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Accepted Manuscript

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A new method for acquiring true stress-strain curves over a large range of strains using a tensile test and finite element method
ManSoo Joun a,*, Jea Gun Eom b, Min Cheol Lee c

Professor, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea Also, a senior researcher of Research Center for Aircraft Parts Technology, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea

Researcher, Technology Innovation Center, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea

Post-doctoral Researcher, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea

Address: School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Gyeongsang National University 900 Gajwa-dong, Jinju-City, GyeongNam 660-701, Republic of Korea E-mail: msjoun@gsnu.ac.kr, TEL: 011 82 55 751-5316, FAX: 011 82 55 751-5316

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Abstract

This paper presents a method for acquiring true stress-strain curves over large range of strains using engineering stress-strain curves obtained from a tensile test coupled with a finite element analysis. The results from the tensile test are analyzed using a rigidplastic finite element method combined with a perfect analysis model for a simple bar to provide the deformation information. The reference true stress-strain curve, which predicts the necking point exactly, is modified iteratively to minimize the difference in the tensile force between the tensile test and the analyzed results. The validity of the approach is verified by comparing tensile test results with finite element solutions obtained using a modified true stress-strain curve.

Keywords: Flow stress; Large strain; Stress-strain curve; Tensile test

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1. Introduction

Metal-forming simulation techniques have become generalized in industry. As a result, material properties, including the true stress-strain curves, are indispensable for process design engineers because the accuracy of a simulation depends mainly on that of the material properties used. This is especially true for true stress-strain curves. A true

stress-strain curve is affected by the manufacturing history, metallurgical treatments, and chemical composition of the material. Therefore, metal-forming simulation engineers require true stress-strain curves that reflect the special conditions of their materials. However, it is difficult to obtain the material properties from experiments and very limited information about true stress-strain curves can be found in the literature. Most simulation engineers use the material properties supplied by software companies, which are very limited and sometimes unproven. True stress-strain curves can be obtained using tensile (Bridgman, 1952; Cabezas and Celentano, 2004; Koc and tok, 2004; Komori, 2002; Mirone, 2004; Zhang, 1995; Zhang et al., 1999), compression (Choi et al., 1997; Gelin and Ghouati, 1995; Haggag et al.,

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1990; Lee and Altan, 1972; Michino and Tanaka, 1996; Osakada et al., 1991), ball indentation (Cheng and Cheng, 1999; Huber and Tsakmakis, 1999a; Huber and Tsakmakis, 1999b; Lee et al., 2005; Nayebi et al., 2002), punch (Campitelli et al., 2004; Husain et al., 2004; Isselin et al., 2006), torsion (Bressan and Unfer, 2006), and notch tensile (Springmann and Kuna, 2005) tests. Most of these methods obtain true stress-strain relations only for strains less than 0.3. However, the maximum strain often exceeds 1.0 in bulk metal forming, such as in forging, extrusion, and rolling. Sometimes it reaches 3.0 in multi-stage automatic cold forging, the so-called cold-former forging used to produce fasteners. Recently, many researchers have tried to obtain true stress-strain curves using finite element methods, see e.g. (Cabezas and Celentano, 2004; Campitelli et al., 2004; Choi et al., 1997; Husain et al., 2004; Isselin et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2005; Mirone, 2004; Nayebi et al., 2002; Springmann and Kuna, 2005). In a tensile test, the true strain reaches its maximum value at the smallest cross-section in the necked region, and it may exceed 1.5 just before a ductile material fractures. Therefore, one should be able to obtain the flow stress of materials at a large strain if finite element methods are used to predict the localized deformation behavior during a tensile test. A few researchers have attempted to obtain the

