4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS

4. STEADY-STATE FLOWS
In Section 2 we considered the inuence of a prescribed ow on a magnetic eld; i.e. we
solved the induction equation to determine its solution B for a given ow u. The inuence
of given eld B on the ow was considered separately in Section 3. Here, we consider the
more realistic situation where the induction and Navier-Stokes equations are coupled and
we solve them together for both B and u. Here, the ow is not prescribed but is driven by
a given forcing. As the ow evolves, it modies the eld which in turn modies the Lorentz
force. The ow will then continue to evolve.
At this early stage of developing our understanding of this mutual interaction, we shall
consider only the nal steady state to which the system evolves.
Hartmann Flow
Consider a steady unidirectional ow u x conned between two innite rigid at plates
at z = d. A uniform magnetic eld B
0
z is applied normal to the plates. The uid is
incompressible and viscous, satisfying the boundary condition u = 0 at z = d.
The ow drags the eld lines along in the x-direction, so the eld acquires a compo-
nent in the x-direction. Hence, in general
B = b x + B
0
z . (4.1)
We shall assume the problem is independent of y and seek a steady solution.
Governing equations
The equations governing the system consist of the steady (/t = 0) versions of the
induction equation, Navier-Stokes equation and mass continuity equation (see (1.22))
0 = (u B) +
2
B, (4.2)
(u )u = p +
2
u +
1

0
(B) B, (4.3)
1
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
u = 0 . (4.4)
Looking now at our particular system, with
u = (u, 0, 0) and B = (b, 0, B
0
) ,
we can deduce from (4.4) that u/x = 0 and hence u = u(z). A consequence of this
is that (u )u = 0. Similarly, we know that B = 0 (see (1.3)) which implies that
b/x = 0 and hence b = b(z).
In order to solve (4.2) and (4.3) we must express them in component form.
u B =

x y z
u 0 0
b 0 B
0

= (0, uB
0
, 0)
(u B) =

x y z

z
0 uB
0
0

=
_
d
dz
(uB
0
), 0, 0
_
B =

x y z

z
b 0 B
0

=
_
0,
db
dz
, 0
_
(B) B =

x y z
0
db
dz
0
b 0 B
0

=
_
B
0
db
dz
, 0, b
db
dz
_
Then, the x-component of the induction equation (4.2) becomes
0 =
d
dz
(uB
0
) +
d
2
b
dz
2
. (4.5)
The other two components of (4.2) vanish identically.
The x- and z- components of the Navier-Stokes equation become
0 =
p
x
+
B
0

0
db
dz
+
d
2
u
dz
2
, (4.6)
0 =
p
z

b

0
db
dz
. (4.7)
The problem has now been reduced to solving (4.5)-(4.7). Firstly, let us consider (4.7).
It may be rewritten as
0 =
p
z

1
2
0
db
2
dz
.
2
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Integrating with respect to z gives
p +
b
2
2
0
= f(x) , (4.8)
where f is an arbitrary function of x. Dierentiating with respect to x gives
p
x
= f

(x) . (4.9)
Let us now consider (4.6). Since b and u are functions only of z, we must conclude
that
p
x
is a function only of z. (4.10)
Taking (4.9) and (4.10) together, the only possibility is that
p
x
= constant = P
0
(say) . (4.11)
Equation (4.6) then becomes
0 = P
0
+
B
0

0
db
dz
+
d
2
u
dz
2
. (4.12)
Consider now equation (4.5). Integrating this with respect to z gives
(uB
0
) +
db
dz
= constant = E
0
(say) . (4.13)
The problem has now been reduced to solving (4.12) and (4.13). Substituting for
db/dz from (4.13) in (4.12) gives
0 = P
0
+
B
0

(E
0
uB
0
) +
d
2
u
dz
2
,
or
d
2
u
dz
2

B
2
0

u =
1

(P
0
+ B
0
E
0
) ,
(since = 1/
0
). We shall write this in the form
d
2
u
dz
2

M
2
d
2
u =
1

(P
0
+ B
0
E
0
) , (4.14)
where
M
2
=
B
2
0
d
2

. (4.15)
3
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
The non-dimensional parameter M is known as the Hartmann Number.
Equation (4.14) has solution
u = Acosh
Mz
d
+ B sinh
Mz
d
+
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
,
where A and B are arbitrary constants. These are determined by applying the rigid
boundary condition u = 0 at z = d. (This is required as the ow of a viscous uid
must be stationary relative to a rigid boundary at the boundary.) Applying this, we
get
0 = AcoshM + B sinhM +
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
.
Hence
B = 0 , AcoshM =
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
.
So, nally,
u =
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
_
1
cosh(Mz/d)
coshM
_
. (4.16)
Interpretation of E
0
We can obtain a physical interpretation of the constant of integration E
0
that rst
appeared in (4.13). To do this, we need to return to Maxwells equations and the
generalised Ohms law introduced in Section 1. From (1.6), (1.8) and (1.10) we have
B =
0
j , and j = (E+u B) .
Combining these
B =
0
(E+u B) .
For the problem above (see the calculations preceding (4.5)), this becomes

