Sampling in Survey Methodology

Skerdi Zahaj

Are Americans romantic?

Are they romantic compared to the French, who are renowned for their passion for passion?

A survey conducted specifically to compare findings to a French survey regarding love and relationships (Schwartz, 2010).

In Love
10 8 6 4 2 0 10 8 6 4 2 0

Can true love exist without a radiant sex life?

(Schwartz, 2010)

If you want to know what people are doing, observe them! If you want to know what people are thinking, ask them!

Survey research involves selecting a sample (or samples) and using a predetermined set of questions. When a representative sample of people is asked the same set of questions, we can describe the attitudes of the population from which the sample was drawn.

Survey

If all members of a population were identical, the population is considered to be homogenous. That is, the characteristics of any one individual in the population would be the same as the characteristics of any other individual (little or no variation among individuals)

If the human population on Earth was homogenous in characteristics, how many people would an alien need to abduct in order to understand what humans were like?

When individual members of a population are different from each other, the population is considered to be heterogeneous (having significant variation among individuals). How does this change an aliens abduction scheme to find out more about humans?

In order to describe a heterogeneous population, observations of multiple individuals are needed to account for all possible characteristics that may exist.

Assume youve decided your research question is best answered using a survey, and youve determined the population of interest for your survey. The next step is to decide who should respond to your survey questions.

Population

Is any well-defined set of unit of analysis

Population

C Country or state o u WWorking in a organization n o t r S Set of countries r k e y i t C Corporations o n o r g f r E Events s i c p v t n o o e MMagazine articles a u r n a t o n a t g e r t ti s a g r o z a i n i n e s

Population lists

Population = People

Population

Any subset of units collected in some manner from population Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group of elements such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the larger groups

Sample

Sample frame: a specific list that closely approximates all elements in the populationfrom this the researcher selects units to create the study sample Sample frame: The particular population from which a sample is actually drown

The Language of Sampling

Sample element: a case or a single unit that is selected from a population and measured in some waythe basis of analysis (e.g., an person, thing, specific time, etc.).

Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Sampling frame

Sample

Element

Basics of Sampling Theory

All students on campus

Registrars list of all students

100 students

Student

What is Sampling?
What you want to talk about

Population

What you actually observe in the data

Sampling Process Sampling Frame

Sample

Conceptual Model
Universe Population Sample Population

Sample Frame

Elements

Populations, not samples, are of primary interest The power of samples to describe the larger population is based on the assumption that survey responses in a sample can be applied to the population from which the sample was drawn.

Population or Sample

Why do researchers select a sample and do not study the population?

Time

Money

We select the sample

Advantages

Disavantages

Population or sample

If the sample is selected properly the information may be used to make interference about the whole population. Sampling arises whenever a researcher takes measurements on a subset of population, however defined, covered by the hypothesis being investigated

Biased sample is one in which the distribution of characteristics in the sample is systematically different from the target population. A sample of 100 adults that included 80 women and 20 men would likely be biased if the population were 60% female and 40% male

The major threat to representativeness is bias

Selection bias
procedures used to select the sample result in the overrepresentation of some segment of the population or, conversely, in the exclusion or underrepresentation of a significant segment.

Exit Polls
exit polls are used to survey peoples attitudes. demographic characteristics such as age, race, education, and income of voters interviewed in exit polls differ from characteristics of the population.

Biased sample

Alf. M Landon

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Literary Digest poll 1936

The sample frame was selected from : Telephone numbers Automobile ownership

1.

2.

Overrepresented wealthy individuals

Types of samples

Two student researchers have been asked to do a survey to determine the attitudes of students toward fraternities and sororities on campus. There are 3,200 students in the school. About 25% of the students belong to the Greek organizations and 75% do not. The two student researchers disagree about what sampling plan is best for the study. One researcher thinks they should draw a stratified random sample of 200 students: 100 from among those students who belong to Greek organizations and 100 from among the independent students. The second researcher thinks they should draw one simple random sample of 100 students from the campus as a whole.

We have a problem.