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flow stress at a large strain using simulation and experimental approaches, but these applications have been quite limited, see e.g. (Cabezas and Celentano, 2004; Mirone, 2004). The first step in obtaining the true stress at a large strain from a tensile test is to predict the onset of necking exactly using analytical, numerical, or experimental methods. Many researchers have applied finite element methods to predict the onset of necking (Joun et al., 2007). However, all researchers who have used simple bar models between gage marks of a tensile test specimen have included various imperfections or constraints at the ends to allow necking to take place artificially. Several researchers have used a full tensile test specimen, including a grip, as the analysis model. A full specimen model causes some difficulty when matching experimental data with predictions and thereby generalizing the approach. Dumoulin et al. (2003) satisfied the Considre criterion (Considre, 1885) using a full model of a sheet specimen. However, they did not discuss the accuracy of their predictions compared with experiments in a quantitative manner. Joun et al. (2006) were the first to obtain accurate finite element solutions that satisfied the Considre criterion exactly in an engineering sense using a perfect tensile test analysis model, that is, a cylindrical specimen consisting of a simple bar model without any imperfections. They

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recently predicted the exact onset of necking using a rigid-plastic finite element method (Joun et al., 2007) and Hollomons constitutive law. This paper presents a new method based on our previous research (Joun et al., 2007) and an iterative error-reducing scheme to obtain the true stress-strain relationship at a large strain from the localized deformation behavior in the necked region.

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2. Acquisition of the stress-strain relationship after necking

Figure 1 shows a typical tensile test result selected to illustrate and apply our approach. When the aspect ratio of the specimen exceeds a certain value, the onset of necking is dependent on the strain-hardening exponent (Considre, 1885; Joun et al., 2007). Previously, we predicted the onset of necking exactly in an engineering sense using a rigidplastic finite element method and a perfect analysis model. In the analysis, the material was considered rigid-plastic and isotropically hardened, and its flow stress was described using Hollomons constitutive law. The analysis model was a simple bar with shear-free ends and no imperfections, known as a perfect analysis model. Previously, we defined the reference stress-strain curve as follows (Joun et al., 2007):

= K N nN

(1)

where K N is the reference strength coefficient, nN is the reference strain hardening

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exponent, and

and are the effective stress and strain, respectively. The reference

strain hardening exponent, denoted as nN , is defined as the true strain at the necking point, that is,

nN = ln (1 + eN )

(2)

where eN is the engineering strain at the necking point. The reference strength coefficient, denoted as K N , is defined by making the flow stress curve of Equation (1) pass through the necking point in the true stress-strain curve. Therefore, the reference strength coefficient can be found from

KN =

eN (1 + eN ) [ln(1 + eN )]ln(1+

N e

(3)

where eN is the engineering stress at the maximum load point, i.e., the necking point. Necking starts when the tensile load reaches a maximum value according to conventional necking theory.

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The reference stress-strain curve shown in Figure 2 is calculated with an emphasis on the occurrence of necking from the engineering stress-strain relationship shown in Figure 1. Using the reference stress-strain curve, we previously predicted the elongation and maximum load exactly at the onset of necking (Joun et al., 2007). The reference stress-strain curve in Figure 2 must be used to predict the necking point exactly in an engineering sense. However, problems arise from the fact that the difference between predictions and experiments increases with the elongation, as shown in Figure 3, and that the true strain of the material during cold forging sometimes exceeds the true strain at the necking point by more than a dozen times. Therefore, the reference stressstrain curve cannot be used to predict the material behavior exactly after necking occurs. Consequently, an appropriate scheme is necessary to obtain an improved true stress-strain curve from the reference stress-strain curve. We predict the exact engineering stress-strain curve using a finite element simulation of a tensile test to obtain an improved true stressstrain curve. After necking occurs, the non-uniformity of the true strain increases rapidly in the longitudinal direction. The maximum strain occurs at the minimum cross-section where the

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shear stress is free due to symmetry and the non-uniformity of the strain distribution is relatively low. Therefore, it is relatively easy to define the representative strain. Through finite element analysis, one can trace the minimum cross-section of the tensile test specimen at a specified or sampled elongation i . The representative strain of
i the minimum cross-section at elongation i , denoted as R , can be calculated from finite

element solutions of the tensile test. The difference between the measured load Ft i and the
i predicted load Fei at elongation i can be minimized by modifying the true stress R

i corresponding to the representative strain R .