db
dz
= E
y
uB
0
. (4.17)
Comparing this with (4.13) we see that the arbitrary constant of integration E
0
is
just the y-component of the electric eld E.
Interpretation of the Hartmann number
The steady induction equation (4.2) gives
UB
0
d

B
0
d
2
U

d
,
4
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
where U, B
0
and d are a typical ow speed, magnetic eld strength and length scale.
Then, we can estimate the relative strength of the Lorentz force to the viscous force
to be
|
1
0
(B) B|
|
2
u|

B
2
0
/
0
d
U/d
2
=
B
2
0
d
2

= M
2
.
Hence the square of the Hartmann number is a non-dimensional measure of the ratio
of the strength of the Lorentz force compared with the viscous force.
Solution for b
In solving the simultaneous equations (4.5)-(4.7), we eliminated the unknown mag-
netic eld b and solved for the unknown ow u. That done, we can now solve for b.
Taking (4.13) as our starting point

db
dz
= E
0
uB
0
.
Then, using our solution (4.16) for u,
db
dz
=
E
0

P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
0
_
1
cosh(Mz/d)
coshM
_
.
Integrating this with respect to z,
b =
E
0

z
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
0
_
z
d
M
sinh(Mz/d)
coshM
_
+ c ,
where c is a constant.
The arbitrary constants E
0
and c are determined by boundary conditions on b. The
situation can be complicated by the presence of an external circuit (see later). For the
moment, let us assume that the system is symmetric about z = 0, with b = 0 at z = 0.
Then
0 =
E
0

(0)
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
0
_
0
d
M
sinh(0)
cosh M
_
+ c , c = 0 .
Hence
b =
P
0
B
0
z +
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
0
d
M
sinh(Mz/d)
coshM
. (4.18)
M 1
While we have been able to nd solutions for u and b for arbitrary M, it is instruc-
tive to consider the limits of weak and strong magnetic eld. Here we look at the
weak-eld case and show that it reduces to the zero-eld case in the limit M 0.
Using the Taylor series expansion for cosh (coshx = 1 + x
2
/2! + . . .)
cosh(Mz/d)
coshM
=
_
1 +
1
2
_
Mz
d
_
2
+
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
+
_
1
.
5
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Then, using the binomial expansion (1 + x)
1
= 1 x + x
2
, we have
cosh(Mz/d)
coshM
=
_
1 +
1
2
_
Mz
d
_
2
+
_
_
1
1
2
M
2
+
_
= 1 +
1
2
_
Mz
d
_
2

1
2
M
2
+
1
1
2
M
2
_
1
z
2
d
2
_
.
Then, from (4.16) we can write
u
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
M
2
2
_
1
z
2
d
2
_
, (4.19)
or
u
P
0
d
2
2
_
1 +
B
0
E
0
P
0
__
1
z
2
d
2
_
. (4.20)
This is the equation of a parabola
Note that the primary eect of a weak eld is to modify the amplitude of the ow.
The solution (4.20) reduces to that for ow in the absence of a magnetic eld in the
limit B
0
0. (To see this, solve (4.12) with B
0
= 0.)
M 1
It is also instructive to examine the solution when the magnetic eld is very strong
(M 1). Again, let us focus rst on the term
cosh(Mz/d)
coshM
.
Recall that coshx =
1
2
(e
x
+ e
x
). For |x| 1, we then have
cosh x
1
2
e
|x|
.
Then, for M 1,
coshM
1
2
e
M
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4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
and
cosh
Mz
d

