Effect of Load to

Materials
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
1
Chapt er Out line p
Terminology for Mechanical Properties gy p
The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram
Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
True Stress and True Strain
The Bend Test for Brittle Materials The Bend Test for Brittle Materials
Hardness of Materials
Questions to Think About
Stress and strain: What are they and why are they
used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
d th ? do we measure them?
Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests
d f i t i l ?
3
are made for ceramic materials?
Stress-Strain Test Stress Strain Test
specimen
hi
4
machine
Tensile Test
5
Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test from a Tensile Test
Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear
ti f th t t i it i ll portion of the stress-strain curve, it is usually
specific to each material; a constant, known value.
Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the
yield point, calculated by plotting young's modulus
at a specified percent of offset (usually offset =
0 2%) 0.2%).
Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest
value of stress on the stress-strain curve.
Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge
length divided by the original gauge length.
6
Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during
testing testing.
Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain) measuring change in length (strain).
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
di id d b th i i l ti l f th divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
o
return to
initial
F
F
Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible.
o
Non-Linear-
elastic
8
o
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
l
bonds
planes
still
sheared
stretch
& planes
shear
o
l ti l ti
shear
o
plastic
F
o
elastic + plastic
plastic
Plastic means permanent
o
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
F
9
Plastic means permanent.
o
elastic
elastic
o
plastic
Typical stress-strain yp
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and g
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P p p
and the yield strength

y
, as determined using
y
g
the 0.002 strain offset
method (where there is
noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual elastic
l i i i
10
to plastic transition.
Plastic Deformation (permanent)
From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and
then reforming bonds with new neighbors. then reforming bonds with new neighbors.
After removal of the stress, the large
number of atoms that have relocated do number of atoms that have relocated, do
not return to original position.
Yi ld t th i f i t Yield strength is a measure of resistance
to plastic deformation.
11
12
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning

is a trademark used herein under license.

Localized deformation of a ductile material during a
tensile test produces a necked region. tensile test produces a necked region.
The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called p y p
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
A structure that has plastically deformed or A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
14
may not be capable of functioning as
intended.
Yield Strength, o
y
tensile stress, o
o
y
tensile stress, o
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
Elastic
initially
engineering strain, c
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
c
p
engineering strain, c
c
p
= 0.002
engineering strain, c
c
p
plastic strain
15
Stress-Strain Diagram
3
ultimate
tensile
strength
necking
UTS
o
Strain
Hardening
Fracture
yield
strength
UTS
2
5
g
Elastic region
strength
y
o
Plastic
Region
g
slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
4
Elastic
Region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture
E =
Strain ( ) (AL/Lo)
4
1

E =
c
1 2
y


E

=
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Elastic Region (Point 1 2)
- The material will return to its original shape g p
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
E =

E =
or
: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Youngs Modulus) (psi)

: Strain (in/in)

- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent

d f ti ( If it i d th t i l ill deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Strain Hardening
If the material is loaded again from Point 4 the - If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently g y g y p y
straining the material is called Strain
Hardening Hardening.
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
Tensile Strength (Point 3)
The largest value of stress on the diagramis called - The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS) (UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking. support without breaking.
Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning

is a trademark used herein under license.

Stress-strain
behavior behavior
found for
some steels
with yield with yield
point
phenomenon.
21
T
E
N
S
I
L
E
P
R
OO
P
E
R
T
I
22
I
E
S
Graphite/
Yield Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Metals/
Alloys
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
2000
Steel (4140)
qt
M
P
a
)
b
e
f
o
r
e

y
i
e
l
d
.
500
600
700
1000
St l
a
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)
a
W (pure)
Mo (pure)
Cu (71500)
cw
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
,

s
i
n
c
e

f
o
r
e

y
i
e
l
d
.
t
h
,

o
y

(
e
a
s
u
r
e
,


u
a
l
l
y

o
c
c
u
r
s

b
200
300
400
Al (6061)
ag
Ta (pure)
Ti (pure)
a
Steel (1020)
hr
Steel (1020)
cd
Steel (4140)
a
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
,

y

m
a
t
r
i
x

c
o
m
p
a
l
l
y

o
c
c
u
r
s

b
e
f

Room T values
t
r
e
n
g
t
H
a
r
d

t
o

m
e
n
,

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

u
s
u
Nylon 6,6
70
60
100
Al (6061)
a
Cu (71500)
hr
Ta (pure)
H
a
r
d

t
o

m
a
t
r
i
x

a
n
d

e
p
o
x
y

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

u
s
u
a
dry
PC
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
ld k d
Y
i
e
l
d

s
t
PVC
i
n
c
e

i
n

t
e
n
s
i
o
n
Nylon 6,6
20
40
50
30
Al (6061)
a
n

c
e
r
a
m
i
c

m
a
i
n

t
e
n
s
i
o
n
,

HDPE
PP
humid
PET cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
23
Y
s
LDPE
20
10
Tin (pure)
i
f
Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form. g
Subsequent deformation will be
confined to this neck area.
Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
24
g
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
In an undeformed In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains (a) the polymer chains
are randomly
oriented.
(b) When a stress is ( )
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned
locally. The neck
continues to grow
until the chains in the
ti l th entire gage length
have aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased
25
polymer is increased
Graphite/
Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Metals/
Alloys
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
)
3000
5000
E-glass fib
C fibers
Aramid fib
S