i In this paper, the representative strain R is defined using the following average

area scheme:

i R =

Ai

dA
Ai

(4)

where Ai indicates the area of the minimum cross-section of the tensile test specimen at the
i i i sampled elongation i . The current true stress R ,old = R at R is modified to give the

new true stress

i R , new

Ft i by multiplying the current true stress by as follows: Fei

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i i R,new = R,old

Fti Fei

(5)

The reference stress-strain curve is used before necking occurs. After necking, the true
i i stress-strain relationship is interpolated linearly using the sampled points ( R , R ) defined

at the elongation i , as shown in Figure 4.

Fig. 1. Experimental results of a tensile test.

Fig. 2. Reference stress-strain curve, defined by = K N nN .

Fig. 3. Comparison of experiments with tensile test predictions.

An iterative algorithm is proposed. The detailed procedure used to calculate the

i i improved sampled points ( R , R ) at the sampled elongation i is as follows. In the

i i algorithm, R, j and R, j are the j-times modified strain and stress, respectively, at the

sampled elongation i .
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Step 1: Calculate the reference strain hardening exponent nN and the reference strength coefficient K N from tensile test experiments using Equations (2) and (3). Select the sampled elongations i ( i = 1, 2,

, M ) from the experimental data after the necking point.

Step 2: Conduct a finite element analysis of the tensile test using the reference stress-strain
i curve and then calculate R ( i = 1, 2,

, M ) at the sampled elongation i from the finite

element solutions of the tensile test.

i i i i i Step 3: Set j = 1 and R, j = R and then calculate R, j from R, j = K N ( R, j ) nN

( i = 1, 2,

, M ).

i i i i Step 4: Replace j with j + 1 and set R, j = R, j 1 and R, j = R, j 1 ( i = 1, 2,

, M ).

Step 5: Conduct a finite element analysis of the tensile test using both the perfect analysis
i i model and the true stress-strain curve defined by nN , K N and ( R, j , R, j ) ( i = 1, 2,

, M ). , M ) by

Then check the convergence of the solution at the sampled elongation i ( i = 1, 2,

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comparing the measured load Fti with the predicted load Fei . If convergence is achieved,
i stop the iterations. Otherwise, calculate R from the finite element solutions and set

i i R, j +1 = R .

i i Step 6: Calculate the stress R at = R, j +1 ( i = 1, 2,

, M ) by linearly interpolating the

i i sampled points ( R, j , R, j ) ( i = 1, 2,

i , M ), and calculate the improved stress R, j +1 at

i = R, j +1 as follows:

i i R, j +1 = R

Ft i Fei

(6)

Step 7: Replace j with j + 1 and return to Step 4.

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3. Application example

Figure 4 shows points corresponding to the sampled elongation i on the reference stress-strain curve as an example, and gives the improved stress-strain curve from the first iteration. This curve was improved from the reference stress-strain curve using our approach. Figure 5 compares the predicted load-elongation curve obtained using the reference, improved, and measured stress-strain curves. The load-elongation curve predicted from the improved stress-strain curve was considerably more accurate. Quite accurate results were obtained after a single iteration, although the maximum elongation was quite large. The maximum error was 474 N or 6.04% of the measured load. This error could be reduced or minimized through additional iterations. Figures 6 and 7 show the improved stress-strain curves for several iterations and their corresponding predicted load-elongation curves, respectively.

Fig. 4. Modified true stress-strain curve calculated after first iteration.

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Fig. 5. Comparison of the load-elongation curves.

Fig. 6. Comparison of the stress-strain curves.