_
1
2
e
|Mz/d|
, |Mz/d| 1
O(1) , |Mz/d| O(1) ,
so then
cosh
Mz
d
coshM

_
e
M(1|z/d|)
, |Mz/d| 1
1 , |Mz/d| O(1) .
Hence
cosh
Mz
d
coshM
1
except where 1|z/d| 1, i.e. except where z is close to d. Hence, we can say that
when M 1
u(z)
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
, (4.21)
except close to the boundaries at z = d.
We know that u = 0 at z = d since this is the boundary condition we applied. The
ow must reduce from the mainstream value (4.21) to zero in a narrow boundary layer
adjacent to each boundary.
Let us consider the boundary layer adjacent to z = d. Let
z = d .
Then
M
_
1

z
d

_
= M
_
1
d
d
_
=
M
d
,
and
cosh
Mz
d
coshM
e
M/d
= 1
M
d
+ . (4.22)
The quantity e
M/d
is small compared with 1 unless
M
d
O(1) ,
i.e. unless
O
_
d
M
_
(4.23)
This denes the width d/M of the boundary layer. In the boundary layer
u
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
_
1 e
M/d
_
, (4.24)
which reduces to
u
P
0
+ B
0
E
0
B
2
0
_
M
d
_
, (4.25)
7
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
when d/M. This conrms that u = 0 at z = d ( = 0).
A similar argument to the above holds for the other boundary (use z = d + ).
We can summarise the M 1 situation as follows. In the mainstream, viscous forces
are negligible and the ow is purely governed by a balance between the Lorentz force
and the pressure gradient, resulting in the uniform ow (4.21). The ow must still
satisfy the viscous boundary condition (u = 0) at z = d. This is achieved by the
action of viscous forces in narrow boundary layers. Here, the weak viscosity is com-
pensated for by large gradients (d/dz = O(M/d)). Hence, the viscous force is mag-
nied by a factor M
2
in the boundary layers; exactly what is required to increase its
magnitude suciently to be comparable with that of the Lorentz force. Our boundary
layer solution (4.24), approximated by (4.25) shows the ow increasing linearly from
zero with distance from the boundary.
Classication of ow regimes
The ow in the channel is determined by the externally applied magnetic eld B
0
z,
the electric eld E
0
y and the pressure gradient P
0
x. Various possibilities exist de-
pending on the external circuitry determining E
0
.
Consider a channel bounded at y = l. If l d, the solution obtained for u as a
function only of z will remain a good approximation (except close to y = l).
From Ohms law,
j = (E+u B) ,
so
j
y
= (E
0
uB
0
) .
Averaging this over z, the total current
I
1
2d
_
d
d
j
y
dz = (E
0
B
0
u) , (4.26)
where
u =
1
2d
_
d
d
udz . (4.27)
8
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Let us now consider four possible congurations for the external electrical circuit
1. Open Circuit
This is the case where there is no external circuit, and hence no current ows; I = 0.
We can then deduce from (4.26) that
u =
E
0
B
0
.
Given B
0
, measuring E
0
enables u to be calculated. The system therefore acts to
measure the average ow speed.
2. Short circuit
For this case, E
0
= 0, so j
y
< 0. The Lorentz force j B = j
y
B
0
x is therefore in the
-x direction, so is acting to oppose the ow. The system acts as an electromagnetic
brake.
3. E
0
< uB
0
Again, j
y
< 0. The circuit contains only a resistance. The eect of the ow is to
drive a current I around the external circuit (as is also true for case 2). The kinetic
energy of the ow is converted into electrical energy by the system which therefore
acts as an electrical generator.
4. E
0
> uB
0
Here, we use a battery to drive the current I in the opposite direction to (2) and (3).
This reverses the direction of the Lorentz force which now acts in the direction of the
ow, i.e. it helps to drive the ow. Electrical energy is being converted into kinetic
energy, so the system acts as an MHD pump, the reverse of case (3).
9
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Magnetohydrostatic Fields and Plasma Containment
We saw in Section 3 that if gravitational eects are negligible and u = 0, the Navier-
Stokes equation becomes
0 = p +j B. (4.28)
From this
j p = 0 and B p = 0 ,
so B and j lie on surfaces of constant pressure.
Suppose that B and j are chosen in such a way that the Lorentz force j B is always
directed towards some point or line so that the uid pressure pressure is a maximum
there and decreases outward. Then the Lorentz force is acting in such a way as to
contain the plasma. If the system can be designed in such a way that the uid pres-
sure drops to zero, then the plasma is completely conned by the magnetic eld. This
is a very important application. In controlled nuclear fusion, success is dependent on
plasma connement, but the plasma is too hot for any material to act as a physical
container.
Pinch elds
Consider the plasma before the eld is switched on. The pressure is uniform. The
eld is then switched on, resulting in the plasma being compressed or pinched into the
conning region.
Theta Pinch
The conguration j = j

( where (s, , z) are cylindrical polar coordinates) is referred

to as a theta pinch.
Consider
B = b(s) z .
Then
B =
db
ds

,
10
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
so
j b =
1

0
db
ds

b z =
b

0
db
ds
s .
Hence, (4.28) becomes
0 =
d
ds
_
p +
b
2
2
0
_
.
Hence, the total pressure
P = p +
b
2
2
0
= constant .
Choosing a eld b that increases outward results in the pressure p decreasing outward.
If the eld increases such that b
2
/2
0
= P, then p = 0 and the plasma is completely
contained.
Note: In this conguration, the eld lines are straight, so there is no magnetic tension
force.
Linear Pinch
Consider
B = b(s)

