26 Structural Equation Model ................................................................................................... 26 CPDs and their Mechanisms to Promote Mental Health ..................................................... 28 Importance of Perceived Control for Positive Mental Health. ......................................... 28 Mechanisms Through Which CPDs Influence Mental Health. ......................................... 31 Implications For Educational Psychologists ......................................................................... 35 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 36 References ............................................................................................................................... 38

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools: An Evaluation Of The Effectiveness Of The TaMHS Classroom Practice Recommendations And Future Directions Introduction Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community (World Health Organization, 2001b). The concepts of mental health and well being are considered synonymous, often reflecting different ends of a continuum (Adi, Killoran, Janmohamed, & Stewart-Brown, 2007). Recently, the term mental well-being has been used to capture this continuum, and is defined as encompassing emotional wellbeing (e.g. happiness and confidence, and the opposite of depression/anxiety), psychological wellbeing (e.g. resilience, mastery, confidence, attentiveness/involvement and the capacity to manage conflict and to problem solve), and social wellbeing (e.g. good relationships with others, and the opposite of conduct disorder, delinquency, interpersonal violence and bullying) (Adi et al., 2007).

Despite this definition of a spectrum of functioning, the concept of mental health has had a primary focus on minimising difficulties of mental disorders (World Health Organization, 2001a; Huppert & Baylis, 2004). Between 8-10% of primary school aged children display a clinically significant form of mental disorder (Meltzer, Gatward, Goodman, & Ford, 2000b; Green, McGinnity, Meltzer, Ford, & Goodman, 2005), the most common of which are conduct disorders, emotional disorders, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Green et al., 2005; Adi et al., 2007). Promoting positive mental health is of considerable importance since poor mental health can lead to serious psychiatric conditions (Loeber & Farrington, 2000) and have adverse social outcomes in adulthood (Collishaw, Maughan, Goodman, & Pickles, 2004), including higher rates unemployment (Perkins & Rinaldi, 2002), involvement in crime (Bardone, Moffitt, Caspi, Dickson, & Silva, 1996), and a lower likelihood of establishing supportive relationships (Quinton, Andrew, Barbara, & Michael, 1993).

Schools are arguably one of the most appropriate and effective settings to promote childrens mental health (Lister-Sharpe, Chapman, & Stewart Brown, 1999; Weare, 2000; Dent & Cameron, 2003; Stewart-Brown, 2005). Central to this is the recognition of the

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools considerable quantity of time children spend at school and the important development of relationships with peers and adults in this setting. Policy literature relating to promoting mental health in schools frequently discusses promoting social and emotional development (see DfES, 2004a; 2004b), particularly emphasising prosocial behaviour and self-esteem (Weare, 2000). In schools, children with mental health difficulties are often described as experiencing Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (SEBD). Indeed, school staff often recognise children with mental health problems, even when their difficulties are not substantial enough to qualify for a diagnosis. Accordingly, the prevalent nature of these problems necessitates teachers to spend a large proportion of their time on classroom management and discipline, at the detriment of promoting learning opportunities of the whole class. Such a focus on children with SEBD is a also major determinant of teacher stress (Friedman, 1995; Travers & Cooper, 1996), and has a subsequent negative impact on teachers interactions with other children (Capel, 1997; Bibou-Nakou, Stogiannidou, & Kiosseoglou, 1999). Promoting childrens mental health is evidently highly important; to help the individual with difficulties, but also to minimise the impact that these difficulties have on others. Beyond these direct effects, the importance of positive mental health is highlighted by its strong association with enabling children to achieve their academic potential (Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, & Walberg, 2004).

Recently, the benefits of promoting mental health in schools has been emphasised by the development of a variety of programmes (see Konu & Lintonen, 2006; Stewart-Brown, 2006; Adi et al., 2007). In particular, the recent government backed Targeting Mental Health in School project (TaMHS) (DCSF, 2008) aims to support the holistic development of mental health in schools for children and young people aged five to thirteen years old. There has been considerable investment in this project, with all English Local Authorities implementing the TaMHS model from April 2010.

Specifically, the TaMHS model includes three distinct waves. Firstly, at its core are whole school approaches to promote the mental health of every child in school (wave 1). This encompasses whole school frameworks, and strategies for effective classroom practice. Secondly, skills-focused interventions are aimed at children with moderate difficulties or in circumstances which pose a risk to mental health, in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools progression to more severe mental health problems (wave 2). Thirdly, TaMHS guidance advocates targeted therapeutic interventions for children with recognisable mental health needs (wave 3). This research focuses on the TaMHS recommended strategies for effective classroom practice at wave 1.

In particular, the TaMHS classroom practice recommendations specify the delivery of a specific social and emotional learning curriculum (e.g. Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning; DfES, 2005), and strategies for classroom practice. This focus is in accordance with evidence that demonstrates that the greatest improvements in mental health from schools occur when curriculum based programmes are reinforced by comprehensive changes to every day classroom practice, including positive teacher interactions with children (Haynes & Comer, 1990; Battistich, Schaps, Watson, & Solomon, 1996; Nelson, 1996; Nelson, Martella, & Marchand-Martella, 2002; Wells, Barlow, & Stewart-Brown, 2003; Wilson, Lipsey, & Derzon, 2003; Hawkins, Kosterman, Catalano, Hill, & Abbott, 2005; Adi et al., 2007). Adopting a whole-school approach aims to strengthen the capacity at the level of the individual, the classroom and the whole school (see Weare, 2000; Rowling & Martin, 2002; Wells, Barlow, & Stewart-Brown, 2003; Jane-Llopis, Barry, Hosman, & Patel, 2005).

The TaMHS recommendation to promote classroom practice anticipates some considerable benefits over exclusively targeted approaches. Firstly, children with mental health problems who are receiving targeted interventions make the most progress when their school environment is also conducive to promoting their mental health (Weare & Markham, 2005). Secondly, for those with moderate mental health difficulties, or at a higher risk, an environment which promotes mental health provides greater resilience and reduces the likelihood of developing more serious mental health difficulties (Meltzer et al., 2000b). Thirdly, if only those with severe and identifiable problems are targeted, then the social factors that create and maintain the incidence rates of mental health difficulties in the first instance are not changed (Tennant, Goens, Barlow, Day, & Stewart-Brown, 2007). In contrast, promoting whole-school classroom practice targets these risk factors, and promotes resilience factors to anticipate a direct improvement in every childs mental health (Durlak, 1995). These benefits are recognised by the Every Child Matters agendas (DfES, 2004a; 2004b) which advocates a shift in focus from reactive services dealing with the

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools consequences of multi-faceted problems, to a proactive response addressing the diversity of needs in every classroom. TaMHS Practice Domains (PDs) Effective teaching

TaMHS Recommended Practice Objectives (RPOs)

Having a positive attitude * Developing a pleasant social and emotional climate in the classroom * Having high expectations of what pupils can achieve * Lesson clarity * Effective time management Strong lesson structuring * The use of a variety of teaching methods Using and incorporating pupil ideas Using appropriate and varied questioning Classroom rules and their careful formulation and explanation to pupils * Starting lessons promptly Seating arrangements which are conducive to the type of learning taking place Maintaining momentum and leaving sufficient time at the end for reviewing, planning and any other instructions

Effective classroom management techniques

Effective behaviour management strategies

Defining pupil behaviour in observable terms * Selecting target behaviours to increase * Use of immediate teacher praise as a reinforce * Avoiding over-reaction * Using effective rewards and punishments * Teachers who are perceived as being understanding, helpful and friendly and who show leadership without being too strict * Teachers who are perceived as being enthusiastic about what they are teaching Teachers who are perceived as having positive expectations of pupils achievement * A clean and attractive physical environment, including displays of pupils work

A positive classroom climate

Table 1. The TaMHS Practice Domains (PDs) and corresponding Recommended Practice Objectives (RPOs). RPOs marked with an * indicate that there is direct evidence to support these recommendations.

Specifically, the TaMHS project anticipates that improvements in the following Practice Domains (PDs) will result in a direct improvement in every childs mental health functioning (DCSF, 2008): 1) Effective teaching, 2) Effective classroom management techniques, 3) Effective behaviour management strategies, 4) A positive classroom climate. As illustrated in Table 1, to achieve each of these PDs, TaMHS have specified a number of

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Recommended Practice Objectives (RPOs). These recommendations are comprehensive and duly reflect that the determinants of mental well-being are complex, interacting from different levels of the individual, and their interactions with peers and teachers. Certainly, the principles of the TaMHS project highlight a crucial opportunity to provide the foundations on which every child can fulfil their social, emotional and academic potential.

However, while intuitively appealing, there is no evidence to indicate that the TaMHS PDs are an accurate, reliable or constructive formulation of their corresponding RPOs. In addition, and perhaps more importantly, while some of the TaMHS RPOs are evidenced as having a positive effect on mental health, others lack a clear evidence base. The absence of evidence for the RPOs can be observed by reviewing the TaMHS documentation itself, and also recent reviews of the literature (e.g. Wells, Barlow, & Stewart-Brown, 2003; Weare & Markham, 2005; Adi et al., 2007). The evidence that does corroborate individual RPOs is briefly reviewed here, and Table 1 highlights those RPOs which hold supporting evidence.

To start, there is some evidence supporting those TaMHS RPOs in relation to the classroom climate. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that a supportive classroom climate is associated with a decrease in the incidence of both internalised and externalised mental health difficulties (Kasen, Johnson, & Cohen, 1990; Havlinova & Schneidrova, 1995; Kuperminc, Leadbeater, & Blatt, 2001; Sorhaindo, 2006), as well as higher levels of achievement (Scheerens & Bosker, 1997; Muijs & Reynolds, 2005b; Creemers & Kyriakides, 2006). In particular, a number of the TaMHS RPOs place emphasis on the teacher providing a good social and emotional role model for children through having a positive attitude, and forming good relationships with the children. Indeed, central across definitions of positive mental health is the opportunity to establish enduring, positive interpersonal relationships (Adi et al., 2007). In their qualitative review of what children perceive to be important in affecting their mental health, Shucksmith, Spratt, Philip & McNaughton (2009) highlighted that relationships with teachers were the focus of many account (see also Sabo, 1995). In particular, teachers are seen to promote childrens mental health through being supportive towards social and emotional difficulties (e.g. friendly, warm and caring) (Reddy, Rhodes, & Mulhall, 2003; Skevington, Birdthistle, & Jones, 2003; Shechtman & Leichtentritt, 2004; Spratt, Shucksmith, Philip, & Watson, 2006), being helpful with work difficulties (Shucksmith

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools et al., 2009), and treating every child fairly (Reddy, Rhodes, & Mulhall, 2003; Shechtman & Leichtentritt, 2004; Spratt et al., 2006). In contrast, difficult interactions with teachers can trigger negative feelings, which can exacerbate feelings of poor self-worth (Shucksmith et al., 2009). For these reasons, it is clear that the quality of student-teacher relationships within the school environment is important to the development of childrens positive mental health (Felner, Brand, Adan, Mulhall, Flowers, Sartain, & DuBois, 1993; Birch & Ladd, 1997; Connell, Gambone, & Smith, 2000).

Evidence also supports the TaMHS RPOs that relate to teachers ability to hold high expectations of children (see Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000). Indeed, an individuals self concept is inextricably linked to others perceptions and consequential interactions (Osterhom, Nash, & Kritsonis, 2007). For instance, holding a low expectation of a child can create a selffulfilling prophecy by providing them with fewer opportunities for success and subsequently less positive reinforcement (Brophy & Good, 1986; Smith, Jussim, Eccles, Vannoy, Madon, & Palumbo, 1998; Madon, Smith, Jussim, Russell, Eccles, Palumbo, & Walkiewicz, 2001; Jussim & Harber, 2005). For instance, teachers with low expectations of individual children have been demonstrated to give erroneously lower marks to these children (Graham & Dwyer, 1987) and mistakenly judge their social behaviours as more negative than their peers (Ysseldyke & Foster, 1978; Burdg & Graham, 1984; Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1990).

The use of teachers praise is also highlighted as one of the TaMHS RPOs. Praise occurs when teachers positively acknowledge pupils work or behaviour (Hitz & Driscoll, 1989; Blote, 1995). In particular, praise is highly valued by children (Marsh, 1990; Craven, Marsh, & Debus, 1991; Dohrn & Bryan, 1994; Burnett, 1996) and has been demonstrated to increase childrens satisfaction at school (Baker, 1999) and self-esteem (Hitz & Driscoll, 1994), and decrease inappropriate behaviours (Merrett & Wheldall, 1990). However, the TaMHS recommendations do not recognise that praise can be categorised into two distinct types; that which focuses on childrens ability, and that which focuses on childrens effort. In turn, the type of praise received determines whether a child subsequently attributes successes and failures to their ability or effort (Mueller & Dweck, 1998; Henderlong & Lepper, 2002).

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools There is also some modest evidence demonstrating that behavioural difficulties can be reduced in the classroom by employing greater lesson structure (Trice, 1980), and through clearly and consistently explaining classroom rules and boundaries (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Eccles, 2004; Grossman, 2004; Kerr & Nelson, 2010). While not consistently highlighted in reviews of school based mental health promotion, the concept of clarity was highlighted by one review as being important to promote childrens mental health (Weare & Markham, 2005). This is referred to as childrens experiences of rules and boundaries, and understanding what is expected of them and what they can expect from others.

