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CHAPTER 2 BASICS OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

2.1 ENERGY FROM WIND
A wind turbine obtain its power input by converting the force of the wind into a torque (turning force) acting on the rotor blades. The amount of energy which extract from the wind depends on the density of the air, the rotor area, and the wind speed. 2.1.1 Density of Air The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass( or weight). The kinetic energy in the wind thus depends on the density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume.

2.1.2 Rotor Area A typical 1,000 kW wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 54 metres, i.e. a rotor area of some 2,300 square metres. The rotor area determines how much energy a wind turbine is able to harvest from the wind. Since the rotor area is a square of the rotor diameter, a turbine which is twice is as large is able to extract 4 times the amount of wind power for the same wind speed.

2.1.3 Wind Speed The wind speed is extremely important for the amount of energy a wind turbine can convert to electricity: The energy content of the wind varies with the cube (the third power) of the average wind speed.

2.1.4 Power Extractable from the Wind The power extracted from the wind turbine is given by,

Pm !
Where,

1 3 VAu w C p 2

(2.1)

Pm - power extracted from the wind turbine in W (Watt)

V - density of dry air = 1.225 kg/m3

A - swept area of the blades in (metres square)
C p - power coefficient

u w - wind speed in m/s The tip speed ratio is given by

P !

[R uw

(2.2)

where, [ - rotor speed of the wind turbine (low shaft speed),

R - radius of the wind turbine rotor.

The power coefficient C p is a function of tip speed ratio ( ) and pitch angle ( ). For a given turbine at a given site, since and A are constants, we find

that the Power of the wind is directly proportional to the cube of the wind speed, v. 2.1.5 Betz Law Betz law is a theory about the maximum possible energy to be derived from a wind turbine. According to the rule, No turbine can capture more than 59.3 percent of the potential energy in wind.

Because some modern wind turbines approach this potential maximum efficiency, once practical engineering obstacles are considered, Betz' Law shows a limiting factor for this form of renewable energy. Engineering constraints, energy storage and transmission losses and other factors mean that even the best modern turbines operate at efficiencies substantially below the Betz Limit.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WIND TURBINES

Based on the axis of rotation, wind turbines are classified into two types as follows. 2.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines In horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT), the axis of rotation is parallel to the direction of the wind. The rotor drives a generator through a step-up gearbox whose components are mounted on a bed-plate which is mounted on nachelle at the top of the tower. The tower is subjected to unsteady load and dynamic interactions between the components of the machine. 2.2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines In VAWT, the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The rotor blades accept the wind from any point of the compass and the machine is mounted on the ground. This eliminates the need for tower structures and lifting of huge machine assemblies.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF THE WECS

2.3.1 Rotor Turbines for wind farm applications typically have 2 or 3 blades and a tip speed of 50 to 70 m/s. With these tip-speeds a 3 bladed rotor usually gives the best efficiency, though 2 bladed rotors are only 2-3 % less efficient, while single bladed rotor is typically 6% below that of 2 bladed rotors. Though lesser number of blades reduces the cost it leads to problems like tip noise, erosion and rotor has to run faster. Materials generally used for manufacturing blades are Glass reinforced plastics, wood, wood laminates, carbon fiber reinforced plastics, steel and aluminium.

Figure 2.1 Assembly of WECS components 2.3.2 Nacelle The major components are fixed onto or inside a nacelle, which can rotate (or yaw) according to the wind direction and which is mounted on the tower. 2.3.3 Transmission System Mechanical power generated is transmitted to the generator by a transmission system in the nacelle, consisting of gearbox, clutch, braking system to bring the rotor to rest in an emergency when not in operation. The gearbox is needed to increase the speed of the rotor, from typically 20 to 50 rpm to 1000 or 1500 rpm required for driving most types of generators. The transmission system must be designed for higher dynamic torque loads due to fluctuating power output from the rotor. 2.3.4 Generator Wind turbine generators are a bit unusual, compared to other generating units found attached to the electrical grid. One reason is that the