(
M
P
a
1000
C
hr
Steel (4140)
a
Steel (4140)
qt
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)
a
W (pure)
Cu (71500)
cw
2000
Diamond
Si nitride
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)
AFRE(|| fiber)
Room T values
Si crystal
<100>
t
h
,

T
S
N l 6 6
100
200
300
Al (6061)
a
Al (6061)
ag
Cu (71500)
hr
Ta (pure)
Ti (pure)
a
Steel (1020)
Al oxide
wood(|| fiber)
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
l d
<100>
s
t
r
e
n
g
PVC
Nylon 6,6
LDPE
PP
PC
PET
20
30
40
Graphite
Concrete
Glass-soda
HDPE
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
n
s
i
l
e

s
10
LDPE
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites with 60 vol%
26
T
e
n
wood( fiber)
1
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, o: Shear stress, t:
F
t
F
t
F
Area, A
Area, A
F
s
F
s
F
t
o =
F
t
A
o
F
t
F
F
s
t =
F
s
A
A
o
original area
before loading
A
o
27
Stress has units: N/m
2
or lb/in
2
VMSE VMSE
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
28
Example 1
Tensile Testing of AluminumAlloy Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy
Convert t he change in lengt h dat a in t he t able t o engineering
st ress and st rain and plot a st ress- st rain curve. st ress and st rain and plot a st ress st rain curve.
Example 1 SOLUTI ON
Ductility, %EL
100 % x
l
l l
EL
o
o f

=
Ductility is a measure of the
plastic deformation that has
been sustained at fracture:
Engineering
smaller %EL
(brittle if %EL<5%)
o
been sustained at fracture:
tensile
stress, o
larger %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
L
o L
f
A
o
A
f
A material that
Engineering tensile strain, c
%EL>5%)
A th d tilit
100 %
A A
AR
f o

A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is
brittle
Another ductility measure:
100 % x
A
AR
o
f o
=
Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (%
brittle.
31
plastic strain at fracture) or percent reduction in area.
%AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
Toughness
Toughness is
the ability to
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals
the ability to
absorb
energy up to
f t fracture (energy
per unit volume of
material).
A tough
material has
strength and strength and
ductility.
A i t d Approximated
by the area
under the
32
stress-strain
curve.
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain pp y
curve.
Engineering
smaller toughness (ceramics)
smaller toughness-
tensile
stress, o
larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, c
21
Linear Elastic Properties
F
Hooke's Law:
o = E c
Poisson's ratio:
metals: v ~ 0.33
F
simple
tension
test
v = c
x
/c
y
ceramics: v ~0.25
polymers: v ~0.40
o
test
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
o
1
E
c
(Young s modulus)
Linear-
elastic
34
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
v: dimensionless
Engineering Strain
35
Strain is dimensionless.
Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y)
contractions (negative strains) in response to an imposed
tensile stress.
36
True St ress and True St rain
True st ress The load divided by t he act ual cross- sect ional
area of t he specimen at t hat load.
True st rain The st rain calculat ed using act ual and not True st rain The st rain calculat ed using act ual and not
original dimensions, given by
t
ln( l/l
0
) .
The relation between the true stress-
t t i di d i i true strain diagram and engineering
stress-engineering strain diagram.
The curves are identical to the yield
point. p
Stress-Strain Results for Steel Sample
38
Example 2:
Youngs Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
From t he dat a in Example 1, calculat e t he modulus of
elast icit y of t he aluminum alloy.
Example 2: Youngs Modulus - Aluminum Alloy - continued
Use the modulus to determine the length after
deformation of a bar of initial length of 50 in.
Assume that a level of stress of 30,000 psi is applied.
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
1200
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
Tantalum
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
Si nitride
Al oxide
Carbon fibers only
200
600
800
1000
400 Tungsten
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
CFRE(|| fibers)*
E(GPa)
E
ceramics

> E
metals

>> E
polymers
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Si crystal
Glass-soda
Concrete
Glass fibers only
Aramid fibers only
40
60
80
100
200
Tin
Cu alloys
<100>
<111>
GFRE(|| fibers)*
AFRE(|| fibers)*
( )
polymers
9
8
Graphite
Concrete
AFRE( fibers)*
CFRE*
GFRE*
6
10
20
Polyester
CFRE( fibers)*
GFRE( fibers)*
10
9
Pa
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
1
PC
Epoxy only
0.8
2
4
HDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
fibers.
41
0.2
0.6
Wood( grain)
0.4
PTFE
LDPE
Example 3: True St ress and True St rain
Calculat ion
Compare engineering st ress and st rain wit h t rue st ress and
st rain for t he aluminum alloy in Example 1 at ( a) t he
maximum load. The diamet er at maximum load is 0. 497
in. and at fract ure is 0. 398 in.
Example 3 SOLUTI ON
Strain Hardening
An increase in oy due to
o
An increase in oy due to
plastic deformation.
large hardening
small hardening
d
o
y
0
o
y
1
c
u
n
l
o
a
d
r
e
l
o
a
d
( )
n
hardening exponent:
n=0 15 (some steels)

o
T
= C c
T
( )
n
true stress (F/A)
true strain: ln(L/L
o
)
n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
Strain Hardening (n, K or C values) g ( )

o
T
= C c
T
( )
n
hardening exponent:
n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
44