The lack of clear evidence for the other TaMHS RPOs may partly be because, where such evidence is available, it often derives from evaluations of whole school programmes which incorporate a range of strategies, including a specific curriculum (see Stewart-Brown, 2006). Accordingly, the unique impact that a change in each RPO can anticipate in promoting childrens mental health is unclear.

In addition, where evidence is available to indicate that an RPO may promote mental health, there has been no direct comparison of these to each other to indicate which are most effective. Accordingly, the comparative extent that an RPO may promote mental health is unknown. It is therefore apparent that there is currently insufficient evidence for schools to be confident that investing resources to promote each of the RPOs would be an efficient or equitable way to promote childrens positive mental health.

I first sought to determine the integrity of the TaMHS PDs and assess whether the RPOs can instead be summarised and encapsulated by more meaningful PD construct labels. Doing so has the additional potential to highlight what common underlying mechanisms the RPOs may be targeting. I subsequently adopted a naturalistic approach to address the aforementioned issues through evaluating a cross-section of current classroom practice in relation to each of the TaMHS recommendations, and quantifying how the PDs directly predict childrens levels of mental health. Indeed, by determining the extent that these newly established PDs predict positive mental health, practitioners have the evidence to inform the allocation of resources to target areas which will anticipate the greatest improvements in childrens mental health.

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Contextual Importance Promoting positive mental health is a recurrent theme throughout the local Children and Young Peoples plan (2006-2010), and a core vision within this is to promote children and young peoples health and well-being. By identifying the most efficient and equitable manner in which classroom practice can promote positive mental health, this research contributes to achieving this. Furthermore, since schools will have the opportunity to be provided with individualised findings, this offers the information with which each school can affect change in the most efficient manner. In addition, following consultation with the local Behaviour Management and Development Team, this service has expressed interest and support in the research, and intend to utilise the findings on a local level in future service development.

This research has particular utility for Educational Psychologists to further understand the factors which most effectively and efficiently promote childrens mental health. Utilising this information provides Educational Psychologists with the opportunity to work systemically with schools, or with children with substantial mental health difficulties, to develop interventions which anticipate the greatest improvements of their mental health.

Research Questions

RQ1. Can the TaMHS RPOs be summarised and reconstructed in a meaningful manner? RQ2. To what extent do the restructured PDs predict levels of childrens mental health?

Methodology The TaMHS RPOs will inherently be observed along a continuum of practice in existing classrooms. This allows us to assess existing practice in relation to the individual RPOs without requiring schools to be participating in the TaMHS project at the time of study. This research will carry out two questionnaires with children aged 9-11 years, to measure their levels of mental health and assess their perceptions of each of the TaMHS RPOs. Factor Analyses will be utilised to reconstruct the TaMHS RPOs in a more meaningful manner (RQ1). These newly found constructs are termed Classroom Practice Domains (CPDs). Subsequently, Structural Equation Modelling will be employed to determine the extent that the newly found CPDs can predict childrens levels of mental health (RQ2).

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Sampling and Participant Recruitment To achieve a reliable factor analysis model, Comrey and Lee (1992) suggest that sample sizes of less than 100 are considered poor, over 200 are fair, and over 300 are good. Alternatively, Kass & Tinsley (1979) recommend 5 participants per variable, up to a total of 300, wherein the test parameters become stable irrespective of the participant to variable ratio. With 46 measured variables (see below), this equates to a minimum sample size of 230 (see also Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988a; MacCallum, Widaman, Zhang, & Hong, 1999).To estimate the appropriate sample size required to undertake the proposed Structural Equation Modelling, GPower software was utilised (see Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007; Mayr, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Faul, 2007). Considering the parameters of =.20, =.05, and an anticipated medium effect size of significant parameters, f2=.13 (Cohen, 1988), the required sample size is 85. However, employing a more conservative sample size of 250 would allow for sufficient power if the effect size is found to be as small as f2=.049.

Regarding the age of participants, from the ages of 8 years, language and reading skills are typically sufficient to use structured questionnaires (Borgers, de Leeuw, & Hox, 2000). Furthermore, those aged 9-10 years have been demonstrated to produce high quality, reliable responses through this methodology (Scott, 1997; Borgers, de Leeuw, & Hox, 1999; 2000). Accordingly, I consider this methodology only appropriate for use with those aged 9 years and over attending primary school (aged 9 11 years). With average primary school class sizes in the United Kingdom estimated to be 25.8 (OECD, 2009), a sample of 10 classes was sought (expected n=258). To ensure that the findings are generalisable, and recognising that levels of mental health hold a differential incidence across different socio-economic status groups of children (McLoyd, 1998), a crosssection of schools with differential socio-economic, and ethnic demographic compositions were sought. To achieve this, seven schools were highlighted by Local Authority Educational Psychologists, of which five participated in this research. One school wished for only their two year five classes to participate. As an incentive, schools were offered an overview of the research findings, and school specific information to help inform future practice. In total, the sample comprised of 255 childrens responses, with an approximately equivalent distribution of boys (n=124) and girls (n=131), from year 5 (n=152) and year 6 (n=103) classes.

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Mental Health Measurements Measuring mental health is a contentious issue, particularly due to issues surrounding a lack of clarity over what is specifically defined as mental health, and debates as to which are the most reliable outcome measurements (Jane-Llopis et al., 2005; Barry, Patel, Jane-Llopis, Raeburn, & Mittelmark, 2007). While it would have been beneficial to capture the continuum of mental well-being, a paucity of instruments relating to this comprehensive concept has contained the focus of this research to mental health (see Adi et al., 2007). Nonetheless, instruments which measure emotional and behavioural difficulties, but additionally incorporate a subtest of social competence or prosocial behaviour, can be considered as a more holistic and appropriate measurement than those which have an exclusive emphasis on negative traits. Well-validated instruments that achieve this include the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001), Social Skills Improvement System (Gresham & Elliott, 2008), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997; Goodman, Ford, Simmons, Gatward, & Meltzer, 2000).

Here, I utilised the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; see Appendix A). This is a brief, 25-item assessment of psychological adjustment for 3 16 year olds. Answers are scored on a three-point categorical Likert scale of not true, somewhat true, and certainly true. It encompasses five scales, each composing of five items: 1) Emotional symptoms, 2) Conduct problems, 3) Hyperactivity/inattention, 4) Peer relationship problems, and 5) Prosocial behaviour. The SDQ correlates highly with the Rutter Questionnaires (Elander & Rutter, 1996) and the CLBL (Goodman & Scott, 1999), and has demonstrated acceptable levels of internal reliability and consistency across different cultures (Hawes & Dadds, 2004). In addition, the SDQ has demonstrated a greater sensitivity to detecting inattention and hyperactivity than the CBCL, and similarly as sensitive at detecting internalising and externalising difficulties (Goodman & Scott, 1999; Goodman, Renfrew, & Mullick, 2000). While the SDQ was designed for self-report over the age of 11 years, the present methodology of verbally reading aloud each question ensured that it was accessible to all, regardless of reading ability. Discussions with Local Authority services and national research organisations confirmed that the schools approached to participate in this research had not previously used the SDQ.

10

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools TaMHS RPO Measurements A novel questionnaire was developed to evaluate current classroom practices which relate to each of the TaMHS RPOs. The Perceptions of Classroom Questionnaire (PCQ) was designed to reflect the opinions of children about their interactions with the teacher and the classroom environment. Potential questions which relate to each of the RPOs were developed independently by two professionals with experience of working with children of this age group. Prior to developing these questions, consideration was made to the cognitive processes that children would be required to go through to answer questions, and the use of an appropriate six-point rating scale (see Appendix B), thereby endeavouring to minimise potential error and bias. A list of potential questions were subsequently collaboratively reviewed, compared to related measures (e.g. Significant Others Statements Inventory, Burnett, 1996; My Classroom Scale, Burnett, 2002) and refined to develop the PCQ questions. For each RPO, two questions were employed (except for RPO no.19, which required 4 questions) (see Appendix C for the full corresponding list). This overcame potential ambiguous interpretations of the TaMHS RPOs by providing the capacity to encompass more than one differential interpretation. Accordingly, the PCQ contains a total of 46 questions, rated on a six point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. In developing the PCQ, questions were randomly ordered, and efforts were made to achieve functional, reflective and emotional levels of design (see Jenkins & Dillman, 1997; see Dillman, 2000; Norman, 2004). The complete PCQ can be found in Appendix D.

While time limitations restricted piloting of the PCQ, the benefits of this are recognised. In particular, cognitive interviews are becoming a standard component in the development of questionnaires (Dillman, 2000; Willis, 2005). This requires the respondent to articulate what they are thinking as they answer each question. Specifically, respondents verbalise what they think the question means; identify any ambiguous words or concepts; talk through the process of retrieving and formatting the necessary information; and explain how they have arrived at the chosen response. This procedure has been demonstrated to be particularly useful in developing questionnaires for children (de Leeuw, Borgers, & Smits, 2004; de Leeuw, 2005). In addition, to ensure validity and reliability of the PCQ, it would have been preferable to first pilot it on a small sample and assess its internal consistency and test-retest reliability.

11

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools It should be noted that the PCQ is a subjective measure of childrens perceptions of classroom practice, and serves only as an indication of the realities of classroom practice. However, it is the childs individual experiences which are important, and it is evident that children have considerable variation in their educational experiences within the same class. Accordingly, when considering these findings, it is important to recognise that they reflect teachers practice with every child within the classroom, and not their general approach.

Procedure Children were asked to complete two questionnaires; one on their levels of mental health (SDQ), and the other based on their perceptions of the TaMHS RPOs (PCQ). The lead researcher administered these to whole classes in a standardised manner. Prior to this, each class was given an introduction to the research, and an explanation of the questionnaires response formats. Individual questions were read aloud by the researcher to ensure that those with literacy difficulties were not disadvantaged in completing the questionnaires. In doing so, this also sought to minimise potential bias which may have been incurred from teaching professionals helping children during administration. Praise was provided to the classes throughout the administration period to maintain motivation for completing the questionnaires. On average, participation took 40 minutes per class. Following completion of the questionnaires, the children were debriefed by providing additional details of the research and reiteration of how the information would be used. In addition, children were encouraged to share their experiences of completing the questionnaires, and provided with the opportunity to ask any further questions. All anecdotal feedback from the children was very positive. Please also see Appendix E for a full research time budget.

Ethical Principles And Considerations This research has been developed with full consideration of the Health Professions Council standards and ethical guidance (2008; 2009), and the British Psychological Societys Code Of Ethics And Conduct (2009). In addition, the British Psychological Societys Guidelines for Minimum Standards of Ethical Approval in Psychological Research (2004) were consulted throughout the researchs development. To adhere to these guidelines, the following measures were taken. First, I ensured that full, informed consent was obtained from the head teacher and teacher responsible for the children prior to sending out parental consent

12

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools letters. Due to the number of participants required, and the anonymity of responses, passive consent from parents was considered appropriate in the current context (BPS, 2004, Section 3.10, p.5). Please see Appendix F for the parental consent letter. A minimum of one week was provided to enable parents the opportunity to ask for their child to not be included in the research. The class teachers and children were provided with full details of the research prior to administering the questionnaires. To ensure that all responses remained anonymous, children were explicitly asked to not write their names on the questionnaires. Codes were only used when inputting the data to denote the class year and school attended of the child. Participation of schools was voluntary. There was no perceived risk to the children participating in this research or the researcher in undertaking any stages of this research. Please also see Appendix G for the Ethical Good Practice Statement.

Results Preliminary Statistics Group Comparisons. A one-way ANOVA between boys and girls responses demonstrated no significant differences of gender for any of the PCQ questions (p>.05). One question from the SDQ (SDQ.18) demonstrated a significant difference between boys and girls responses (F[1, 253]=9.95, p=.002), with boys ( =1.77, SD =0.78) scoring slightly higher than girls ( =1.47, SD=0.71). This difference represents a small effect size (d = .40) (Cohen, 1992). All other SDQ items demonstrated non-significant differences between groups (p>.05). Accordingly, I was confident in assuming that, for the present purposes, boys and girls form a homogenous group and between group comparisons in further analysis was not warranted. Missing data (0.04%) held no pattern, and was replaced with the individuals mean rating prior to analysis.

Representativeness Of Sample. To assess the representativeness of the sample, I compared the present samples responses on the SDQ to a large sample used to develop the SDQ (Meltzer, Gatward, Goodman, & Ford, 2000a). Since there is currently no comparative self-response ratings for the samples age group, I compared the present samples ratings with those from a sample of 11-15 year olds (n=4,228). Since parental and teacher ratings in this independent sample

13

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools demonstrated relative consistency across all age groups (5-15 years), with no considerable developmental deviation, I was confident that comparing the present sample to this age group would prove as a constructive guide to gage the representativeness of the present sample. These comparisons are presented in Appendix H, along with corresponding effect sizes for each. This demonstrates small or very small effect sizes between samples across four of the SDQ constructs (d< .37) (Emotional; Conduct; Hyperactivity; Pro-Social) (see Cohen, 1992), while the Peer Problems construct demonstrated a moderate effect size (d= .65). This difference may indicate that the distribution of childrens Peer Problems has longitudinally altered since the collection of responses from this independent sample, or that there is a developmental increase between the two samples, perhaps due to children in primary schools setting often receiving more support to help develop and maintain friendships. However, replication of the present methodologies across larger samples should be considered to ensure cross-validation of the findings with regard to the affects that classroom practice has on levels of peer-problems. Nonetheless, on the basis of all other criteria, I was confident that the present sample was representative of the population.

