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Outline
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Laws
Method of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits
Practical Considerations
3
Introduction
All mechatronic
ec at o c aand
d measurement
easu e e t
systems contain electrical circuits and
components
Introduction
Basic
as c mechanical
ec a ca qua
quantities
t t es
Displacement
Velocity
Force
What about electrical domain?
5
Introduction
Introduction
Charge
Fundamental electric quantity
q y
Unit: coulombs (C)
Atomic structure of matter:
Consists of a nucleus (neutrons and
protons) surrounded by electrons
Elementary charges
A proton has a charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C
An electron has a charge of -1.6 × 10-19 C
7
Introduction
Electrical current (charge in motion)
time rate
ti t off flow
fl off electrical
l t i l charge
h th
through
h a conductor
d t or
circuit element
unit: amperes, A (or C /s)
dq (t )
i (t )
dt
q(t) : quantity of charge flowing through a cross
cross-section
section of the
circuit element.
Electrons
Introduction
Direct
ect Current
Cu e t vs
s Alternating
te at g CuCurrent
e t
direct current (dc): constant with time.
current, (ac): varies with time
alternating current time,
reversing direction periodically (typically
sinusoidal).
sinusoidal)
9
Introduction
Current
Cu e t Measurements
easu e e ts
Introduction
Electrical potential at any point in an
electrical field is defined as:
E
Q
E is
i potential
t ti l energy off a charged
h d particle
ti l
(with Q coulombs of charge) if it is placed at
that point
Note:
Only difference in electric potential is meaningful
Analogous to gravitational potential
11
Introduction
Voltage (potential difference, electromotive
force (emf))
difference in electrical potential between 2 points
SI unit: volt,
volt V (or J/C)
Let Va be the electrical potential at point A
and Vb at point B
B, then the voltage across A
and B, Vab (A wrt B) is
Vab=Va-VVb
Also, Vba=-Vab
12
Introduction
Notations
otat o s
When vab is positive
(negative), electric
potential at a is higher
(l
(lower)
) than
th that
th t att b
When v is positive
(negative), electric
potential at arrow end
is higher (lower) than
that at the non-arrow
end
13
Introduction
How to measure voltage?
A Vab
Vab
+ 4.889V
-
+ve -ve
ve
B
Voltmeter
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0Zzoz4nM0I&
14
Introduction
Digital
g ta Multimeter
u t ete ((DMM)) ca
can be used
to measure:
Voltage
Current
Resistance
15
Introduction
Ground
Typical reference for electric potential
Symbols
or
Introduction
When current flows through an element and
voltage appears across the element, energy
is transferred.
When positive charge or current enters
through positive (negative) polarity into an
element,
l t energy is
i absorbed
b b d (supplied)
( li d) b
by th
the
element
Energy Energy
+
supplied absorbed
by the by the
element + element
17
Introduction
Power
o e aand
d Energy
e gy
Power absorbed by an element:
p (t ) v(t )i (t ) *
*Remark: Note this formula is based on convention that current i is flowing
across element by entering through positive polarity of element. If inverse is
true computed value for p is negative and it means that element actually
true,
supplies power to rest of circuit.
w p (t )dt
d t1 < t2
t1
18
Energy sources
Voltage source (Vs), current source (Is)
Ideal energy sources: Contain no internal
resistance, inductance, or capacitance.
Three basic passive* electrical elements
Resistors (R), capacitors (C) , inductors (L)
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of
electrical elements and energy sources.
Resistor
Resistor
A dissipative
p element: Converts electrical
energy into heat
Symbol
24
Resistor
Resistor
Ideal resistor
Voltage-current characteristics defined by
Ohm’s law:
v
R v
i
R=v/i
Resistor
Method of reading resistor’s
resistor s value of wire
wire-
lead resistors
R ab 10 c tolerance(%)
10 k5%
26
Resistor
Variable
a ab e resistors
es sto s
Potentiometer (pot)
Trim pot
Three terminals
Schematic symbols
27
Resistor
Resistor
Resistance related to p
physical
y parameters
p
L
R
A
is called the resistivity
which is a property off the
material
How to measure resistance?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUgJgK2aTG0&feature=related
28
Capacit
Capacitor
or
A passive element that stores
energy in the form of an electric
field Conducting plates
+ -
i + - Symbol:
+ Dielectric -
+ -
+ material -
Current flow* results in + -
opposite charge built up + -
+ -
on the conducting plates
Capacitor
Capacitor
Capac to aand
d its
ts fluid-flow
ud o a analogy
a ogy
30
Capacit
Capacitor
or
v(t)
+ -
ddv
i(t) q Cv or iC
dt
C
where
q (unit: coulombs, C): amount of accumulated charge
appearingi on each h capacitor
it plate
l t
C (unit: farads, F (coulombs/volts)): capacitance
v: voltage across the capacitor
i : current flowing into the positive polarity of the capacitor
31
Capacit
Capacitor
or
Voltage
g across a capacitor
p cannot
change instantaneously (why?)