Fig. 7. Comparison of the load-elongation curves

Table 1 lists the maximum errors of the predicted loads relative to the measured loads with the number of iterations. After four iterations, the maximum error was reduced to less than 0.03 %, i.e., it led to the exact solution in an engineering sense. Therefore, the convergence characteristics of our scheme are quite good

Table 1 Reduction in error with the number of iterations

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4. Concluding remarks

An approach for acquiring true stress-strain curves at large strains by coupling experiments with an analysis based on a tensile test and a rigid-plastic finite element method was presented. The approach uses the reference stress-strain curve before necking occurs to predict the necking point exactly. An iterative scheme then minimizes the error between the measured and predicted load-elongation curves after necking occurs by improving the true stress-strain curve. Our approach can predict the flow stress at large strains using only the measured load-elongation curve of a material and a tensile test analysis, yielding exact results from an engineering viewpoint. This is very important for simulating bulk metal forming. The approach is simple and systematic, and it can be embedded into commercial metal-forming simulation software with ease.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by grant No. RTI04-01-03 from the Regional Technology Innovation Program of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy (MOCIE).

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References

Bressan, J.D., Unfer, R.K., 2006, Construction and validation tests of a torsion test machine. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 179 (1-3), 23-29. Bridgman, P.W., 1952, Studies in large flow and fracture, McGraw-Hill, New-York. Cabezas, E.E., Celentano, D.J., 2004, Experimental and numerical analysis of the tensile test using sheet specimens. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 40 (5-6), 555575. Campitelli, E.N., Sptig, P., Bonad, R., Hoffelner, W., Victoria, M., 2004, Assessment of the constitutive properties from small ball punch test: experiment and modeling. Journal of Nuclear Materials 335 (3), 366-378. Cheng, Y.T., Cheng, C.T., 1999, Can stress-strain relationships be obtained from indentation curves using conical and pyramidal indenters?. Journal of Materials Research 14 (9), 3493-3496. Choi, Y., Kim, B.M., Choi, J.C., 1997, A method of determining flow stress and friction factor by the ring compression test. Proceedings of the Korean Society of

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Mechanical Engineering 1997 Spring Annual Meeting, Chonnam National University, Republic of Korea, 547-552. Considre, M., 1885, L'emploi du fer de l'acier dans les constructions, Annales des Ponts et Chausses 9, 574-595. Dumoulin, S., Tabourot, L., Chappuis, C., Vacher, P., Arrieux, R., 2003, Determination of the equivalent stress-equivalent strain relationship of a copper sample under tensile loading. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 133 (1-2), 79-83. Gelin, J.C., Ghouati, O., 1995, The inverse approach for the determination of constitutive equations in metal forming. CIRP Annals 44 (1), 189-192. Haggag, F.M., Nanstad, R.K., Hutton, J.T., Thomas, D.L., Swain, R.L., 1990, Use of automated ball indentation testing to measure flow properties and estimate fracture toughness in metallic materials. Application of Automation Technology to Fatigue and Fracture Testing of the ASME STP1092-EB, 188-208. Huber, N., Tsakmakis, C., 1999a, Determination of constitutive properties from spherical indentation data using neural networks. Part I: the case of pure kinematic hardening in plasticity laws. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 47 (7), 1569-1588.

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Huber, N., Tsakmakis, C., 1999b, Determination of constitutive properties from spherical indentation data using neural networks. Part II: plasticity with nonlinear isotropic and kinematic hardening. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 47 (7), 1589-1607. Husain, A., Sehgal, D.K., Pandey, R.K., 2004, An inverse finite element procedure for the determination of constitutive tensile behavior of materials using miniature specimen. Computational Materials Science 31 (1-2), 84-92. Isselin, J., Iost, A., Golel, J., Najjar, D., Bigerelle, M., 2006, Assessment of the constitutive law by inverse methodology: Small punch test and hardness. Journal of Nuclear Materials 352 (1-3), 97-106. Joun, M.S., Choi, I.S., Eom, J.G., Lee, M.C., 2006, Analysis of the tensile test by the rigidplastic finite element method. Proceedings of the GyeongNam Korean Society of Mechanical Engineering 2006 Spring Annual Meeting, Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. Joun, M.S., Choi, I.S., Eom, J.G., Lee, M.C., 2007, Finite element analysis of tensile testing with emphasis on necking. Computational Materials Science doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2007.03.002, March 06, 2007 Accetped.