Factor Analysis I first sought to examine whether the TaMHS RPOs could be described in a more meaningful manner by employing Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). This is a statistical, data driven, dimension reduction techniques that elucidates the relationship between measured variables by finding clusters that correlate highly with each other, but are comparatively independent of other variables (Royce, 1963). EFA can therefore be used to replace a large set of measured variables with smaller sets of explanatory constructs (factors), thereby forming a more parsimonious representation of the data (Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988a). The resultant factors can help understand the potential underlying mechanisms of these variables. Accordingly, it is useful in the current context where the variables are complex and there is little prior knowledge or theory to specify the number or pattern of the factors (see Hurley, Scandura, Schriesheim, Brannick, Seers, Vandenberg, & Williams, 1997).

Data Screening. A factorable matrix should include several sizable correlations. Before running EFA, an inspection of the R Matrix indicated several items which correlate with less than one

14

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools other variables (<.30). Since this may indicate that these are unique but unreliable factors, these individual items were therefore removed (see Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001; Field, 2009). In accordance with this, items PCQ.7, PCQ.8, PCQ.15, PCQ.21, PCQ.22, PCQ.27, and PCQ.33 were removed from all further analysis. This retained a total of 39 variables to be included in the EFA.

Factor Analysis Methods. Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA) consists of two approaches, Common Factor Analyses (CFA) and Principal Components Analyses (PCA). There has been considerable debate over the use of these methods, and it is important that the most appropriate method be employed to ensure that a valid and reliable solution is achieved. For the reasons described in Appendix I, CFA was considered to be the most appropriate technique for the current context (see Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999). According to recent reviews of CFA techniques, Maximum Likelihood method of factor extraction (Lawley & Maxwell, 1963) is considered the optimal choice (Fabrigar et al., 1999; Costello & Osborne, 2005). This estimates population values for factor loadings by calculating loadings that maximise the probability of sampling the observed correlation matrix from a population. This method maximises the canonical correlations between the variables and the factors.

Since EFA aims to balance parsimony while adequately representing underlying correlations between the measured variables, deciding how many factors to extract is of considerable importance. The types of factor extraction techniques and their respective value are discussed in Appendix I. In particular, there is a growing consensus that the Parallel Analyses Method (O'Connor, 2000) is currently the most valid and reliable factor extraction technique (Zwick & Velicer, 1986; Fabrigar et al., 1999). In accordance with this, I chose to employ the Parallel Analyses Method to identify the number of factors to extract. The SPSS syntax for achieving this was derived from O'Connor (2000). From this, it was clear that the first eight eigenvalues from the actual data were larger than the corresponding first eight 95th percentile random data eigenvalues. This indicates that an eight factor solution should be extracted. To corroborate this, the Kaiser-Guttman Rule indicates a total of nine factors to be extracted, and inspection of the Scree plot illustrates two minor points of inflection after the sixth and eighth factors.

15

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Having decided on the number of factors to extract, it was no longer necessary to retain the initial constraints, and the factors were rotated. The aim of rotation is to produce the simplest structure for the factor solutions (Thurstone, 1947; Cattell, 1978). That is, factors are rotated to delineate the distinct clusters of interrelated phenomena by maximising high loadings, and minimising low loadings. For the reasons identified in Appendix I, oblique rotation was selected to anticipate the most accurate and replicable solution for the current research methodology (see Fabrigar et al., 1999; Costello & Osborne, 2005). In particular, Promax rotation with Kaiser Normalization was chosen to rotate factor solutions as it is less susceptible to inter-correlation between emergent factors than other techniques (e.g. Oblim) (Fabrigar et al., 1999). A Kappa power of 4 (see Tataryn, Wood, & Gorsuch, 1999) was selected to drive small and moderate loadings to close to zero.

Assumption Verifications. Maximum Likelihood Promax was performed through SPSS on 39 variables from a sample of 255 children. Having run a Maximum Likelihood extraction with Promax rotation (= 4) CFA, initial assumptions were checked to ensure EFA was appropriate. In particular, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (Kaiser, 1970; 1974) represents the ratio of the squared correlation between variables to the squared partial correlation between variables. With KMO=.90, the present sampling adequacy is considered as superb (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Field, 2009). Inspection of the anti-image correlation matrices further highlighted that all KMO values for individual items are >.76, (each considered as good; Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999; Field, 2009). Accordingly, I was confident that an adequate sample size was obtained for the entirety of this analysis.

In addition, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity examines whether the population correlation matrix resembles an identity matrix (i.e. all correlations are close to 0), and therefore is unsuitable for EFA. Although highly influenced by sample size (Field, 2009) Bartlett's Test of Sphericity indicates that correlations between variables was sufficiently large to perform EFA (X2 [741] = 4576.51, p<.001). It was also important that a large degree of multicollinearity was not a problem. While Haitovskys test (Haitovsky, 1969) does indicate a potential issue of multicollinearity (X2H [741] = 1.06E-06, p>.05), inspection of the R Matrix demonstrated that no variables had sufficiently high correlations (>.80) as to warrant their extraction

16

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Additionally, verification for employing CFA rather than PCA came from inspecting the variables communalities. A mean communality of .49 indicated that employing PCA would have likely resulted in a considerably different and unreliable solution (see Widaman, 1990; 1993; Stevens, 2002). Lastly, to assess the fit of the model, I compared the observed correlation coefficients with the correlation coefficients based on the model. Residuals are computed between observed and reproduced correlations. There are 95 (12.0%) non-redundant residuals with absolute values greater than 0.05, which is well below the recommended 50% threshold recommended (Field, 2009). Interpretation. To select meaningful factors, certain considerations are made to ensure that these are reliable constructs. In absolute terms, with the present sample size of 255, a factor loading was significantly reliable if it was over .32 (p<.01) (Stevens, 2002). Indeed, this is also in accordance with other thresholds (see Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988b; Comrey & Lee, 1992; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Despite this, a lower threshold was accepted (>.24) due to suspected homogeneity of scores in the sample, and to enable a meaningful interpretation of factors (see Comrey & Lee, 1992). In addition, a variable that shares at least 15% of its variance with the factor (factor loading >.39) is generally considered as practically useful (Stevens, 2002). The theorised factors demonstrate that 95% of their loadings fall beyond this conservative boundary (see Appendix J).

When considering the composition of meaningful and reliable factors, all were sought to contain at least four variables (see Costello & Osborne, 2005). Considering such criteria, one factor contained no high loadings of theoretical importance, and demonstrated a comparatively small eigenvalue (2.68), and was therefore removed to leave a seven factor model (see Cattell, 1978; Gorusch, 1983; Zwick & Velicer, 1986; Comrey & Lee, 1992 for factor retention and liberation practices). In addition, one variable did not theoretically belong to any particular factor (Q23), had no sizable factor loadings (<.40), and was therefore removed from the factor model. Of note, due to the nature of oblique rotation, a number of crossloadings (more than one loading >.32) were expected. In addition,

17

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools inspection of each variables communalities indicated that each held sufficiently unique variance for its factor as to be of practical importance (see Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).

To assess the reliability of the factors and their associated variables, Cronbachs alpha (Cronbach, 1951; Cronbach & Meehl, 1955) was conducted. Individual items should produce results that are consistent with the overall construct under measure. Correlations between each item and the total score from their respective factor identified only one variable (Q32) which did not correlate well (.3) with its respective theorised factor (F7). To ensure a stable model, this variable was removed from the factor model (see Field, 2009). For theorised factors, .70 is generally considered to indicate good reliability although for these types of constructs, values where .70 is expected due to the variance inherent in these measurements (Kline, 1999). On the basis of these criteria, all the theorised factors Cronbachs scores are considered reliable for this kind of data, with five of the seven factors demonstrating levels of very good reliability (see Kline, 1999). The high level of internal consistency demonstrates that these individual items are measuring the same underlying constructs. The resultant EFA model contained seven factors comprising of thirty seven variables. These newly discovered underlying factors of classroom practice are termed Classroom Practice Domains (CPDs). These seven CPDs, their respective factor loadings, communalities (h2) and descriptive statistics are presented in Appendix J.

Specifically, the resultant CPDs underlying the TaMHS recommendations are considered to be: 1) Positive Teacher Demeanour / Attitude, 2) Positive Teacher Feedback & Environment, 3) Lesson Clarity, 4) Rules / Boundaries Clarity, 5) Teacher Expectations, 6) Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom, 7) Organisation of Teacher and Class. It is evident from this that the original TaMHS RPDs are not reliable and tenable to employ in Confirmatory FA within SEM. Accordingly, I progress to evaluate the impact that the newly discovered CPDs have on mental health constructs.

Structural Equation Modelling Since it is not possible to obtain a single perfect measure of a factor of interest, the application of latent variable models is essential to this kind of research (see Herring & Dunson, 2004). Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is a confirmatory statistical technique to

18

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools analyse the structural theory bearing on a phenomena. This structural theory represents causal processes that generate observations on multiple variables by a series of regression equations (see Bentler, 1988). As such, SEM is a collection of statistical techniques that allows the original predictor and outcome variables to be summarised by their underlying factors (latent variables), while also accounting for the anticipated causal relationships between the factors. This analysis aims to establish the relative predictive importance of the identified CPDs in explaining the variance in the SDQ mental health constructs.

With little research evidence suggesting prior specification, I initially assessed whether each of the CPD factors reliably predicted each of the SDQ factors. In this process, I aimed to take a model generating scenario (see Joreskog, 1993), wherein this initial theoretical model was likely to be rejected due to poor fit of the variables relationships. I intended to subsequently proceed in an exploratory manner to modify and re-estimate the model that would better fit the sample data in the most parsimonious manner.

While Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation is typically employed to estimate parameters by convention (Byrne, 2010), this is often erroneously applied, and can cause invalid and unreliable findings (Lee, 2007; Byrne, 2010). There are two primary reasons for this. Firstly the routine treatment of categorical variables as a normal distribution can cause serious attenuation, particularly when variables have less than five categories (Olsson, 1979; Lee, Poon, & Bentler, 1990; Arbuckle, 2009b). Reviewing the measurement variables, the SDQ employs a three point Likert scale, and therefore may cause unreliable model fit and parameter estimates. Secondly, since SEM is based on the analysis of covariance structures, it assumes that random observations are identically and independently distributed according to a multivariate normal distribution. When data violates the assumption of multivariate normality, particularly exhibiting kurtosis, this causes erroneous approximations of standard errors and incorrect fit statistics (Browne, 1982; Browne, 1984; Arbuckle, 2009b). Univariate normality is a necessary, although not sufficient, condition for multivariate normality (DeCarlo, 1997). Unfortunately, as the real world is complicated, the required assumptions cannot be satisfied by a large number of substantive problems. Indeed, assessing Mardias (1970; 1974) normalised estimate of multivariate kurtosis 2 for the variables indicates that the majority (44/62) exhibit a large degree of kurtosis (C.R. < 1.96). While I may consider

19

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools employing Asymptotic Distribution Free estimation (Browne, 1984), to overcome these difficulties, such analysis requires exceptionally large sample sizes (>1,000) to provide reliable estimates (West, Finch, & Curran, 1995). Alternatively, sampling-based Bayesian methods depend less on asymptotic theory, and have the potential to produce highly reliable results (Ansari, Jedidi, & Jagpal, 2000; Jedidi & Ansari, 2001; Ansari, Jedidi, & Dube, 2002; Lee & Song, 2004; Congdon, 2006; Lee, 2007). Instead of relying on point estimates and asymptotically-justified confidence bounds and test statistics, the Bayesian approach bases inferences on exact posterior distributions for the parameters and factors estimated by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm through producing a large number of simulated observations (see Press & Shigemasu, 1989; Congdon, 2003; Robert & Casella, 2004; Lee, 2007 for reviews of the benefits of Bayesian modelling in SEM). Overall, the hypothesised model was over-identified with 1794 degrees of freedom. The hypothesised structural equation model was analysed using Bayesian modelling from SPSS AMOS 18 (Arbuckle, 2009a), employing admissibility and stability testing. Due to the appropriateness of the sample size, and the potential bias which may be incorporated through specifying prior distribution properties, it was considered prudent to not specify any prior distribution properties (see Arbuckle, 2009b). The overall MCMC chain convergence statistic, based on a measure suggested by Gelman, Carlin, Stern, and Rubin (2004), converged after 90,003 analysis samples being drawn to achieve substantially below the = 1.0048. This is

< 1.10 threshold that Gelman et al. (2004) suggest, but slightly < 1.002 advocated by others (Arbuckle, 2009b). This

above the conservative threshold of

indicates that I can be confident that sufficient samples have been drawn and little additional precision would be gained by taking additional samples. The current standard of graphical diagnostics was assessed by reviewing of each regression weight and covariances respective histogram, polygon, trace, and autocorrelation plot (Lee, 2007; Byrne, 2010). This revealed that I could be confident that there was convergence in each distribution.