Can be used for timing purposes in electrical
circuits (e.g. RC circuit)
Vin
Vin
Vc
Used in low-pass
low pass filter
Capacitor behaves like an open
circuit during steady state condition
32
Capacit
Capacitor
or
Capacitance:
p Ap
property
p y of
dielectric material
plate geometry and separation
Typical values: 1pF (picofarads,
10-12) to 1000F (microfarads,
10-6)
33
Capacit
Capacitor
or
Primary
y types
yp of commercial capacitors:
p
Electrolytic (polarized, have a positive and
negative ends)
Tantalum
C
Ceramici di
diskk
Mylar
Capacitance codes:
Three-digit code
code, e
e.g.
g 102
102, implies 10x102
pF = 1 nF
Two digit code
Two-digit code, e
e.g.
g 22
22, implies 22 pF
34
Inductor
Symbol:
35
Inductor
IInductor’s
d t ’ characteristics
h t i ti
governed by Faraday’s law
off induction:
i d ti
d
V (t )
dt
where λ = total magnetic flux Fig 2.10, p15 of Alciatore and Histand, 2003
Inductor
For ideal coil,
Li ,
hence,
v t L
di
dt
where L is the inductance (henry,
(henry H (=Wb/A)) of the
coil.
t
i t v t dt i t0
1
or L t0
=>
> Current
C t cannott change
h instantaneously
i t t l
Note: Inductor behaves like a short circuit during steady state condition
37
Inductor
Typical
yp ca inductor
ducto values:
a ues 1H to 100mH
00
Present in motors, relays, solenoids,
po er supplies,
power s pplies oscillators circ
circuits,
its etc
Loop 1 Loop 2
Loop 3
39
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Laws
Analysis
a ys s o
of ccircuits:
cu ts ca
calculate
cu ate voltages
o tages
and currents anywhere in a circuit
*Kirchhoff’s LaLaws:
s essential for
analysis of circuits which involve basic
elements, transistors, op amps, ICs, etc
Kirchhoff’s
c o s cu current
e lawa ((KCL)
C )
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Current Law
Sum of currents flowing into a node is
zero:
N
I
i 1
i 0
Eg:
I1+I2-I3 = 0
(I3 has negative sign
because it is flowing
away from the node)
41
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Current Law
Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a
node equals to the sum of the currents leaving
the node
Eg:
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero:
N
V
i 1
i 0
Kirchhoff’s
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Eg:
Loop 1: -vva + vb + vc = 0
Loop 2: -vc – vd + ve = 0
Loop 3: va – vb + vd – ve = 0
44
Analysis of circuits
Procedure:
• First, assign current variable to each branch and assume its flow
direction.
• Then assign appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive
element (current entering into +ve polarity).
• Apply KVL for loops or apply KCL for nodes to generate sufficient
equations together with constitutive equations of the elements (eg. Ohm’s
law) to solve the unknown current and voltage variables
+ vB - - vD +
- + -
Passive
vA vC vE
element
l
i1 i2 i3
+ - +
45
+
Vs Req
Figg 2.13, pp18, Alciatore and -
Histand, 2003
and, VRi Ri
50
R1
Vin=12V
R2 Vout
51
Vs Vs
=> I I1 I 2
R1 R2
52
N
1 1
Req i1 Ri
where Ri is the resistance of
ith resistor
54
VS R1
I2 I
R2 R1 R2
L1 L2
C1 C2
C1C2 Leq L1 L2
Ceq
C1 C2
In general I generall
In N
Leq Li
N
1 1
Ceq i 1 Ci i 1
56
C1 L1
L1 L2
Ceq C1 C2 Leq
L1 L2
N
In general N In general 1 1
Ceq Ci
L eq
i 1 Li
i 1
57
Principle of Superposition
Principle of Superposition
If more than one independent voltage or
current source is present in any given circuit,
each branch voltage and current is the sum
of the independent voltages or currents
which would arise from each voltage or
current source acting individually when all
th other
the th independent
i d d t sources are zero*.*
Example:
p Superposition
p p
To find I V II1: Portion of I
I2 R arising
i i ffrom I1
I1
II2: Portion of I
I ? arising from I2
(a) IV: Portion of I
((b)) arising from V
R
I1
II1 I2 R
V II2
(c)
R
IV Ans: I=I
I II1+II2+IV
=I1-I2
60
Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuits
Equivalent Circuits
I
I
V
V
Portion
P ti off circuit
i it tot Equivalent circuit
be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
62
Thévenin Equivalent
Thévenin’s theorem: Given a pair of
terminals in a linear resistive network, the
network may be replaced by an independent
voltage source VOC in series with a
resistance RTH.:
I
I RTH
R1
Vin Linear
VOC
resistive V V
R2
network
t k
Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from terminals
A and
dB
Solution:
R1
Vin
A Find VOC by voltage divider
formula,
R2 VOC
B R2
Voc Vin
R1 R 2
65
Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q
Solution ((cont):
)
R2 R1 R 2
RTH R 1 || R 2
B R1 R 2
66
Example
Example:
p : Thévenin Equivalent
q
Thévenin Equivalent:
R1 A
Vin
A +
RTH
VOC
R2
B B
67
Norton Equivalent
Norton equivalent: Linear resistive network can be
replaced by an independent current source ISC and
Thevenin resistance RTH in parallel with the source.
I
I
Linear
resistive V ISC RTH V
network
VOC I SC RTH
I
RTH
I
VOC
ISC RTH V V
Vo
R2 Io
B
Vo
R2 Io ISC
B
R2
B
RTH= RAB= R1
Thus the Norton equivalent circuit would be:
A
Vo
Io R1
R1
B
71
Practical Considerations
Breadboard
eadboa d
For prototyping circuits Instruments for powering
and making
measurements t in
i circuits
i it
Practical Considerations
Practical Considerations
Grounding
Very important
V i t t to
t provide
id a common ground d defining
d fi i a common
voltage reference among all instruments and power sources used in
a circuit or system.
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Principle of Superposition
Equivalent
qu a e t Circuits
C cu ts
Practical Considerations