generator has to work with a power source (the wind turbine rotor), which supplies very fluctuating mechanical power. Wind turbines may be designed with either synchronous or induction generators, and with various forms of direct or indirect grid connection of the generator. Direct grid connection mean that the generator is connected directly to the (usually 3-phase) alternating current grid. Indirect grid connection means that the current from the turbine passes through a series of electric devices that adjust the current to match that of the grid. On large wind turbines (above 100-150 kW) the voltage (tension) generated by the turbine is usually 690 V three-phase alternating current (AC). The current is subsequently sent through a transformer next to the wind turbine to raise the voltage to somewhere between 10 KV and 30 KV for transmission. The generator is an integral part of the wind turbine. It is responsible for converting mechanical energy to wind energy. The various types of generators used are, 1. Induction Generator 2. Doubly Fed Induction Generator(DFIG) 3. Permanent magnet machines 2.3.5 Braking System Effective braking systems are required for safe operation of wind turbines. To bring the rotor to complete stop, mechanical brakes are fitted to the main transmission shafts. There are independent systems for bringing the wind turbine to a safe condition in the event of high winds, loss of connection to networks or other emergencies. 2.3.6 Yaw System A horizontal axis wind turbine has a yaw system that turns the nachelle according to the actual wind direction, using a rotatory actuator engaging a gear ring at the top of the tower. The wind direction must be perpendicular to the swept rotor area during normal operation of the turbine.

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A wind vane, usually mounted on the top of the nachelle senses the relative wind direction and wind turbine controller then operates the yaw drives. 2.3.7 Tower Common tower types are the lattice or tubular types constructed from steel or concrete. Most medium sized and large turbines have tubular towers which allow access from inside the tower to the nachelle during bad weather conditions. 2.3.8 Cooling system Generators need cooling while they work. In most wind turbines this is accomplished by encapsulating the generator in duct, using large fan for cooling, but a few manufacturers use water cooled generators. Water cooled generators may be built more compactly, which also gives some advantages in terms of electrical efficiency.

2.4 GENERATOR FOR WECS

There are basically three types of generators that are commonly used with commercial wind turbines. They are 1. Fixed speed with directly grid coupled squirrel-cage induction generator 2. Variable-speed with Doubly-Fed induction generator (DFIG) 3. Variable-speed based on direct-drive synchronous generator 2.4.1 Fixed-speed Wind Turbines

Figure 2.2 Fixed speed squirrel-cage induction generator

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A fixed-speed turbine consists of a rotor and a squirrel-cage induction generator, connected via a gear box as shown in figure 2.3. The generator stator winding is directly connected to the grid. The generator slip varies with the generated power, so that speed is not constant. However, as the speed variations are very small (1-2%), it is commonly referred to as a fixed-speed turbine. A squirrel cage generator always draws reactive power from the grid, which is undesirable, especially in weak networks. The reactive power consumption of squirrel-cage generators is always compensated by capacitors. An anti parallel thyristor soft-start unit is used to build up the magnetic flux slowly, in order to minimize the transient current during energisation of the generator. The fixed speed wind turbine has the advantages of being simple, robust and reliable and less expensive. Its disadvantages are uncontrollable reactive power consumption; mechanical stress and limited power quality control.

2.4.2 Variable-speed wind turbines Presently the most common variable-speed configurations use are DFIG and direct-drive synchronous generator.

2.4.2.1 DFIG wind turbine

Figure 2.3 Doubly-fed induction generator

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A configuration of DFIG wind turbine is shown in Figure 2.4. It uses a wound rotor induction generator with slip rings to take current into or out of the rotor winding. The variable speed operation is obtained by injecting a controllable voltage into the rotor at slip frequency. The rotor winding is fed through a variable frequency power converter. The power converter decouples the network electrical frequency from the rotor mechanical frequency, enabling variable speed operation of the wind turbine. A DFIG system can deliver power to the grid through the stator and rotor, when operated at super-synchronous mode. 2.4.2.2 Direct-drive synchronous generator wind turbine

Figure 2.4 Direct-Drive synchronous generator The variable-speed wind turbine with synchronous generator is shown in Figure 2.5. The aerodynamic rotor and generator shafts are generally coupled directly, without gear box. The generator is a multi-pole synchronous generator designed for low-speeds. The generator can be either an electrically excited synchronous generator or a permanent magnet generator. To permit variable speed operation, the synchronous generator is connected to the grid through a variable frequency converter, which completely decouples the generator from the grid frequency. Therefore the electrical frequency of the generator may vary as the wind speed changes, while the grid frequency remains unchanged.

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The advantages of variable speed turbines are  They generate more energy for a given wind speed regime,  Active and Reactive power generated can be easily controlled.  There is also less mechanical stress, and rapid power fluctuations are scarce, because the rotor acts as a flywheel storing energy temporarily as a buffer.  No flicker problems occur with variable speed turbines  Also allow the grid voltage to be controlled, as the reactive power generation can be varied. The drawbacks of variable speed are that the built-in power electronics are sensitive to voltage dips caused by faults and/or switching and that they are more expensive.