The posterior mean is the mean of the marginal posterior distribution and is used as a Bayesian point estimate of the parameter. The posterior standard deviation, measures uncertainty similar to a conventional standard error. The posterior distribution confidence interval was not symmetric around the posterior mean, illustrating that the Bayesian

20

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools estimate provided a more accurate estimate than that which would have been achieved through conventional ML methods. The Bayesian confidence interval is interpreted as a probability statement about the parameter itself. The tail areas from the marginal posterior distributions can be used as a Bayesian version of p-value hypothesis testing. Where 96.5% of the area under the marginal posterior density lies on the same side as the mean, then the Bayesian p-value for testing the null hypothesis against the alternative hypothesis is 0.045 (Rubin, 1984; Gelman, Carlin, Stern, & Rubin, 1995; Gelman, Meng, & Stern, 1996; Arbuckle, 2009b). Reviewing the regression weights demonstrated significant affects of all observed variables on latent variables. However, examination of the regression weights from the CPD factors to the SDQ factors demonstrated a number of non-significant effects. Accordingly, I proceeded in an exploratory manner to locate these non-significant effects and remove them to determine a substantially meaningful and statistically well-fitting model (see Bentler, 1988; Joreskog, 1993; Byrne, 2010). Bayesian modelling was re-run for each new model as the parameters with the least significant effects were removed sequentially. From these, three of the original seven CPD factors (Positive Teacher Demeanour and Attitude; Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom; Organisation of Teacher and Class) demonstrated no significant effects on any of the SDQ latent variables, and were appropriately removed from the model. In doing so, the resultant model retained nine of the original thirty five parameters, across four CPDs (Lesson Clarity; Rules and Boundaries Clarity; Positive Teacher Feedback and Environment; Teacher Expectations).

Despite utilising Bayesian estimation, in the interest of keeping with convention, I consider it constructive to present in Appendix K some model fit criteria for the re-specified SEM based on the conventional ML estimate.

The re-specified Bayesian models overall MCMC chain converged following 73,043 analysis samples being drawn to achieve =1.0013. The re-specified model is illustrated in

Figure 1. Circles represent factors, and rectangles represent measured variables. Absence of a line connecting latent variables implies a lack of a significantly reliable direct effect. In the interest of clarity, individual statistics of all regression weights, residual variances and error variances are presented in Appendix L. In particular, these demonstrate that all observed variables from the PCQ and SDQ significantly determine their respective latent variables.

21

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Of particular interest, Figure 1 demonstrates that four CPD factors have a significantly reliable affect on mental health constructs. In particular, the CPD construct of Lesson Clarity (LC) reliably predicts all SDQ constructs of mental health; Rules and Boundaries Clarity (RBC) reliably predicts the SDQ construct of Hyperactivity-Inattentiveness; Teacher Expectations (TE) reliably predicts SDQ constructs of Conduct and Pro-social; and Positive Teacher Feedback and Environment (PTFE) reliably predicts the SDQ construct of Peer-problems. As illustrated, the other constructs of Positive Teacher Feedback & Environment, Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom, and Organisation of Teacher and Class do not reliably predicts any measure of mental health, and were removed from this model accordingly.

Reviewing the individual posterior means demonstrates how the typical value of the mental health construct changes when any one of the CPD constructs is varied, while the other CPD constructs are fixed. Specifically, the regression weights for the remaining significant affects demonstrates the expected pattern that an increase in individual CPDs lowers mental health difficulties, and increases resiliency factors (i.e. pro-social behaviours). Of the ten significant affects from CPD factors to mental health constructs, two of these are notably large and come from Lesson Clarity predicting Conduct (m= -.55) and HyperactivityInattentiveness (m= -.58).

22

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools

R.5 SDQ.3 SDQ.8 e.1 e.6 e.14 PCQ. 1 PCQ. 6 PCQ. 14 PCQ. 17 PCQ. 38 PCQ. 3 R.2 e.3 e.8 e.13 e.16

R.1

-.17

Emot.

SDQ.13

SDQ.16

LC
R.6

SDQ.24 SDQ.5 SDQ.7

e.24
e.5 e.7 e.12 e.18 e.22
e.1 e.4 e.9 e.17 e.20 e.2 e.10 e.15 e.21 e.25 e.6 e.11 e.14 e.19 e.23

e.17
e.38 e.3 e.10 e.19 e.37 e.4 e.20 e.25 e.36 e.2 e.5 e.24 e.40 e.42

-.55 -.10

Cond.

SDQ.12 SDQ.18

PCQ. 10
PCQ. 19 PCQ. 37 PCQ. 4 PCQ. 20 R.3

TE
.10 .07
R.7

SDQ.22
SDQ.1 SDQ.4

Pro-Soc. RBC
-.58
R.8

SDQ.9 SDQ.17 SDQ.20 SDQ.2 SDQ.10

PCQ. 25
PCQ. 36 PCQ. 2 PCQ. 5

-.08
R.4

Hyp.
-.16

SDQ.15 SDQ.21 SDQ.25

PCQ. 24
PCQ. 40 PCQ. 42 PCQ. 43 PCQ. 44

PTFE
R.9 R.8

SDQ.6 SDQ.11

e.43
e.44

-.09

P-Prob.

SDQ.14 SDQ.19 SDQ.23

Figure 1. The re-specified Structural Equation Model, demonstrating the significant direct effects that increases in the CPD constructs have on the SDQ mental health constructs. CPD constructs: Lesson Clarity (LC); Teacher Expectations (TE); Rules and Boundaries Clarity (RBC); Positive Teacher Feedback and Environment (PTFE). SDQ constructs: Emotional symptoms (Emot.); Conduct problems (Cond.); Hyperactivity/inattention (Hyp.); Peer relationship problems (P-Prob.); Prosocial behaviour (Pro-Soc.).

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Descriptive Statistics To understand the practical implications of these findings I briefly review the descriptive statistics of the CPD and SDQ constructs. Mental Health. Appendix M presents a chart illustrating the means, standard deviations and frequencies of ratings within each of the SDQ constructs. These frequencies were based on the summed ratings across all questions for each construct. This demonstrates that, as expected, the ratings of children are highly skewed towards having few mental health difficulties. Table 2 additionally summarises these mean ratings, standard deviations and percentage of children reporting pronounced difficulties (summed ratings 9) within each construct. Reviewing the mean scores indicates that the most prevalent mental health difficulties in childhood overall are Hyperactivity-Inattentiveness ( =3.92, SD=2.47) and Emotional symptoms ( =3.62, SD=2.36). In comparison, mean rating of Peer Relationship Problems ( =2.72, SD=2.26) and Conduct Problems ( =2.30, SD=2.21) indicate a smaller prevalence of these difficulties within this population. SDQ Construct
Emotional Conduct Problems Hyperactivity-Inattentiveness Peer Relationship Problems Pro-Social

Mean 3.62 2.30 3.92 2.72 8.08

SD 2.36 2.21 2.47 2.26 1.66

Ratings 9
2.75% 1.18% 6.67% 1.57% -

Table 2. The mean ratings, standard deviations and frequencies of those reporting the most pronounced difficulties (ratings 9).

Furthermore, if we consider the prevalence of those reporting the most pronounced difficulties, it is evident that these proportions are largely in correspondence with these mean scores. While this threshold for indicating those with pronounced difficulties is relatively arbitrary, it nonetheless provides a good indication of the prevalence of children that may require more targeted support. Considering this threshold on an individual basis, it is evident that 9.80% of the sample are experiencing a substantial difficulty within one of these domains, and 1.18% are experiencing substantial difficulties in two domains. No children reported substantial difficulties in three or more domains. Overall, 10.98% of children are experiencing a substantial difficulty in one or more domain.

24

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Classroom Practice Domains. Appendix N presents a chart illustrating the means, standard deviations and frequencies of ratings within each of the CPD constructs. These frequencies were based on the ratings across all questions for each CPD. It is evident that ratings are positively skewed for each CPD. Table 3 additionally summarises these mean ratings, standard deviations and percentage of children that rated positively for that construct (ratings 3.5). In particular, the CPDs that have been demonstrated to significantly predict childrens mental health are also the highest rated by children. It is also evident that 44.31% of children identified one or more of the seven CPDs that they rated non-positively (ratings 3.5), with the average number of CPDs rated non-positively per child being =1.00 (SD=1.50). While the overall trend for childrens responses towards CPDs is positive, it is clear that a large proportion of children also recognise one or more CPDs which they are dissatisfied with.

Classroom Practice Domain

Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom Lesson Clarity * Organisation of Teacher and Class Positive Teacher Feedback and Environment * Positive Teacher Demeanour and Attitude Rules / Boundaries Clarity * Teacher Expectations *

Mean 4.65 4.65 4.15

4.89 4.55

SD 1.46 1.39 1.75

1.48 1.60

Ratings 3.5
92.55% 93.73% 80.00% 90.98% 89.80% 94.90% 97.65%

5.13 5.27

1.35 1.16

Table 3. Mean ratings, Standard deviations and percentage of positive ratings ( 3.5) for each of the CPDs. An * denotes CPDs that have a significant impact upon mental health domains.

Discussion Prevalence And Importance Of Promoting Mental Health In Schools The findings highlight that 10.98% of children are experiencing at least one pronounced mental health difficulty. This corresponds with previous figures estimating that between 8-10% of primary school aged children display a clinically significant form of mental health disorder (Meltzer et al., 2000a; Green et al., 2005). Such findings emphasise the considerable importance of promoting the mental health of all children in school, and the need to ensure that strategies achieve this in the most effective and efficient manner.

25

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Factor Analysis The TaMHS RPOs represented a comprehensive account of twenty two classroom practices which aimed to promote childrens mental health. Exploratory factor analysis of the TaMHS RPOs demonstrated that the original categorisations of these within the four TaMHS PDs of Effective teaching, Effective classroom management techniques, Effective behaviour management strategies, and A positive classroom climate was not tenable or reliable. Instead, EFA demonstrated that classroom practices can be more reliably summarised and composed of seven discrete CPDs which represent theoretically meaningful underlying constructs (Positive Teacher Demeanour / Attitude; Positive Teacher Feedback & Environment; Lesson Clarity; Rules / Boundaries Clarity; Teacher Expectations; Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom; Organisation of Teacher and Class). Uncovering these underlying constructs provides practitioners with the opportunities to develop their own strategies to target each of these, which are most conducive with their individualised resources and environmental context. Indeed, these identified CPDs provide a compromise between being sufficiently informative to narrow the scope of classroom practice to practical target domains, while not being too prescriptive that they neglect the individual context and the expertise of the practitioner to recognise and develop individualised strategies which will prove most effective in their specific context.

Having established this set of CPDs and their respective questions, I have compiled the four most reliable questions for each CPD into a revised version of the PCQ (PCQ R)1. This twenty eight item validated questionnaire can be used by practitioners to measure current levels of practice within each CPD, and evaluate progress following adjustments to practice. It is noted however that test-retest analysis (see Gomm, 2004) would prove beneficial to further validate this questionnaire.

Structural Equation Model The aim of the TaMHS wave 1 recommendations is to promote childrens overall levels of mental health through adapting classroom practice (DCSF, 2008). To evaluate these recommendations, the original SEM model estimated the extent that the seven CPDs directly

Available at: www.scribd.com/doc/31420377/PCQ-Revised

26

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools affected five constructs of mental health. Evident from the model is that not all CPDs reliably affect positive mental health. Indeed, this finding corroborates the conclusions from reviews of mental health programmes which have repeatedly demonstrated that the effectiveness of many intervention programmes are not reliable (Adi et al., 2007; Shucksmith et al., 2009). In particular, it is clear that the TaMHS recommendations which relate to the CPDs of Positive Teacher Demeanour and Attitude, Organisation of Teacher and Class, and Flexibility in Lesson Structure & Classroom are unreliable. Specifically, the original TaMHS RPOs which constitute these CPDs, and may therefore be unreliable strategies for practitioners to target, particularly include: Teachers who are perceived as being enthusiastic about what they are teaching; Starting lessons promptly; A clean and attractive physical environment including displays of pupils work; Using and incorporating pupil ideas; The use of a variety of teaching methods; Having a positive attitude; and Effective time management. Accordingly, caution should be taken when considering adapting classroom practice to target these unreliable CPDs and associated TaMHS RPOs, as doing so is likely to result in modest and unreliable differences in childrens mental health. It is however important to note that, while these CPDs do not reliably affect childrens mental health, they may be beneficial towards other school related outcomes, such as higher levels of achievement (see Scheerens & Bosker, 1997; Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000; McCaffrey, Lockwood, Koretz, Louis, & Hamilton, 2004; Muijs & Reynolds, 2005a; Creemers & Kyriakides, 2007).

Of particular note is the absence of a reliable effect of a supportive classroom climate to promote mental health (Positive Teacher Demeanour and Attitude), which is in contrast with previous research demonstrating that this correlates with childrens emotional and behavioural difficulties (Kasen, Johnson, & Cohen, 1990; Havlinova & Schneidrova, 1995; Kuperminc, Leadbeater, & Blatt, 2001; Sorhaindo, 2006). The differences between the current findings and previous research may be due to the ability for the current research to specifically compare CPDs direct affect on measurements of mental health. In particular, childrens perceptions of the classroom environment are likely to be heavily influenced by their levels of mental health, and so while these factors may strongly correlate, the direction of causation may have previously been misattributed.

27

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools The CPDs which have a reliable effect on promoting mental health can be seen to relate specifically to the clarity and transparency of academic (Lesson Clarity) and behavioural objectives (Rules and Boundaries Clarity), and the reinforcement provided by the teacher as to how these are achieved and what the child has done to achieve them (Positive Teacher Feedback & Environment; Teacher Expectations). That is, a childs explicit understanding of the teachers objectives, reinforcement and feedback as to how best to achieve these objectives, and an understanding of outcomes following individual effort and performance are central to improving their mental health. While teacher reinforcement behaviours have long been recognised to promote mental health, this research has distinctively demonstrated the considerable importance of children clearly understanding academic and behavioural objectives in class. It should be noted from the outset that these findings have applicability to provide guidance in improving the mental health of whole classes, and for interventions which may benefit those with more substantial difficulties.

