THE CARBOHYDRATES

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen arranged as monosaccharide or multiples of monosaccharide. Most, but not all carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon molecule to one water molecule, thus the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are polyhydric aldehydes and ketones In modem biochemistry, with the accumulation of much more current data, the definition of carbohydrates has been modified and broadened to encompass many other compounds with little or no resemblance to the original '"water of carbon".

SYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is the process by which plants form carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and plant enzymes acting upon chlorophyll in green leaves. Oxygen is produced and released in the process. The plant uses the glucose produced for its immediate growth and repair needs any extra is converted to starch and stored in the leaves, stems, roots, seeds, pods, and fruits.

CLASSIFICATION Dietary carbohydrates are composed of the simple carbohydrates (the sugars, i.e., monosaccharides and disaccharides) and the complex carbohydrates (the polysaccharides, i.e., glycogen, starches, and fibers). The body converts these types of carbohydrates to its own energy currency blood sugar also called glucose.

MONOSACCHARIDES: The Single Sugars Monosaccharides are structurally the simplest form of carbohydrates, thus they cannot be hydrolyzed to a simpler form. Monosaccharides have only one sugar unit and may contain 3 to 7 carbon atoms: triose (3-C chain), tetrose (4-C chain), pentose (5--C chain), hexose (6-C chain), and heptose (7-C chain). The sugars most important in nutrition are the 6-C monosaccharides known as hexoses: glucose, galactose, and fructose.

Glucose Also known as physiologic sugar, blood sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, and grape sugar. Principal product formed by the hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates during digestion. Primary energy source for all the cells especially the central nervous system.

Galactose Not found in a free state in nature. Formed during the hydrolysis of lactose. Converted to glucose in the liver. Constituent glycolipids and glycoproteins.

Fructose Also known as levulose and fruit sugar. Formed during the hydrolysis of sucrose. Converted to glucose in the liver. Sweetest of the sugars. Used commercially in sweeteners such as high-fructose corn syrup.

DISACCHARIDES: The Double Sugars The disaccharides are split to monosaccharide units by acid hydrolysis or by digestive enzymes. Each of the three common disaccharides consists of glucose; the other monosaccharide is either fructose, galactose, or another glucose: sucrose = glucose + fructose lactose = glucose + galactose maltose = 2 glucose Sucrose Also known as table sugar, sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, and saccharose. Most widely distributed of the disaccharides and is the most common natural sweetener. When hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes or acid, it is converted to invert sugar, a mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose.

Lactose Also known as milk sugar. Only carbohydrate of animal origin that is of significance in the human diet. Comes from milk and milk products. Least sweet of the sugars; about 1/6 as sweet as sucrose.

Maltose Also known as malt sugar and grain sugar. Does not ordinarily occur free in nature. Occurs in plants when seeds germinate. By-product of starch hydrolysis in humans. Used in fermentation to produce malted beverages such as beer and whiskey. With dextrins, it forms dextrimaltose and serves as the source of carbohydrate for some infant formulas.

POLYSACCHARIDES: The Complex Carbohydrates Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units that may number in the hundreds or even thousands. They are less soluble but more stable than the simple sugars and are digested with varying degrees of completeness. Three polysaccharides are important in nutrition: glycogen, starches, and fibers.

Glycogen Also called "animal starch" Major form of stored carbohydrate in human and animal tissues which is readily converted to glucose as needed. Rapidly synthesized from glucose in the liver and muscles where it is stored. Found to a limited extent in meats and not at all in plants, therefore is not a significant food source of carbohydrate and is not counted as one of the complex carbohydrates in foods.

Starches Most significant source of carbohydrate in the diet; grains are the richest food source of starch. Storage form of carbohydrate in plants.

Partial hydrolysis yields dextrins and maltose; complete hydrolysis yields glucose units. Occurs in both the amylose form (long straight chains of glucose units) and amylopectin form (long branched chains of glucose units),

Resistant Starches Three main types of resistant starch occur naturally in the human diet: 1. Physically trapped starch, found in coarsely ground or chewed cereals 2. Ungelatinized starch granules, which are resistant to digestion, such as green banana and high-amylose starch 3. starch polymers, mainly amylose, which are produced when starch is cooled (as in cooled cooked potato) after gelatinization Fibers Fibers are the structural parts of plants and thus are found in all plantderived foods such as vegetables, fruits, grains, and legumes. It is often described as non-starch polysaccharides which include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums, and mucilages. Fibers also include some nonpolysaccharides such as lignins, cutins, and tannins. Fibers cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes. Thus, fibers do not contribute monosaccharides to the body. The bacteria of the GI tract can break some fibers down, however, and this is important to digestion and to health.