.
Then
B =
1
s
d
ds
_
sb
_
z .
So
j B =
1

0
s
d
ds
_
sb
_
z b

=
b

0
s
d
ds
_
sb
_
s
=
_
d
ds
_
b
2
2
0
_
+
b
2

0
s
_
s .
In this case, the Lorentz force has both magnetic tension and pressure components.
Consider the following example:
j =
_
J
0
s < a
0 , s > a .
11
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Solving for b using B =
0
j
s < a
1
s
d
ds
_
sb
_
=
0
J
0
sb =
1
2

0
J
0
s
2
+ c .
Now b must vanish at s = 0 so we conclude that c = 0. Hence
b =
1
2

0
J
0
s .
s > a
1
s
d
ds
_
sb
_
= 0
sb = d .
Now b must be continuous at s = a so we conclude that
d
a
=
1
2

0
J
0
a .
Hence
b(s) =
_
1
2

0
J
0
s s < a ,
1
2

0
J
0
a
2
s
s > a .
(4.29)
Then (4.28) gives
dp
ds
=
_

0
s
d
ds
(sb) s < a ,
0 s > a .
=
_
bJ
0
s < a ,
0 s > a .
=
_

1
2

0
J
2
0
s s < a ,
0 s > a .
Integrating
p =
_
const.
1
4

0
J
2
0
s
2
s < a ,
p
0
s > a ,
12
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
where p
0
is a constant, the external pressure. The pressure must be continuous at
s = a, so we have
const.
1
4

0
J
2
0
a
2
= p
0
.
Hence
p =
_
1
4

0
J
2
0
(a
2
s
2
) + p
0
s < a ,
p
0
s > a .
If p
0
= 0, then the plasma is completely conned in the region s < a.
Cylindrical Pinch
This is a combination of the Theta and Linear Pinches with j and B lying on surfaces
s = constant.
Stability of pinch elds - a qualitative discussion
Consider the linear pinch, with p
0
= 0. The plasma is conned to s < a. In the
exterior region (s > a), j = 0 so the Lorentz force vanishes. In terms of the component
magnetic tension and magnetic pressure gradient, these balance in this region. The
magnetic tension acts inward while the magnetic pressure gradient acts outward (since
the eld strength decreases outward). In the interior (s < a), the Lorentz force acts
to balance the plasma pressure gradient. Both magnetic tension and magnetic pressure
gradient act inwards.
The equilibrium conguration
13
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
The perturbed conguration
Suppose that the equilibrium conguration is perturbed by reducing the radius of the
plasma column at some region along the column. The total current owing down the
column is constant so the current density J
0
is increased in the necked region (since
J
0
1/a
2
). With b J
0
a at s = a (see (4.29)), the eld strength and hence the
Lorentz force increases as the radius of the plasma column decreases. If the decrease
in radius took place uniformly along the column, then the squashed plasma would
resist the decrease by an increase in the plasma pressure. However, when the decrease
in radius is localised, an increase in plasma pressure in the necked region merely leads
to the ow of plasma along the column, away from the necked region. The increase
in the Lorentz force is therefore unbalanced and acts to amplify the perturbation.
The equilibrium is therefore unstable. This mode of instability is called the sausage
instability.
An alternative perturbed conguration
An alternative perturbation pushes the plasma column to the side, introducing a
kink in the column (which is not altered in radius). The current density along the
column remains the same. On the outside of the kink, magnetic eld lines are now
further apart, while on the inside they are closer together. Closer eld lines mean
higher eld strength. Hence the magnetic pressure on the inside of the kink is in-
creased, while the magnetic pressure on the outside of the kink is decreased. There is
therefore a magnetic pressure gradient acting to amplify the kink perturbation. Again,
the equilibrium is unstable. This instability is called the kink instability.
14
4H MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS - Steady-State Flows
Stabilisation
In both the above cases, the equilibrium can be stabilised by introducing a suciently
strong axial eld.
For the sausage instability, the perturbation compresses the axial eld lines together,
resulting in an increased magnetic pressure in the column which resists the perturba-
tion.
For the kink instability, the perturbation bends the axial eld lines. Magnetic tension
in the eld lines resists this bending and so resists the perturbation.
In both cases, if the axial eld is suciently strong, it will be the dominant eect and
the equilibrium will be stable.
15