While previous reviews have identified what may be effective for promoting mental health in schools, it has not explicitly considered the mechanisms through which these strategies work (e.g. Wells, Barlow, & Stewart-Brown, 2003; Jane-Llopis et al., 2005; Adi et al., 2007; Tennant et al., 2007). However, certainly the most effective and efficient strategies are those which have an explicit understanding of the psychological mechanisms through which they work. Developing such an understanding enables a more refined and resourceful targeting of these mechanisms to affect the greatest change. Accordingly, I aim to further examine the potential mechanisms through which the four identified CPDs promote mental health. For the reasons outlined below, I postulate that the identified CPDs may affect childrens mental health primarily through moderating their perceived control. To demonstrate this, I progress to illustrate the substantial impact that perceived control has on mental health functioning, before reviewing how the CPDs may affect mental health by primarily moderating childrens perceived control, and other psychological constructs.

CPDs and their Mechanisms to Promote Mental Health Importance of Perceived Control for Positive Mental Health. From the childs perspective, clarity and transparency of the teachers objectives will provide a greater ability to develop their own goals, and understand the causal relationship

28

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools between their behaviours and subsequent outcomes. In doing so, this provides children with a greater sense of perceived control over achieving their desired outcomes. The importance of an individuals perceived control over affecting personal outcomes has long been recognised in areas of social psychology (Burger & Schnerring, 1982; Taylor & Brown, 1988), social learning theory (Jones & Davis, 1965; Rotter, 1966; Kelley, 1973; Kelley & Michela, 1980; Bandura, 1982), and psychopathology (Seligman, 1968; 1975) as a major determinant of mental health. While defining perceived control has long been a contentious issue (see Miller, 1979; Shear, 1991), all accounts emphasise the importance of a person feeling that they have the potential to consistently affect change and achieve their desired goals (Weems & Silverman, 2006).

Specifically, derived from social learning theory (Rotter, 1966; Rotter, 1975), the concept of an internal locus of control involves an individual's perception of their ability to control and influence events and achieve outcomes due to personal skills or characteristics. This relates to Bandura's (1977a; 1977b; 1982; 2000) concept of self-efficacy which can lead to greater confidence when encountering novel situations, and resiliency in the face of adversity. In contrast, if the individual frequently attributes outcomes to an external locus of control (e.g. other people or chance), then there is no expectation or anticipation of a contingency between their actions and the resultant outcomes. In this regard, it is important to recognise that an individuals perception of control does not necessarily correspond with their actual control over contingencies, but it is the interactions and feedback from significant others that determines whether they hold an attribution style biased towards perceiving either an internal or external locus of control (Burger & Cooper, 1979; Burger & Schnerring, 1982; Burger, 1986).

Childrens perceived locus of control strongly influences their levels of mental health functioning. In particular, a recent study has demonstrated that the majority of primary school childrens well-being can be accounted for by their perceived levels of control (Morrison-Gutman & Feinstein, 2008). Specifically, a departure from an internal locus of control plays a central role in emotional dysregulation (Seligman, 1975; Barlow, Raffa, & Cohen, 2002), and is particularly associated with the learned helplessness account of depression (Thornton & Jacobs, 1971; Abramson & Seligman, 1978; Boyd, 1982; Fincham &

29

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Cain, 1986), lower self-esteem (Reinherz, Giaconia, Hauf, Wasserman, & Silverman, 1999), stress (Miller, 1979), and higher anxiety levels (Epkins, 1996; Weems, Berman, Silverman, & Saavedra, 2001; Muris, Bodden, Merckelbach, Ollendick, & King, 2003; Weems, Silverman, Rapee, & Pina, 2003).

Previous research also suggests that an external locus of control may help understand maladaptive behaviour in children. For instance, in striving to gain an understanding of systematic responses to their behaviour, children with an external locus of control may partake in maladaptive behaviours (Kumchy & Sayer, 1980; Tam Shui, 2003). Such maladaptive behaviours may be further exacerbated by the propensity for children with an external locus of control to disclaim personal responsibility for their actions (Linn & Hodge, 1982). Related to this, there is also a strong relationship between childrens degree of perceived external locus of control and the severity of ADHD symptomologies (Linn & Hodge, 1982; Tarnowski & Nay, 1989).

Furthermore, while an increased external locus of control is associated with poor relations with peers and adults (Lau & Leung, 1992), children with a greater internal locus of control display more empathy and prosocial behaviours (Robinson & Shaver, 1973). In addition to these constructs of mental health, a childs locus of control has also been consistently implicated as an important determinant in promoting an individuals resiliency (Brown, Lambert, Devine, Baldwin, Casey, Doepke, Ievers, Hsu, Buchanan, & Eckman, 2000; Burlew, Telfair, Colangelo, & Wright, 2000), and higher achievement (Findley & Cooper, 1983; Klein & Keller., 1990; Morrison-Gutman & Feinstein, 2008).

It is evident that childrens perceived control strongly affects their mental health. Accordingly, with an emphasis on perceived control as a mediating factor, I turn to consider the mechanisms through which the four identified CPDs may promote mental health. In doing so, I also draw upon additional theory and research to present alternative mechanisms through which the CPDs may promote mental health.

30

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Mechanisms Through Which CPDs Influence Mental Health. Firstly, when considering the mechanisms underlying the constructs of Lesson Clarity and Rules and Boundaries Clarity, it is apparent that both assess childrens perceived understanding of the information being presented. That is, both of these fundamentally relate to childrens ability to comprehend information. Accordingly, levels of both of these are influenced by two factors: the clarity of the information presented by the teacher, and the cognitive capacities which underlie the comprehension abilities of children. If the constructs of Lesson Clarity and Rules and Boundaries Clarity therefore characterise childrens comprehension abilities, then it may be this in particular which considerably affects children levels of mental health.

In relation to the concept of control, evidently we must first comprehend the world around us to make sense of it and have a sense of control of it. In particular, a child must first have a clear understanding of the teachers objectives for lessons or of their behaviour to be able to formulate their own objectives and establish predictable explanations of outcomes based on their actions (Grossman, 2004; Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Corroborating evidence for this consideration comes from evidence demonstrating a causal link between childrens levels of internal locus of control and comprehension abilities (Hiebert, Winograd, & Danner, 1984; Wagner, Spratt, Gal, & Paris, 1989). Furthermore, children with ADHD have more difficulties with listening comprehension irrespective of language abilities, which may exacerbate hyperactivity and inattentiveness symptomologies (Aaron, Joshi, Palmer, Smith, & Kirby, 2002; McInnes, Humphries, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock 2003). Improving childrens listening comprehension abilities would therefore anticipate improved mental health, potentially through mediating a greater internal locus of control.

On the basis of the above, this research has uniquely highlighted the potential importance of each child fully developing good comprehension skills, thereby enabling them to understand the information presented to them in all contexts. However, it is apparent that comprehension skills are frequently overlooked, with teachers primarily focusing on content, rather than the process of comprehension (Pressley, 2002).

31

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools While developing childrens comprehension capacity is arguably the most effective way to ensure their ability to consistently comprehend academic and social objectives across all settings, considerations of delivering the curriculum in a clear and readily comprehendible manner should not be overlooked. In particular, since the verbal presentation of material places a high demand on working memory, a major determinant of comprehension ability, utilising other instructional formats (e.g. visual) in an effective manner may prove successful in promoting childrens comprehension of lesson content (Gascon, Johnson, & Burd, 1986; Riccig & Hynd, 1996). Alternatively, providing stages to task completion, and utilising effective questioning techniques have also been demonstrated to increase childrens comprehension of lesson content (Harris & Swick, 1985; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986; Gersten, Carnine, & Woodward, 1987). Furthermore, these strategies have also been shown to minimise ADHD symptomologies (Reinecke, Dattilio, & Freeman, 2003; Fisher, 2006; Abramowitz, 2007).

The importance of Lesson Clarity, and potentially comprehension abilities more generally, has perhaps previously been under-emphasised as contributing to childrens mental health since it does not clearly relate to interactions surrounding mental health constructs. However, a childs attribution style can remain domain specific or become generalised to all events (Rotter, 1975; Connell, 1985; Rapee, Craske, Brown, & Barlow, 1996). Considering that the quantity of teacher-child interactions substantially impacts on levels of locus of control (Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990), and the fact that teacher-child interactions are pervasively dominated by the portrayal of lesson content, it is likely that the influences of Lesson Clarity on locus of control becomes generalised across all domains of the childs functioning. Such patterns of influence are evident in the current researchs findings that Lesson Clarity reliably affects all constructs of mental health. In addition, while we might expect Rules and Boundaries Clarity to reliably affect more mental health constructs, this constitutes considerably less teacher-child interaction time, and is more specific to children experiencing externalised behaviour difficulties, of which hyperactivityinattentiveness is perhaps the most frequent and pronounced.

With regards to classroom rules, there is a consensus that children can better comprehend them when there are relatively few of them (i.e., fourfive rules), stated

32

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools positively, easy to understand, and are enforceable (Grossman, 2004; Burden, 2006; Scheuermann & Hall, 2008; Kerr & Nelson, 2010), with some additionally asserting that classroom rules should be differentiated according to specific contexts (Maag, 2004; Kerr & Nelson, 2010). It also is essential that these rules and their consequences (positive and negative) are clearly and frequently explained to children (Paine, Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, & Darch, 1983; Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Providing such clarity offers greater predictability of outcomes for children, increased internal locus of control, and reduces behaviour difficulties (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Eccles, 2004).

However, while a clear understanding of lesson and behavioural objectives is a prerequisite to realise causal connections between the childs behaviours and outcomes, developing an internal locus of control is also highly dependent on anticipations and experiences of reward contingency following actions (MacMillan & Keogh, 1971; Hoffman & Weiner, 1978; Weisz, 1999). Accordingly, the consistent communication by the teacher in terms of voicing expectations (Teacher Expectations) will enable a clearer understanding of goals, and also enable a greater expectation of rewards (Buriel, 1981). Further corroborating evidence comes from demonstrations that, perhaps reflecting the fundamental motivation to regain an understanding of the causality in ones life, children with an external locus of control prefer more structured educational settings (Trice, 1980) and higher levels of discipline (Parent, Forward, Canter, & Mohling, 1975).

Related to the effect that teacher expectations have on an individuals locus of control, is its affect on the childs self-concept, and ability to create a self-fulfilling prophecy. This has been observed through teachers undermining the successes and providing less positive reinforcement to children for whom they hold the lowest expectations (Smith et al., 1998; Madon et al., 2001; Jussim & Harber, 2005). The child subsequently reinforces this negative self-concept by acting in accordance with such erroneous social prejudices and applying less effort to achieve their goals (Becker, 1973; Scheff, 1984; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1992; Steele, 1997; 1998; Link & Phelan, 2001; McGrew & Evans, 2003). Adding to this harmful reinforcement, these negative self-perceptions are obstinately resistant to change, as demonstrated by children preferring the company of people who confirm, rather than try to disprove, these harmful perspectives (Swann, 1996). Unfortunately, the desire for self-

33

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools verification can evidently be stronger than the desire for self-enhancement (Swann, 1996; 1997). Children are particularly vulnerable to this effect, since this is a period of identity consolidation, which will have long-term implications (Wisdom, Clarke, & Green, 2006).

Teacher praise (Positive Teacher Feedback & Environment) has been defined as containing positive affect and is an intense, detailed response to childrens behaviour (Blote, 1995). Accordingly, following the completion of a task, teacher feedback is fundamental to drawing connections between the childs actions and outcomes, and forming an internal locus of control (Krampen, 1987). In contrast, children who are not provided with feedback will be unable to recognise the causal pathways between their behaviours and outcomes, predisposing them to an external locus of control (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). Indeed, there is further evidence to suggest that the quality of teacher feedback is an antecedent rather than a consequence of children's locus of control (Buriel, 1981; Ndomb, Elegbeleye, & Sunmonu, 2008), and that children who experience a consistent use of praises and rewards hold a stronger internal locus of control (Carton & Nowicki, 1994). While they were not found to be disassociated in this study, two main types of praise have been identified; that which praises the individuals ability, and that which praises the individuals effort. The manner in which children are praised determines whether they attribute success and failure to their ability or effort (Mueller & Dweck, 1998), with praise for effort increasing motivation and performance, due to feelings of a greater internal locus of control (Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Henderlong & Lepper, 2002).

Such ability for praise and rewards to strengthen an internal locus of control may account for the strong empirical support here and elsewhere in its ability to reduce peer problems through increasing empathy (Aronfreed, 1968; Maccoby, 1968; Aronfreed, 1970; Mussen & Eisenberg, 2001), cooperation (Azrin & Lindsley, 1956; Mithaug & Burgess, 1968; Vogler, Masters, & Merrill, 1970; 1971), and sharing behaviours (Doland & Adelberg, 1967; Gelfand, Hartmann, Cromer, Smith, & Page, 1975). In addition, although not demonstrated in the current study, praise has also been associated with a reduction in ADHD symptomologies (Barry & Haraway, 2005), and reduction in inappropriate classroom behaviours (Wheldall & Merrett, 1989; Merrett & Wheldall, 1990; Strain & Joseph, 2004).

34

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools However, teacher praise can be infrequent (Luce & Hoge, 1978; Thomas, Presland, Grant, & Glynn, 1978), particularly for those with behaviour problems (Sutherland, Wehby, & Copeland, 2000; Reinke & Herman, 2002). Strategies to increase teachers use of praise include peer coaching, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation (Lampi, Fenty, & Beaunae, 2005; Kalis, Vannest, & Parker, 2007). An additional consequence of increasing praise is that it also increases the teachers propensity to view children more positively and focus less on their negative behaviour, leading to positive outcomes for both the children and teacher (Sutherland, Wehby, & Yoder, 2002).