( )
true stress (F/A)
true strain: ln(L/L
o
)
to n 0.5 (some copper)
Mechanical Behavior - Ceramics
The stress-strain behavior of brittle
ceramics is not usually obtained by a
tensile test.
1. It is difficult to prepare and test
specimens with specific geometry.
2. It is difficult to grip brittle materials without
fracturing them.
3. Ceramics fail after roughly 0.1% strain;
specimen have to be perfectly aligned.
47
The Bend Test for Brit t le Mat erials
Bend t est Applicat ion of a force t o t he cent er of a bar Bend t est - Applicat ion of a force t o t he cent er of a bar
t hat is support ed on each end t o det ermine t he
resist ance of t he mat erial t o a st at ic or slowly applied
l d load.
Flexural st rengt h or modulus of rupt ure -The st ress
required t o fract ure a specimen in a bend t est .
Flexural modulus - The modulus of elast icit y calculat ed
from t he result s of a bend t est , giving t he slope of t he
st ress- deflect ion curve.
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning

is a trademark used herein under license.

The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with
that of more ductile materials
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning

is a trademark used herein under license.

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength (a) e be d test o te used o easu g t e st e gt
of brittle materials, and (b) the deflection obtained by
bending
Flexural Strength
Schematic for a 3-
point bending test.
Able to measure the Able to measure the
stress-strain behavior
and flexural strength
of brittle ceramics. of brittle ceramics.
Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture or
bend strength) is the bend strength) is the
stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.
51
MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
t il t t diffi lt f b ittl t i l --tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
F
L/2 L/2
cross section
R
d
o= midpoint
deflection
R
b
d
rect. circ.
Determine elastic modulus according to:
E =
F L
3
=
F L
3
F
x

E =
o 4bd
3
=
o 12tR
4
rect.
cross
circ.
cross
x
F
o
slope =
23
cross
section
cross
section
linear-elastic behavior
o
MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
F
L/2 L/2
cross section
L/2 L/2
R
b
d
rect circ rect. circ.
location of max tension
Fl l t th
T l
Flexural strength:
o
fs
= o
m
fail
=
1.5F
max
L
bd
2
=
F
max
L
R
3
Typ. values:
Material o
fs
(MPa) E(GPa)
Si nitride 700-1000 300
rect.

bd
2
tR
3
x
F
F
max
Si carbide
Al oxide
glass (soda)
550-860
275-550
69
430
390
69
24 o
max
o
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.
Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastomers Stress Strain Behavior: Elastomers
3 different responses:
A brittle failure A brittle failure
B plastic failure
C - highly elastic (elastomer)
60
o(MPa)
x
brittle failure
final: chains
20
40
x
x
elastomer
plastic failure
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, heavily cross-linked.
final: chains
are straight,
still
cross-linked
0
0 2 4 6
c
8
Deformation
is reversible!
54
--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case)
--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
Hardness of Mat erials
Ha dness t est Meas es t he esist ance of a mat e ial t o Hardness t est - Measures t he resist ance of a mat erial t o
penet rat ion by a sharp obj ect .
Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of mat erials
measured using loads > 2 N.
Microhardness Hardness of mat erials t ypically measured
using loads less t han 2 N using such t est as Knoop g g p
( HK) .
Nano- hardness - Hardness of mat erials measured at 1
10 nm lengt h scale using ext remely small ( ~ 100 N) 10 nm lengt h scale using ext remely small ( ~ 100 N)
forces.
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or
scratch).
Quantitative hardness techniques have been q
developed where a small indenter is forced into
the surface of a material.
The depth or size of the indentation is measured,
and corresponds to a hardness number.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
56
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in --resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere
apply known force
(1 to 1000g)
measure size
of indent after
removing load
d D
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
i i h d
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
easy to machine
steels file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels diamond
57
increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness Testers
58
59
Conversion of
H d Hardness
Scales
Also see: ASTM E140 07 Also see: ASTM E140 - 07
Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship p
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness and Scleroscope
60
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
Correlation
b t between
Hardness and
Tensile
Strength g
Both hardness and tensile
strength are indicators of strength are indicators of
a metals resistance to
plastic deformation.
For cast iron steel and For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
61
Tensile strength (psi) =
500*BHR
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
y
p , p y
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation select a material with a To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
b h i h th t il ( i ) behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches oy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
63