HYDRAULICS

INTRODUCTON
OBJECIVE: study of mechanical behavior (laws of equilibrium and motion of liquids) study of mechanical behavior of solids (pipes, reservoirs, tanks) acted up by liquids DOMAIN OF APPLICABILITY: dams (hydrotechnics) water supply systems including transportation, distribution, storage, treatment, inside utilities sewerage systems including the inside sewerage, street sewerage, filtering, spillway into a natural vector regularization of natural courses (rivers, flows, streams) aiming at protection of natural banks and engineering works hydraulic engines underground flows navigable canals RELATIONS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS: mechanics of continuum, namely fluid mechanics (through the general laws of mechanics) physics through the fluid properties strength of materials mathematics mechanical engineering OBJECTIVES OF OUR SUBJECTS: 1. hydrostatics behavior of liquids and solids acted upon by liquids 2. hydrodynamics (behavior in motion of liquids and solids acted upon by liquids Hydrostatics includes all the engineering works that are related with the liquid in its resting state: tanks vessels, pools. Hydrodynamics includes all the engineering works related with the liquid in its motion: pipes, canals, rivers, underground flows. SUBJECT STRUCTURE: Theoretical background (general laws of Fluid Mechanics) Engineering applications in Civil Engineering: o design of construction element acted upon by liquids o design of underground water resources o design of municipal works (water supply and water sewerage system)

SHORT HISTORICAL PRESENTATION OF HYDRAULICS Water has been used by people since the beginning of human history: as a vital element of life and later as a tool to improve the quality of life (transports, irrigation, water supplies). The first theoretical contribution in Hydraulics belongs to Archimedes (250 BC) under the name of floating bodies. Another landmark in this science has been the work of Leonardo da Vinci: On Motion and Measurement of Water. D. Bernoulli and Leonard Euler established the basis of classical hydrodynamics, at the beginning of the 18th century. Liquid Modeling Hydraulics as any other science needs in its study a mechanical model of liquid behavior. The model is build up from practical experiments concerning liquids. The conclusion drawn from the practical experiments have been synthesized into several hypotheses regarding the liquid behavior. Hydrostatics uses only one hypothesis: the hypotheses of continuum medium. The objective of Hydrostatics (the stress state of the liquid) can be completely described using this hypothesis only. The models of Hydrodynamics have been continuously improved as the stress state in motion is more complex. During the history, 3 models have been used in Hydrodynamics: the model of ideal fluid, assuming that the fluid has no viscosity and compressibility; the model of viscous fluid; the model of viscous and turbulent fluid; To each mechanical model, a mathematical instrument is associated.

HYDROSTATICS Physical properties of liquids In Hydraulics fluid is any liquid or gaseous body which presents a great mobility of its particles without being significantly aced upon. The property is called fluidity. The unit weight is the second property of a liquid.
G V

unit weight; G liquid weight; [V] liquid volume;

[]=ML-2T-2 [G]=MLT-2 [V]=L3

In the day by day use []=FL-3 The unit weight depends on the: liquid nature, temperature, pressure. For water at 4C and normal atmosphere pressure (1 at) =9810 N/m3. This value is used in the current civil engineering design. The density is next liquid property.

M V

M liquid mass []=ML-3 [M]=M In terms of , one gets:

g

The same dependency of on temperature, pressure and liquid nature as of may be mentioned. The technical value of for water in civil engineering is 1000 kg/m3. Compressibility is the next property. It is defined by ration dV is change in the volume.
dV where V is the initial volume and V

p dV V-dV

From Physics we have:

dV V dp ;

where is the cubic compressibility coefficient and dp is the change in the pressure. For the usual liquids is very small and therefore the hypothesis of incompressibility of liquids is fairly true. The next property is viscosity. It is the liquid property through which at the liquid interface with another medium, tangential stresses contrary to the liquid flow are born.

left bank v

rigth bank

bottom level

*velocity distribution due to viscosity* Another liquid property is the capillarity (see Physics) expressed through the capillary tension . The capillary tension depends on the liquid nature.

capillary tube liquid(water)

V-dV

The capillary height h depends of liquid nature and capillary tube diameter d From the equilibrium condition of liquid spout, (coloana de lichid), one gets:
d d2 h; 4

[]=daN/m;

For water =0,0077 daN/m

It yields that

h d

30mm2

The last two properties are related to each other, and are absorption and cavitation. The absorption is the liquid property to store its mass a certain quantity of air, depending on the temperature and pressure. The cavitation is the opposite phenomenon to absorption: the liquid property to eliminate air from its mass due to the temperature and pressure variations. Under the usual conditions (temperature and pressure), the water contents about 2% air of its volume

PART ONE: HYDROSTATICS

1.1. Fundamental law of hydrostatics Between the particles (either in motion or in rest), there are mutual actions which are mechanically equivalent to link forces between particles. Their presence gives birth to tension state of liquid which is easily provided by the action of liquid on the vessels.

(P) (A)

(P)

(V)

(V)

A liquid surface along plane (P) A elementary surface of liquid along plane (P) around point M F elementary force of liquid acting on A force F total force of liquid acting on To keep the liquid in form from Fig. 1.1.b. we have to act along plane (P) with the force F. Taking the limit for A (elementary surface), one gets
p

lim
A 0

F A

dF dA

where p is hydrostatic pressure or in terms of strength of materials, p is a unit stress specific to liquids. More explicitly: the hydrostatics pressure p is a stress state around point M of the liquid due to massic forces, link forces, exterior forces, surface forces. Properties of hydrostatic pressure (h p) for water: The h.p is always compression Around point M, h.p is constant whatever its directions are h p is always normal (l) to the surface it is acting on h.p is linearly dependent on the depth of point M in the water any exterior action acting on the water is totally transmitted to any point M of the liquid and along all directions defined around M.