It is evident from these findings that the four identified CPDs could promote childrens mental health through developing a stronger internal locus of control. Accordingly, this indicates that the most effective strategies to promote childrens mental health in schools will develop their internal locus of control through teachers endeavouring to develop childrens comprehension abilities, communicate their objectives in a clear and easily comprehendible manner (both academic and behavioural), and continually reinforce how these objectives can, or have been, achieved.

Implications For Educational Psychologists This research has uniquely demonstrated the potential that promoting the identified CPDs has to improve childrens mental health. While this research is framed in the context of promoting whole school mental health, it also has potential implications for Educational Psychologists working with children experiencing substantial mental health difficulties. For example, this may take the form of employing the aforementioned strategies in a more structured and intensive manner for individual children. In addition, it is increasingly recognised that childrens mental health difficulties are frequently caused or exacerbated by delayed cognitive skills (Greene, Ablon, Monuteaux, Goring, Henin, & Raezer, 2004; Greene, 2005; Greene & Ablon, 2006; Greene, 2008). Accordingly, with the present indication that childrens comprehension abilities have a considerable impact on their mental health, it is evident that assessment of comprehension abilities is an important consideration when assessing a child with substantial mental health needs.

35

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools With comprehension processing operating across over thirty cognitive and metacognitive levels, ranging from fully automatic memory-based resonance, to goaldirected and strategic search for meaning (Block & Pressley, 2002; Long & Lea, 2005; Cain & Oakhill, 2007), this provides the opportunity to capitalise on childrens cognitive strengths to progress their overall comprehension capacity. In particular, this is often achieved through promoting children to automatically prime, reflect, summarise, encode and retrieve information (see Guthrie, Wigfield, Barbosa, Perencevich, Taboada, Davis, Scafiddi, & Tonks, 2004; Manset-Williamson & Nelson, 2005; Guthrie, McRae, Coddington, Klauda, Wigfield, & Barbosa, 2009). With recent meta-analysis of comprehension strategies demonstrating good effect sizes (.32 - 1.18) in a relatively brief period of time (Talbott, Lloyd, & Tankersley, 1994; Swanson, 1999; Sencibaugh, 2007; Edmonds, Vaughn, Wexler, Reutebuch, Cable, Tackett, & Schnakenberg, 2009), this provides encouraging opportunities to help children overcome mental health difficulties, and also enable progress across the curriculum. Certainly, further research investigating the specific effects that improving in comprehension abilities has on mental health provides promising prospects.

Conclusion The aim of the TaMHS project is to improve every childs level of mental health functioning. Central to achieving this is the need to engage in a whole school approach (DCSF, 2008). Specifically, this involves challenging and enabling teachers to see the contribution that they can make to improving childrens behaviour and mental health through adapting their classroom practice in accordance with evidence-based methods (Hayes, Hindle, & Withington, 2007). A consistent approach is central to the success of any such strategy implementation, not least because it provides greater predictability and reduces uncertainty in the childs life (Weiner, 1985; 1986; Nastasi, 2004), but also promotes a greater dependability on adults which enables the formation of stronger attachments (Rutter, 1997). Additionally, practitioners have a number of competing priorities, leaving little time for constantly adapt their practice in line with changing evidence. Accordingly, it is imperative that practitioners have sufficiently reliable and comprehensive evidence to enable them to develop clear, structured and realistic strategies from the outset. However, with the aforementioned inconsistency of whole school programmes effectiveness (Adi et

36

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools al., 2007), and the paucity of research into how classroom practice affects mental health, this may be a arduous task.

This research provides a comprehensive and reliable demonstration of which CPDs reliably promote childrens mental health. In addition, a central implication of these findings are their ability to quantify the direct improvement in childrens mental health that can be anticipated following improvement in each of the four CPDs. Accordingly, this information can help practitioners get it right from the start, enabling a clear and consistent approach to improving the mental health of every child.

37

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools References Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Palmer, H., Smith, N., & Kirby, E. (2002). Separating genuine cases of reading disability from reading deficits caused by predominantly inattentive ADHD behavior. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 425-435. Abramowitz, A. (2007). School Consultation for the Mental Health Professional Working with ADHD. In K. McBurnett & L. Pfiffner (Eds.), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Concepts, Controversies, New Directions. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare. Abramson, L. Y., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87(1), 49-74. Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families. Adi, Y., Killoran, A., Janmohamed, K., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Interventions to Promote Mental Wellbeing in Primary Schools: Universal Approaches Which do not Focus on Violence or Bullying. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Ansari, A., Jedidi, K., & Dube, L. (2002). Heterogeneous factor analysis models: A Bayesian approach. Psychometrika, 67, 49-78. Ansari, A., Jedidi, K., & Jagpal, S. (2000). A hierarchical Bayesian approach for modeling heterogeneity in structural equation models. Marketing Science, 19, 328-347. Arbuckle, J. L. (2009a). Amos (Version 18.0). Chicago: SPSS. Arbuckle, J. L. (2009b). Amos 18 User's Guide. Chicago: SPSS. Aronfreed, J. (1968). Conduct and conscience: The socializing of internalized control of overt behavior. New York: Academic Press. Aronfreed, J. (1970). The socialization of altruistic and sympathetic behavior: Some theoretical and experimental analysis. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press. Azrin, N., & Lindsley, O. (1956). The reinforcement of cooperation between children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 2, 100-102. Baker, J. A. (1999). Teacher-student interaction in urban at-risk classrooms: Differential behavior, relationship quality, and student satisfaction with school. Elementary School Journal, 100, 5770. Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological review, 84(2), 191-215. Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist 37, 122-147. Bandura, A., Perrig, W. J., & Grob, A. (2000). Self-efficacy: The foundation of agency. Mahwak, NJ: Erlbaum.

38

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 8(4), 811-829. Barlow, D. H., Raffa, S. D., & Cohen, E. M. (2002). Psychosocial treatments for panic disorders, phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman (Eds.), A Guide to Treatments that Work (2nd ed., pp. 301-335). New York: Oxford University Press. Barry, L. M., & Haraway, D. L. (2005). Self-Management and ADHD: A Literature Review. The Behavior Analyst Today, 6(1), 48-64. Barry, M., Patel, V., Jane-Llopis, E., Raeburn, J., & Mittelmark, M. B. (2007). Strengthening the Evidence Base for Mental Health Promotion. In D. V. McQueen & C. Jones (Eds.), Global Perspectives on Health Promotion Effectiveness (pp. 67-86). Berlin: Springer. Battistich, V., Schaps, E., Watson, M., & Solomon, D. (1996). Prevention effects of the child development project: Early findings from an ongoing multisite demonstration trial. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(1), 12-35. Becker, H. (1973). Outsiders: studies in the sociology of deviance. New York: The Free Press. Bentler, P. M. (1988). Causal modeling via structural equation system. In Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 317-335). New York: Plenum. Bibou-Nakou, I., Stogiannidou, A., & Kiosseoglou, G. (1999). The relation between teacher burnout and teachers' attributions and practices regarding school behaviour problems. School Psychology International, 20, 209-217. Birch, S. H., & Ladd, G. W. (1997). The teacher-child relationship and childrens early school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), 61-79. Block, C. C., & Pressley, M. (2002). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best Practices. New York: Guilford Press. Blote, A. W. (1995). Students self-concept in relation to perceived differentialtreatment. Learning and Instruction, 5, 221-236. Borgers, N., de Leeuw, E., & Hox, J. J. (1999). Surveying children: Cognitive development and response quality in questionnaire research. Stockholm, SE: Statistics Sweden. Borgers, N., de Leeuw, E., & Hox, J. J. (2000). Children as respondents in survey research: Cognitive development and response quality. Bulletin de Mthodologie Sociologique, 66, 60-75. Boyd, T. L. (1982). Learned helplessness in humans: A frustration-produced response pattern. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(4), 738-752. British Psychological Society. (2004). Guidelines for Minimum Standards of Ethical Approval in Psychological Research. Leicester: BPS. British Psychological Society. (2009). Code of Ethics and Conduct. Leicester: BPS. Brophy, J., & Good, T. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 340-370). NY: Macmillan. Brown, R. T., Lambert, R., Devine, D., Baldwin, K., Casey, R., Doepke, K., Ievers, C. E., Hsu, L., Buchanan, I., & Eckman, J. (2000). Risk-resistance adaptation model for caregivers

39

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools and their children with sickle cell syndromes. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 158169. Browne, M. W. (1982). Covariance Structures. In D. M. Hawkins (Ed.), Topics in Applied Multivariate Analysis (pp. 72-141). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Browne, M. W. (1984). Asymptotically Distribution-Free Methods in the Analysis of Covariance Structures. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 37, 62-83. Burden, P. (2006). Classroom management: Creating a successful K-12 learning community (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Burdg, N. B., & Graham, S. (1984). Effects of sex and label on performance ratings, childrens test-scores, and examiners verbal-behavior. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88(4), 422-427. Burger, J., & Schnerring, D. (1982). The effects of desire for control and extrinsic rewards on the illusion of control and gambling. Motivation and Emotion, 6(4), 329-335. Burger, J. M. (1986). Desire for control and the illusion of control: The effects of familiarity and sequence of outcomes. Journal of Research in Personality, 20(1), 66-76. Burger, J. M., & Cooper, H. M. (1979). The desirability of control. Motivation and Emotion, 3(4), 381-393. Buriel, R. (1981). The relation of Anglo- and Mexican-American children's locus of control beliefs to parents' and teachers' socialization practices. Child Development, 52, 104113. Burlew, K., Telfair, J., Colangelo, L., & Wright, E. C. (2000). Factors that influence adolescent adaptation to sickle cell disease. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25, 287-299. Burnett, P. C. (1996). Childrens self-talk and signifcant others positive and negative statements. Educational Psychology in Practice, 16, 57-67. Burnett, P. C. (2002). My classroom scale. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/26827/. Accessed on 07.01.2010. Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modelling with AMOS. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2007). Children's Comprehension Problems in Oral and Written Language: A Cognitive Perspective: Guildford Press. Capel, S. A. (1997). Changes in students' anxieties and concerns after their first and second teaching practices. Educational Research, 39, 211-228. Carton, J., & Nowicki, S. (1994). Antecedents of individual differences in locus of control of reinforcement: A critical review. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 36, 23-58. Cattell, R. B. (1978). The scientic use of factor analysis. New York: Plenum Press. Chorpita, B. E., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 3-21. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159.

40

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Collishaw, S., Maughan, B., Goodman, R., & Pickles, A. (2004). Time trends in adolescent mental health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1350-1362. Comrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (1992). A first course in factor analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Congdon, P. (2003). Applied Bayesian Modelling: John Wiley. Congdon, P. (2006). Bayesian Statistical Modelling (2nd ed.): John Wiley. Connell, J. P. (1985). A new multidimensional measure of children's perceptions of control. Child Development, 56, 1018-1041. Connell, J. P., Gambone, M. A., & Smith, T. J. (2000). Youth development in community settings: Challenges to our field and our approach. In Youth Development: Issues, Challenges, and Directions (pp. 281-300). Philadelphia, PA: Private/Public Ventures. Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10, 1-9. Craven, R. G., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (1991). Effects of internally focused feedback and attributional feedback on enhancement of academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 1727. Creemers, B., & Kyriakides, L. (2006). Critical analysis of the current approaches to modelling educational effectiveness: The importance of establishing a dynamic model. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17(3), 347-366. Creemers, B., & Kyriakides, L. (2007). The dynamics of educational effectiveness: A contribution to policy, practice and theory in contemporary schools. London: Routledge Falmer. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297334. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302. de Leeuw, E. (2005). Surveying children. In S. G. Best (Ed.), Polling America: An Encyclopedia of Public Opinion. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. de Leeuw, E., Borgers, N., & Smits, A. (2004). Pretesting questionnaires for children and adolescents. In S. Rothgeb, J. M. Couper, M. T. Lessler, J. T. Martin, J. Martin & E. Singer (Eds.), Methods for testing and evaluating survey questionnaires. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. DeCarlo, L. T. (1997). On the meaning and use of kurtosis. Psychological Methods, 2, 292307. Dent, R. J., & Cameron, R. J. (2003). Developing resilience in children who are in public care: The educational psychology perspective. Educational Psychology in Practice, 19(1), 317. Department for Children Schools and Families. (2008). Targeted Mental Health in Schools Project Using the evidence to inform your approach: a practical guide for headteachers and commissioners. Nottingham: DCSF Publications.

41

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Department for Education and Skills. (2004a). Every child matters: Change for children. London: Stationery Office. Department for Education and Skills. (2004b). Every child matters: Next steps. London: Stationery Office. Department for Education and Skills. (2005). Excellence and enjoyment: social and emotional aspects of learning (SEAL). London: Department for Education and Skills. Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet Surveys. The Tailored Design Method. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Dohrn, E., & Bryan, T. (1994). Attributional instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 26, 6163. Doland, D. J., & Adelberg, K. (1967). The learning of sharing behavior. Child Development, 38, 695-700. Durlak, J. A. (1995). School-based prevention programs for children and adolescents. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Eccles, J. S. (2004). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 125-153). New York: John Wiley and sons. Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Tackett, K. K., & Schnakenberg, J. W. (2009). A Synthesis of Reading Interventions and Effects on Reading Comprehension Outcomes for Older Struggling Readers. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 262-300. Elander, J., & Rutter, M. (1996). Use and development of the Rutter parents' and teachers' scales. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 6(2), 63-78. Epkins, C. C. (1996). Cognitive specificity and affective confounding in social anxiety and dysphoria in children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 18, 83101. Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Bulletin, 4, 272299. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Method, 39(175-191). Felner, R. D., Brand, S., Adan, A. M., Mulhall, P. F., Flowers, N., Sartain, B., & DuBois, D. L. (1993). Restructuring the ecology of the school as an approach to prevention during school transitions: Longitudinal follow-ups and extensions of the school transitional environment project (STEP). Prevention in Human Services, 10, 103-136. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fincham, F. D., & Cain, K. M. (1986). Learned helplessness in humans: A developmental analysis. Developmental Review, 6(4), 301-333. Findley, M. J., & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 419-427.