A potentially serious flaw of this plan is that the overall sample would not represent the proportions of Greeks and independents in the population (25% and 75%, respectively). This would result in a biased sample because Greeks would be systematically overrepresented in the survey. The second student researcher is proposing a simple random sample of 100 students from the campus population. While this is likely to lead to a more representative sample, it will probably result in too few respondents in the Greek category (wed expect about 25 Greeks) to adequately represent their viewpoint.

The problems

The solution

A preferred sampling plan would use a stratified random sample in which the sample sizes for Greeks and independents are proportional to the population values. With 200 students in the sample, you would select 150 students from the sampling frame of independent students and 50 students from the sampling frame of Greek students

Here it is

P Probability sample r o b NNonprobability sample a o b n i p l rTypes of sampling i o t b y

Click icon to add picture

Is a sample for which each element in the total population has a known probability of being included in the sample.

Probability sample

Click icon to add picture

Nonprobability sample

Is a sample for which each element in the total population has a known probability of being included in the sample.

S Simple random sample i m S p Systematic samples y l s e S Stratified samples t r t e a r m n C a Cluster samples d l ti o u f c m s i t e a s e d m a r s p m s a l p a m e l

Probability sample

Probability sampling is far superior to nonprobability sampling in ensuring that selected samples represent the population.

Each element and combination of elements has an equal chance of being selected. A list of all elements in the population must be available and a method of selecting those elements must be used that ensures that each element has an equal chance of being selected.

Simple random

Write every-day of year on separate slips of paper Placing the slips in separate capsules Putting all the capsules in a barrel After turning the drum, days would be drawn randomly On December 1, 1969 the dates were drawn one after another and given a number The firs date 14 September was given number 1

Random lottery

Anyone with a number 200 or would probably not be called If birthday was early on, there was a good chance that he would have serve Randomness supposedly ensured the systems fairness Was noticed that people with low numbers tended to be born in the latter months

Problems

The capsules may have been insufficiently mixed

A Assigning a number to each element in a sample frame s s i U g Using a random number s table n i n S g Select a sample of numbers e a l r n e a u c n m The steps of Random Samples t d b a o e s m r a t m n o

P Population o p u D l Draw r a a ti w o S Start n t a r t

The steps of Random Samples

Elements are drawn out Click to edit Master text stylesrandomly until the Second level desired sample size has Third level been reached. Fourth level

Fifth level

By the lot method

In Simple Random Sampling

The gap, or period between successive elements is random, uneven, has no particular pattern

Simple random sampling requires a list of the members of population

The conclusion

Systematic Sample

Elements are selected from a list at predetermined intervals Elements are chosen from the list systematically rather than randomly

Every xth element on the list is selected This number is called sampling interval

Systematic Sample

In Systematic Sampling
Gaps between elements are equal and Constant There is periodicity.

We want to draw a sample of 100 names from a list of 5000 students attending a college.

We would go through the list and select every fiftieth students We would select a random start

Problem????

We deal with a long list of population elements

Systematic sampling

Elements of the list have been ranked according to a characteristic

Students grades People income .

Disadvantages

List contains a pattern that corresponds to the sampling interval

Attitudes of children from large families Sampling interval is 5 Families included in the list have 5 children We will sample all the children who were in the same position

Birth Order

Disadvantages

Probability sample in which elements sharing one or more characteristics are grouped

Divide the population by certain characteristics into homogeneous subgroups (strata) (e.g., UI PhD students, Masters Students, Bachelors students).

Elements within each strata are homogeneous, but are heterogeneous across strata.

Stratified sample

A simple random or a systematic sample is taken from each strata relative to the proportion of that stratum to each of the others.

Stratified sample

Proportionate (Each stratum is represented in proportion to its size in the population)

POPULATION n = 1000; SE = 10%

Equal intensity

STRATA 1 n= 500; SE=7.5%

STRATA 2 n = 500; SE=7.5%

POPULATION n =1000, SE = 10%

Proportional to size

STRATA 1 n =400 SE=7.5%

STRATA 2 n = 600 SE=5.0%

1. Equal intensity

2. Proportional size

Sample equal intensity vs.? proportional to size ? What do you want to do? Describe the population, or describe each strata?