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Koc, P., tok, B., 2004, Computer-aided identification of the yield curve of a sheet metal after onset of necking. Computational Materials Science 31 (1-2), 155-168. Komori, K., 2002, Simulation of tensile test by node separation method. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 125-126 (9), 608-612. Lee, C.H., Altan, T., 1972, Influence of flow stress and friction upon metal flow in upset forging of ring and cylinders. Journal of Engineering for Industry-Transactions of the ASME 94 (3), 775-782. Lee, H., Lee, J.H., Pharr, G.M., 2005, A numerical approach to spherical indentation techniques for material property evaluation. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 53 (9), 2037-2069. Michino, M., Tanaka, M., 1996, Determination of flow stress by inverse solution using finite element method. Computational Mechanics 16 (5), 290-296. Mirone, G., 2004, A new model for the elastoplastic characterization and the stress-strain determination on the necking section of a tensile specimen. International Journal of Solids and Structures 41 (13), 3545-3564.

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Nayebi, A., Abdi, R.El., Bartier, O., Mauvoisin, G., 2002, New procedure to determine steel mechanical parameters from the spherical indentation technique. Mechanics of Materials 34 (4), 243-254. Osakada, K., Shiraishi, M., Muraki, S., Tokuoka, M., 1991, Measurement of flow stress by the ring compression test. JSME International Journal Series A-Solid Mechanics and Material Engineering 34 (3), 312-318. Springmann, M., Kuna, M., 2005, Identification of material parameters of the GursonTvergaard-Needleman model by combined experimental and numerical techniques. Computational Materials Science 32 (3-4), 544-552. Zhang, K.S., 1995, Fracture prediction and necking analysis. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 52 (3), 575-582. Zhang, Z.L., Hauge, M., degrd, J., Thaulow, C., 1999, Determining material true stressstrain curve from tensile specimens with rectangular cross-section. International Journal of Solids and Structures 36 (23), 3497-3516.

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Figure lists

Fig. 1. Experimental results of a tensile test. Fig. 2. Reference stress-strain curve, defined by = K N nN . Fig. 3. Comparison of experiments with tensile test predictions. Fig. 4. Modified true stress-strain curve calculated after first iteration. Fig. 5. Comparison of the elongation-tensile force curves. Fig. 6. Comparison of the stress-strain curves. Fig. 7. Comparison of the elongation-tensile force curves.

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500 Measured 400

Necking point

Engineering stress (MPa)

300

200

100

0.1

Engineering strain

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Fig. 1. Experimental results of a tensile test.

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750 Measured and fitted Extrapolated

True stress (MPa)

500

Necking point

250

0.5

True strain

1.5

Fig. 2. Reference stress-strain curve, defined by = K N nN .

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12500
Necking point

10000

Load (N)

7500

5000

2500

Measured Reference

Elongation (mm)

10

Fig. 3. Comparison of experiments with tensile test predictions.

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750

True stress (MPa)

500
2 3 4 5 6

10

Necking point

250 Measured and fitted Reference First improved 0

0.5

True strain

1.5

Fig. 4 Modified true stress-strain curve calculated after first iteration.

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12500
Necking point

10000

Load (N)

7500

5000

2500

Measured Reference First improved

Elongation (mm)

10

Fig. 5. Comparison of the elongation-tensile force curves.

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750

True stress (MPa)

500

Necking point

250

Measured and fitted Reference First improved Second improved Third improved Fourth improved 0 0.5 1 1.5

True strain

Fig. 6. Comparison of the stress-strain curves.

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12500
Necking point

10000

Load (N)

7500

5000 Measured Reference First improved Second improved Third improved Fourth improved 0 2 4 6 8 10

2500

Elongation (mm)

Fig. 7. Comparison of the elongation-tensile force curves.

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Table lists

Table 1 Reduction in error with the number of iterations Number of iterations Maximum error, (%) 0 30.29 1 6.04 2 3.96 3 0.89 4 0.28

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