42

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Fisher, B. C. (2006). Attention Deficit Disorder: Practical Coping Methods (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Informa Health Care. Friedman, I. (1995). School principal burnout: the concept and its components. Journal of Organisational Behavior, 16, 191-198. Gascon, G. G., Johnson, R., & Burd, L. (1986). Central Auditory Processing and Attention Deficit Disorders. J Child Neurol, 1(1), 27-33. Gelfand, D. M., Hartmann, D. P., Cromer, C. C., Smith, C. L., & Page, B. C. (1975). The effects of instructional prompts and praise on children's donation rates. Child Development, 46, 980-983. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (1995). Bayesian data analysis. London: Chapman & Hall. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. B., Stern, H. S., & Rubin, D. B. (2004). Bayesian Data Analysis (2nd ed.). London: CRC Press. Gelman, A., Meng, X. L., & Stern, H. S. (1996). Posterior predictive assessment of model fitness via realized discrepancies. Statistica Sinica, 6, 733-807. Gersten, R., Carnine, D., & Woodward, J. (1987). Direct Instruction Research: The third decade. Remedial & Special Education, 8(6), 48-56. Gomm, R. (2004). Social Research Methodology: A Critical Introduction. London: Palgrave. Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 581-586. Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 534-539. Goodman, R., Renfrew, D., & Mullick, M. (2000). Predicting type of psychiatric disorder from Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) scores in child mental health clinics in London and Dhaka. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 9(2), 129-134. Goodman, R., & Scott, S. (1999). Comparing the strengths and difficulties questionnaire and the child behavior checklist: Is small beautiful? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(1), 17-24. Gorusch, R. L. (1983). Factor Analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Graham, S., & Dwyer, A. (1987). Effects of the learning-disability label, quality of writing performance, and examiners level of expertise on the evaluation of written products. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20(5), 317-318. Green, H., McGinnity, A., Meltzer, H., Ford, T., & Goodman, R. (2005). Mental health of children and young people in Great Britain, 2004. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Greene, R. W. (2005). Oppositional defiant disorder. In R. T. Ammerman (Ed.), Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopatholog (Vol. 3, pp. 285-298). New York: Wiley. Greene, R. W. (2008). The explosive child: A new approach for understanding and helping easily frustrated, chronically inflexibly (4th ed.). New York: Harper Collins.

43

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Greene, R. W., & Ablon, J. S. (2006). Treating explosive children: The Collaborative Problem Solving approach. New York: Guilford Press. Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., Monuteaux, M., Goring, J., Henin, A., & Raezer, L. (2004). Effectiveness of Collaborative Problem Solving in affectively dysregulated youth with oppositional defiant disorder: Initial findings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 11571164. Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (2008). Social Skills Improvement System-Rating Scales. Bloomington, MN: Pearson Assessments. Grossman, H. (2004). Classroom behavior management for diverse and inclusive schools (3rd ed.). New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W. F. (1988a). Relation of sample-size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 265-275. Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W. F. (1988b). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 265-275. Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A., Coddington, C. S., Klauda, S. L., Wigfield, A., & Barbosa, P. (2009). Impacts of Comprehensive Reading Instruction on Diverse Outcomes of Low- and High-Achieving Readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(3), 195-214. Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Barbosa, P., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Davis, M. H., Scafiddi, N. T., & Tonks, S. (2004). Increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 403423. Haitovsky, Y. (1969). A Note on the Maximization of k2. The Amiterican Statistician, 23, 2021. Harris, P. P., & Swick, K. J. (1985). Improving teacher communications: Focus on clarity andquestioning skills. Clearing House, 59(1), 13-15. Havlinova, M., & Schneidrova, D. (1995). Stress characteristics in schoolchildren related to different educational strategies and school climates. Cent Eur J Public Health, 3(4), 205-209. Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2004). Australian data and psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 38(8), 644-651. Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hill, K. G., & Abbott, R. D. (2005). Promoting positive adult functioning through social development intervention in childhood Long-term effects from the Seattle Social Development Project. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(1), 25-31. Hayes, B., Hindle, S., & Withington, P. (2007). Strategies for developing positive behaviour management. Teacher behaviour outcomes and attitudes to the change process. Educational Psychology in Practice, 23(2), 161-175. Haynes, N. M., & Comer, J. P. (1990). The effects of a school development program on selfconcept. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 63(4), 275-283.

44

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Health Professions Council. (2008). Standards of conduct, performance and ethics. London: HPC. Health Professions Council. (2009). Standards of proficiency Practitioner Psychologists. London: HPC. Henderlong, J., & Lepper, M. (2002). The effects of praise on childrens intrinsic motivation: A review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 774-795. Herring, A. H., & Dunson, D. B. (2004). Modeling the effects of a bi-directional latent predictor from multivariate questionnaire data. Biometrics 60, 926-935. Hiebert, E. H., Winograd, P. N., & Danner, F. W. (1984). Children's attributions of failure and success for different aspects of reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 11391148. Hitz, R., & Driscoll, A. (1989). Praise or encouragement? New insights into praise. Implications for early childhood teachers. Young Children, 43, 613. Hitz, R., & Driscoll, A. (1994). Give encouragement. Texas Child Care, Spring, 3-11. Hoffman, J., & Weiner, B. (1978). Effects of attributions for success and failure on the performance of retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 82, 449-452. Huppert, F. A., & Baylis, N. (2004). Well-being: towards an integration of psychology, neurobiology and social science. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1447-1451. Hurley, A. E., Scandura, T. A., Schriesheim, C. A., Brannick, M. T., Seers, A., Vandenberg, R. J., & Williams, L. J. (1997). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: guidelines, issues, and alternatives. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(6), 667-683. Hutcheson, G., & Sofroniou, N. (1999). The Multivariate Social Scientist. London: Sage. Jane-Llopis, E., Barry, M., Hosman, C., & Patel, V. (2005). Mental health promotion works: a review. Promot Educ, Suppl 2, 9-25, 61, 67. Jedidi, K., & Ansari, A. (2001). Bayesian structural equation models for multilevel data. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), New developments and techniques in structural equation modeling (pp. 129-157). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jenkins, C., & Dillman, D. (1997). Towards a Theory of Self-Administered Questionnaire Design. In L. Lyberg, P. P. Biemer, M. Collins, E. de Leeuw, C. Dippo, N. Schwarz & D. Trewin (Eds.), Survey Measurement and Process Quality. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 220-266). New York: Academic Press. Joreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing structural equation models. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 294-316). Newbury, CA: Sage. Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131-155. Kaiser, H. (1970). A Second Generation Little Jiffy. Psychometrika, 35, 401-415.

45

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Kaiser, H. (1974). An Index of Factorial Simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36. Kalis, T. M., Vannest, K., & Parker, R. (2007). Praise counts: using self-monitoring to increase effective teaching practices. Preventing School Failure, 51, 20-27. Kamins, M., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person vs. process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental Psychology, 35, 835847. Kasen, S., Johnson, J., & Cohen, P. (1990). The Impact of School Emotional Climate on Student Psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18(2), 165-177. Kass, R. A., & Tinsley, H. E. (1979). Factor analysis. Journal of Leisure Research, 11, 120138. Kelley, H. H. (1973). The processes of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28(2), 107128. Kelley, H. H., & Michela, J. L. (1980). Attribution theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 457-501. Kerr, M. M., & Nelson, M. C. (2010). Strategies for Addressing Behavior Problems in the Classroom (6th ed.). Columbus OH: Merrill. Klein, J. D., & Keller., J. M. (1990). Influence of student ability, locus of control, and type of instructional control on performance and confidence. Journal of Educational Research, 83(3), 140-146. Kline, P. (1999). The Handbook of Psychological Testing (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge. Konu, A. I., & Lintonen, T. P. (2006). School well-being in grades 4-12. Health Education Research, 21(5), 633-642. Krampen, G. (1987). Differential effects of teacher comments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79 (2), 115-119. Kumchy, C., & Sayer, L. (1980). Locus of control in a delinquent population. Psychological Reports, 46, 1307-1310. Kuperminc, G. P., Leadbeater, B. J., & Blatt, S. J. (2001). School social climate and individual differences in vulnerability to psychopathology among middle school students. Journal of School Psychology, 39(2), 141-159. Lampi, A., Fenty, N., & Beaunae, C. (2005). Making the three Ps easier: praise, proximity and precorrection. Beyond Behavior, 15, 8-12. Lau, S., & Leung, K. (1992). Relations with parents and school and Chinese adolescent selfconcept, delinquency, and academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 193-202. Lawley, D. N., & Maxwell, A. E. (1963). Factor analysis as a statistical method. London: Butterworth. Lee, S. (2007). Structural Equation Modeling: A Bayesian Approach. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley and Sons. Lee, S. Y., Poon, W. Y., & Bentler, P. M. (1990). Full maximum likelihood analysis of structural equation models with polytomous variables. Statistics & Probability 9, 91-97. Lee, S. Y., & Song, X. Y. (2004). Bayesian model comparison of nonlinear structural equation models with missing continuous and ordinal data. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 57, 131-150.

46

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Link, B., & Phelan, J. (2001). Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27. Linn, R. T., & Hodge, G. K. (1982). Locus of control in childhood hyperactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psvchology, 50(4), 592-593. Lister-Sharpe, D., Chapman, S., & Stewart Brown, S. (1999). Health promoting schools and health promotion in schools: two systematic reviews. Health Technology Assessment, 3, 1-201. Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2000). Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 737-762. Long, D. L., & Lea, R. B. (2005). Have we been searching for meaning in all the wrong places? Defining the "search after meaning" principle in comprehension. Discourse Processes, 39(2-3), 279-298. Luce, S., & Hoge, R. (1978). Relations among teacher rankings, pupil-teacher interactions, and academic achievement: A test of the teacher expectancy hypothesis. American Educational Research Journal, 15, 489-500. Maag, J. W. (2004). Behavior management: From theoretical implications to practical applications (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thompson Learning. MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S. B., & Hong, S. H. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84-99. Maccoby, E. M. (1968). The development of moral values and behavior in childhood. In J. A. Clausen (Ed.), Socialization and Society. Boston: Little Brown Books. MacMillan, D., & Keogh, B. (1971). Normal and retarded childrens expectancy for failure. Developmental Psychology, 9, 477-494. Madon, S., Smith, A., Jussim, L., Russell, D. W., Eccles, J., Palumbo, P., & Walkiewicz, M. (2001). Am I as you see me or so you see me as I am? Self-fulfilling prophecies and self-verification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(9), 1214-1224. Manset-Williamson, G., & Nelson, J. M. (2005). Balanced, strategic reading instruction for upper-elementary and middle school students with reading disabilities: A comparative study of two approaches. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(1), 59-74. Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika 57 519-530. Mardia, K. V. (1974). Applications of some measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis in testing normality and robustness studies. Sankhaya, 36, 115128. Marsh, H. W. (1990). The infuences of internal and external factors of reference on the formation of English and math self-concepts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 107116. Mayr, S., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Faul, F. (2007). A short tutorial of GPower. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 3, 51-59. McCaffrey, D. F., Lockwood, J. R., Koretz, D., Louis, T. A., & Hamilton, L. (2004). Models for value-added modeling of teacher effects. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 29(1), 67-101.

47

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools McGrew, K. S., & Evans, J. (2003). Expectations for students with cognitive disabilities: Is the cup half empty or half full? Can the cup flow over? (Synthesis Report 55). Retrieved 18/02, 2010, from http://education.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Synthesis55.html McInnes, A., Humphries, T., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock , R. (2003). Listening Comprehension and Working Memory Are Impaired in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Irrespective of Language Impairment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(4). McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185-204. Meltzer, H., Gatward, R., Goodman, R., & Ford, F. (2000a). Mental health of children and adolescents in Great Britain. London: The Stationery Office. Meltzer, H., Gatward, R., Goodman, R., & Ford, T. (2000b). Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in Great Britain, . London: The Stationery Office. Merrett, F., & Wheldall, K. (1990). Positive Teaching in the Primary School. London: Paul Chapman. Miller, S. M. (1979). Controllability and human stress: method, evidence and theory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17(4), 287-304. Mithaug, E. D., & Burgess, R. L. (1968). The effects of different reinforcement contingencies in the development of social cooperation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 6, 402-426. Morrison-Gutman, L., & Feinstein, L. (2008). Childrens Well-Being in Primary School: Pupil and School Effects, Wider Benefits of Learning Research Report No.25: Centre for Research on the Wider Benefits of Learning. Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33-52. Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2005a). Effective Teaching Evidence and Practice. London: SAGE Publications. Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2005b). Effective Teaching Evidence and Practice. . London: SAGE Publications. Muris, P., Bodden, D., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T., & King, N. (2003). Fear of the beast: a prospective study on the effects of negative information on childhood fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 195-208. Mussen, P., & Eisenberg, N. (2001). Prosocial development in context. In A. C. Bohart & D. J. Stipek (Eds.), Constructive and destructive behavior: Implications for family, school, and society (pp. 103-126). Washington, D. C: American Psychological Association. Nastasi, B. K. (2004). Promotion of mental health. In R. T. Brown (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology in school settings (pp. 99-114). Malwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Ndomb, R. J., Elegbeleye, A. O., & Sunmonu, F. O. (2008). The Role of locus of control and feedback on performance of primary school student. IFE PsychologIA, 18(1), 173-186. Nelson, J. R. (1996). Designing schools to meet the needs of students who exhibit disruptive behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4(3), 147-161.