Characteristics that are expected to be related to or affect the depended variable in the study. Measure the average income of households

Stratified sample

Education Sex Race Household head

5 500 liberal art major 0 0 li b 1 e 100 engineering major 0 r 0 a e l n 2 a 200 business major g 0 rt i 0 m n b a e u j e si o ri n r n e g s m s a m j a o j

Conducting a survey of 200

1 125 liberal art major 2 5 li b 2 e 25 engineering major 5 r e a n l g a 5 i 50 business major rt 0 n m b e a u e j si ri o n n r e g s m s a m j a o j r o

1 100 liberal art major 0 0 Stud. 500 100 200 800 li b 5 e 50 engineering major 0 P.W 0.625 0.125 0.25 1 r e a n l Size 100 50 50 200 g a 5 Sample i 50 business major rt 0 n m Sample 2.5 3.3 2.7 2.65 b e mean a u e grade j si ri o n If weWeighting investigate some n want to factor questions in each r e g major separately s m s a m j a o j r o
Number LA Engin Business Total

The mean would be = 0.625 (2.5) + 0.125 (3.3) + 0.25 (2.7) = 2.65

Describe the population

Cluster Samples
The list of elements does not exist

Is a probability sample in which the sampling frame initially consist of cluster of element It is groups or clusters of elements are identified and listed as sampling unit The sample is drown from the list of sampling units

Cluster sample

POPULATION CLUMP

POPULATION Primary sampling Unit

POPULATION

= Randomly selected PRIMARY SAMPLING UNITS.

Cluster sampling
Some populations are spread out (over a state or country). Elements occur in clumps (towns, districts)Primary sampling units. Elements are hard to reach and identify.

You cannot assume that any one clump is better or worse than another clump.

O Obtaining a map of the b city t I Identifying and listing all a d blocks i e n S Small number of blocks are sampled at random or n i msystematically ti n a f S Select the dwelling g ll y e a units n i l m u C n Conta e a m o g ct c p Opinion Poll of 1000 people in a city b n a t o e t n t f r a d h t o c li e h f t s d e b

The probability of one household being selected is Opinion Poll of 1000 people in a city: 25/500 x 1000/4000 = 1/80

Reduces fieldwork cost Reduces travel and administrative costs

Cluster sampling

Errors occur at each stage of the cluster sample The random errors at each levels must be added together to arrive at the total sampling error for a cluster sample

Errors

40 individuals from 25 blocks States regions 25 individuals from 40 blocks

Homogenous population

What to chose?

Nonprobability Samples

Is a sample for which Click to edit Master text styles each element in the totalSecond level Third level population has a Fourth level unknown probability of Fifth level being selected

Nonprobability Samples

P Purposive sample u r C Convenience sample p o n s Q Quota sample v i u e v o n e S Snowball sample t i s n a e a o s n m w a c p b m e l a p s e ll l a s e m a p m l

Nonprobability Samples

To expensive Unusual cases

Nonprobability Samples

Researcher exercises considerable discretion over what observation to study Study a diverse and usually limited number of observations

Purposive sample

I have some questions

Elements are included because they are convenient or easy to reach

Convenience Sample

Elements are sampled in proportion to their representation in the population

Stratified vs Quota ?

Elements in the quota sample are not chosen in a probabilistic manner

Quota sample

550 women 450 men

Select whomever they pleased until the quota were reached

Quota sample

The respondents are used to identify other persons who might qualify for inclusion in the sample. The elements are asked to supply appropriate names for further interviewing We interview until enough persons are interviewed to satisfy

Snowball sample

Snowball sample

Parameter: any characteristic of a population that is true known on the basis of a census (e.g., % of males or females; % of college students in a population). Estimate: any characteristic of a sample that is estimated estimated on the basis of samples (e.g., % of males or females; % of college students in a sample)

Sample Statistics

An estimate of precision; estimates how close sample estimates are to a true population value for a characteristic. Occurs as a result of selecting a sample rather than surveying an entire population

Sampling error

A measure of sampling error.

Standard Error

As sample size increases, SE decreasesthe sample is more precise. So, we want to use the smallest SE we can greatest precision! When in doubt increase sample size.

Sample size

Standard

SE is an inverse function of sample size

Click to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level

How large a sample?