48

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Nelson, J. R., Martella, R. M., & Marchand-Martella, N. (2002). Maximizing student learning: The effects of a comprehensive school-based program for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(3), 136-148. Norman, D. A. (2004). Emotional Design. Why we Love (or Hate) Everyday Things. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books. O'Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32, 396-402. OECD. (2009). Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. Olsson, U. (1979). Maximum likelihood estimation of the polychoric correlation coefficient. Psychometrika, 44(4), 443-460. Osterhom, K. O., Nash, W. R., & Kritsonis, W. A. (2007). Effects of Labeling Students Learning Disabled: Emergent Themes in the Research Literature 1970 Through 2000. National Journal: FOCUS On Colleges, Universities, and Schools, 1(1). Paine, S. C., Radicchi, J., Rosellini, L. C., Deutchman, L., & Darch, C. B. (1983). Structuring your classroom for academic success. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Parent, J., Forward, J., Canter, R., & Mohling, J. (1975). Interactive effects of teaching strategy and personal locus of control on student performance and satisfaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 764-769. Perkins, R., & Rinaldi, M. (2002). Unemployment rates among patients with long-term mental health problems The Psychiatrist, 26, 295-298. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Press, S. J., & Shigemasu, K. (1989). Bayesian inference in factor analysis. In L. J. Gleser, M. D. Perlman, S. J. Press & A. R. Sampson (Eds.), Contributions to Probability and Statistics: Essays in Honor of Ingram Olkin (pp. 271-287). NewYork: Springer-Verlag. Pressley, M. (2002). Effective beginning reading instruction. Journal of Literacy Research, 34(2), 165-188. Quinton, D., Andrew, P., Barbara, M., & Michael, R. (1993). Partners, Peers, and Pathways: Assortative Pairing and Continuities in Conduct Disorder. Development and Psychopathology 5, 763-783. Rapee, M., Craske, M. G., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Measurement of perceived control over anxiety-related events. Behaviour Therapy, 27, 279-293. Reddy, R., Rhodes, J., & Mulhall, P. (2003). The influence of teacher support on student adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 119138. Reinecke, M. A., Dattilio, F. M., & Freeman, A. (2003). Cognitive Therapy with Children and Adolescents: A Casebook for Clinical Practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Hauf, A. M. C., Wasserman, M. S., & Silverman, A. B. (1999). Major depression in the transition to adulthood: Risks and impairments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 500-510.

49

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Reinke, W. M., & Herman, K. C. (2002). Creating school environments that deter antisocial behaviors in youth. Psychology in the Schools. 39(5), 549-559. Riccig, C. A., & Hynd, G. W. (1996). Relationship between ADHD and Central Auditory Processing Disorder: A Review of the Literature. School Psychology International, 17(3), 235-252. Robert, C. P., & Casella, G. (2004). Monte Carlo Statistical Methods. New York: SpringerVerlag. Robinson, J. P., & Shaver, P. R. (1973). Measures of Social Psychology Attitudes. Michigan Michigan Printing Press. Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1992). Pymalion in the classroom. Teacher expectation and pupils intellectual development. New York: Irvington. Rotter, J. (1975). Some Problems and Misconceptions Related to the Construct of Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological monographs, 80(1), 1-28. Rowling, L., & Martin, G. (2002). Mental health promotion and young people: The next 10 years. In L. Rowling, G. Martin & L. Walker (Eds.), Mental Health Promotion and Young People: Concepts and Practice (pp. 258-265). Sydney, Australia: McGraw-Hill Australia. Royce, J. R. (1963). Factors as theoretical constructs. American Psychologist, 18, 522-527. Rubin, D. B. (1984). Bayesianly justifiable and relevant frequency calculations for the applied statistician. The Annals of Statistics, 12(4), 1151-1172. Rutter, M. (1997). Clinical implications of attachment concepts: Retrospect and prospect. In L. Atkinson & K. Zucker (Eds.), Attachment and psychopathology (pp. 17-46). New York: Guilford Press. Sabo, D. J. (1995). Organizational Climate of Middle Schools and the Quality of Student Life. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 28, 150160. Scheerens, J., & Bosker, R. J. (1997). The foundations of educational effectiveness. Oxford: Elsevier Science. Scheff, T. J. (1984). Being mentally ill. A sociological theory. New York: Aldine. Scheuermann, & Hall. (2008). Positive Behavioral Supports for the Classroom. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Hall. Scott, J. (1997). Children as Respondents: Methods for Improving Data Quality. In L. Lyberg, P. Biemer, M. Collins, E. de Leeuw, C. Dippo, N. Schwarz & D. Trewin (Eds.), Survey Measurement and Process Quality (pp. 331-350). New York: Wiley. Seligman, M. E. P. (1968). Chronic fear produced by unpredictable electric shock. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 66, 402-411. Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness. San Francisco, CA: Freeman & Company.

50

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Sencibaugh, J. M. (2007). Meta-Analysis of Reading Comprehension Interventions for Students with Learning Disabilities: Strategies and Implications. Reading Improvement, 44(1), 6-22. Shear, M. K. (1991). The concept of uncontrollability. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 58-71. Shechtman, Z., & Leichtentritt, J. (2004). Affective teaching: a method to enhance classroom management. European Journal of Teacher Education, 27(3), 323-333. Shucksmith, J., Spratt, J., Philip, K., & McNaughton, R. (2009). A critical review of the literature on children and young peoples views of the factors that influence their mental health: NHS Health Scotland. Skevington, S., Birdthistle, I., & Jones, J. (2003). Creating an Environment for Emotional and SocialWell-being:An important responsibility of a health-promoting and child-friendly school. Geneva: World Health Organization. Skinner, E. A., Wellborn, J. G., & Connell, J. P. (1990). What it takes to do well in school and whether Ive got it: A process model of perceived control and childrens engagement and achievement in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 22-32. Smith, A. E., Jussim, L., Eccles, J., Vannoy, M., Madon, S., & Palumbo, P. (1998). Self-Fulfilling Prophecies, Perceptual Biases, and Accuracy at the Individual and Group Levels. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34(6), 530-561. Sorhaindo, A. (2006). Young people health risk taking: A brief review of evidence on attitudes, at-risk populations and successful interventions. Part of the contribution of the Department of Health (Children & Young People's Public Health programme) to the Ten Year Youth Strategy Review of the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF). Spratt, J., Shucksmith, J., Philip, K., & Watson, C. (2006). Part of who we are as a school should include responsibility for well-being: links between the school environment, mental health and behavior. Pastoral Care in Education, 24, 1421. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air - How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. Steele, C. M. (1998). Stereotyping and its threat are real. American Psychologist, 53(6), 680681. Stevens, J. (2002). Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences (4th ed.): Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum. Stewart-Brown, S. (2005). Promoting health in children and young people: identifying priorities. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 125(2), 61-62. Stewart-Brown, S. (2006). What is the evidence on school health promotion in improving health or preventing disease and, specifically, what is the effectiveness of the health promoting schools approach? Copenhagen, Denmark.: WHO. Strain, P. S., & Joseph, G. E. (2004). A not so good job with "good job": A response to Kohn 2001. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 6 (1), 55-60.

51

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Sutherland, K., Wehby, J., & Yoder, P. (2002). Examination of the relationship between teacher praise and opportunities for students with EBD to respond to academic requests. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(1), 5-14. Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., & Copeland, S. R. (2000). Effect of varying rates of behaviorspecific praise on the on-task behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 2-8. Swann, W. B. (1996). Self-traps. The elusive quest for higher self-esteem. New York: Freeman & Co. Swann, W. B. (1997). The trouble with change: Self-verification and allegiance to the self. Psychological Science, 8, 177-180. Swanson, H. L. (1999). Reading Research for Students with LD: A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Outcomes. J Learn Disabil, 32(6), 504-532. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics (4th ed.). . MA: Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Talbott, E., Lloyd, J. W., & Tankersley, M. (1994). Effects of Reading Comprehension Interventions for Students with Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17(3), 223-232. Tam Shui, K. T. (2003). Locus of control, attributional style and discipline problems in secondary schools. Early Child Development and Care, 173(5), 455 - 466. Tarnowski, K. J., & Nay, S. M. (1989). Locus of Control in Children with Learning Disabilities and Hyperactivity: A Subgroup Analysis. J Learn Disabil, 22(6), 381-383. Tataryn, D. J., Wood, J. M., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1999). Setting the value of k in promax: A Monte Carlo study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59, 384-391. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychol Bull, 103(2), 193-210. Teddlie, C., & Reynolds, D. (2000). The international handbook of school effectiveness research. London: Falmer Press. Tennant, R., Goens, C., Barlow, J., Day, C., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). A systematic review of reviews of interventions to promote mental health and prevent mental health problems in children and young people. Journal Of Public Mental Health, 6(1), 25-32. Thomas, J., Presland, I., Grant, M., & Glynn, T. (1978). Natural rates of teacher approval and disapproval in grade-7 classrooms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 285-303. Thornton, J. W., & Jacobs, P. D. (1971). Learned helplessness in human subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 87(3), 367-372. Thurstone, L. L. (1947). Multiple-factor analysis: A development and expansion of the vectors of the mind. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Travers, C., & Cooper, C. (1996). Teachers under pressure: stress in the teaching profession. London: Routledge. Trice, A. D. (1980). Students locus of control and ratings of a structured educational environment. Psychological Reports, 46.

52

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Vogler, R. E., Masters, W. M., & Merrill, G. S. (1970). Shaping cooperative behavior in young children. Journal of Psychology, 74, 181-186. Vogler, R. E., Masters, W. M., & Merrill, G. S. (1971). Extinction of cooperative behavior as a function of acquisition by shaping or instruction. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 119, 233-240. Wagner, D. A., Spratt, J. E., Gal, I., & Paris, S. G. (1989). Reading and believing: Beliefs, attributions, and reading achievement in Moroccan school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 283-293. Weare, K. (2000). Promoting Mental, Emotional and Social Health: A Whole School Approach. London: Routledge Weare, K., & Markham, W. (2005). What do we know about promoting mental health through schools? Promot Educ, 12(3-4), 118-122. Weems, C. F., Berman, S. L., Silverman, W. K., & Saavedra, L. M. (2001). Cognitive errrors in youth with anxiety disorders: the linkages between negative cognitive errors and anxious symptoms. Cognitive Therapy Research, 25(5), 559-575. Weems, C. F., & Silverman, W. K. (2006). An integrative model of control: Implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91(2-3), 113-124. Weems, C. F., Silverman, W. K., Rapee, R. M., & Pina, A. A. (2003). The role of control in childhood anxiety disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(5), 557-568. Weiner, B. (1985). An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion. Psychological Review, 92 (4), 548-573. Weiner, B. (1986). An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion. New York: SpringerVerlag. Weisz, J. R. (1999). Cognitive performance and learned helplessness in mentally retarded persons. In E. Zigler & D. Bennett-Gates (Eds.), Personality development in individuals with mental retardation (pp. 17-46). New York: Cambridge University Press. Wells, J., Barlow, J., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2003). A systematic review of universal approaches to mental health promotion in schools. Health Education, 103, 197-220. West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural Equation Modeling: Issues, Concepts, and Applications (pp. 5675). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Wheldall, K., & Merrett, F. (1989). Positive Teaching in the Secondary School. London: Paul Chapman. Widaman, K. F. (1990). Bias in Pattern Loadings Represented by Common Factor-Analysis and Component Analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25(1), 89-95. Widaman, K. F. (1993). Common Factor-Analysis Versus Principal Component Analysis Differential Bias in Representing Model Parameters. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 28(3), 263-311. Willis, G. (2005). Cognitive Interviewing: A Tool for Improving Questionnaire Design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

53

Improving Childrens Mental Health In Schools Wilson, S. J., Lipsey, M. W., & Derzon, J. H. (2003). The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 136-149. Wisdom, J. P., Clarke, G. N., & Green, C. A. (2006). What teens want: Barriers to seeking care for depression. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 33(2), 133-145. World Health Organization. (2001a). Mental Health: Strengthening Mental Health Promotion. Geneva: WHO. World Health Organization. (2001b). The World Health Report 2001: Mental Health - New Understanding, New Hope Geneva: WHO. Ysseldyke, J. E., & Algozzine, B. (1990). Introduction to special education (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ysseldyke, J. E., & Foster, G. G. (1978). Bias in teachers observations of emotionallydisturbed and learning disabled children. Exceptional Children, 44(8), 613-615. Zins, J. E., Bloodworth, M. R., Weissberg, R. P., & Walberg, H. J. (2004). The scientific base linking emotional learning to student success and academic outcomes. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 3-22). New York , NY: Teachers College Press. Zwick, W. R., & Velicer, W. F. (1986). Comparison of five rules for determining the number of components to retain. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 432-442.

54