The various components of fiber: Cellulose Indigestible polysaccharide composed of long, straight chains of glucose molecules in beta-linkage Primary constituent of plant cell walls Important as a bulking agent and source of energy for intestinal bacteria Hemicelluloses Indigestible polysaccharide which can be hydrolyzed by dilute acids Fewer glucose molecules in beta-linkage Digested by bacteria in the human GI tract. Some are soluble, while others are not Main constituent of cereal fibers

Pectin Indigestible polysaccharide which forms bulk by absorbing large amounts of liquids and swells into a colloidal mass In the food industry, it is used to thicken jelly, keep salad dressings from separating and control texture and consistency because they readily form gels in water Commonly found in vegetables and fruits, especially citrus fruits and apples Gums and Mucilages Noncellulose polysaccharide made up of glucose units combined with other polysaccharides Found in plant secretions and seeds Gums (e.g., gum Arabic) and mucilages (e.g., guar and carrageenan) are used as additives and stabilizers by the food industry

FUNCTIONS of CARBOHYDRATE 1. Source of energy. Carbohydrates are the cheapest and most available source of energy. Each gram provides 4 calories. 2. Protein-sparing action. Carbohydrates prevent the use of protein for energy, thus sparing it for building and repair of body tissues. 3. Prevent ketosis. Fats "burn in the fire of carbohydrates", i.e., adequate carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of fats which results in the accumulation of ketone bodies (ketosis). This causes acidosis, sodium imbalance, and dehydration. 4. Role in Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) function: - Lactose promotes the growth of desirable bacteria, some of which are useful in the synthesis of B-complex vitamins - Lactose enhances the absorption and utilization of calcium. - Fiber maintains gut integrity and ensures normal elimination of waste. 5. Carbohydrates are constituents of body compounds that regulate metabolism: - Glucuronic acid in the liver acts as a detoxifying agent - Hyaluronic acid forms the matrix of connective tissues - Heparin prevents the clotting of blood. DIGESTION Carbohydrates In the Mouth: Chewing breaks down food into fine particles and mixes it with saliva. The enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin) starts the digestive action on starch of

hydrolyzing it to dextrin and maltose. The food mass is conveyed to the stomach by peristalsis.

In the Stomach: The successive wavelike contractions of the muscle fibers of the stomach wall (peristalsis) further mixes food particles with gastric secretions to facilitate chemical digestion. The action of ptyalin continues until the gastric acid (HCl) penetrates the food mass, now a thick, creamy chyme and lowers the pH sufficiently to inactivate the enzyme. The chyme is emptied into the duodenum, the first portion of the small intestine.

In the Small Intestine: Chemical digestion of carbohydrate is completed in the small intestine by enzymes from 2 sources: The pancreatic juice, which contains pancreatic amylase, (amylopsin) an enzyme that continues the breakdown of starch to dextrins and maltose. The intestinal juice, which contains 3 disaccharidases (sucrose, lactase, and maltase). These enzymes act on their respective disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, and maltose) to produce the monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose. These monosaccharides are ready for absorption.

Summary of carbohydrate digestion. Organ mouth stomach small intestine Enzyme salivary amylase ---pancreatic amylase sucrase lactase maltose Digestive Action Starch dextrins maltose Above action continues to a minor degree starch dextrins maltose sucrose glucose + fructose lactose glucose + galactose maltose 2 glucose

ABSORPTION and TRANSPORTATION Glucose and galactose are absorbed across the intestinal wall by active transport presumably by a carrier that is sodium-dependent; can also be absorbed by passive diffusion when their intraluminal concentrations are high. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion which uses a carrier but is not energy dependent. Following transport across the intestinal wall, the monosaccharides pass through the walls of the blood capillaries for transport to the portal circulation. From there they are delivered to different tissues, primarily the liver, muscle and adipose tissue. Glucose enters these cells by facilitated diffusion. In skeletal muscles and adipose tissues, the process is insulin dependent, while in the liver, it is insulin independent. Galactose and fructose are readily taken up by liver cells via specific hepatocyte receptors and are subsequently metabolized. Both can be converted to glucose and stored as liver glycogen or catabolized for energy according to the body's energy demand.

METABOLISM and STORAGE Galactose and fructose from the diet are rapidly converted to glucose in the liver. Thus, carbohydrate metabolism is essentially glucose metabolism. There are 2 distinct phases in the metabolism of glucose: 1. anaerobic phase (glycolysis) which produces 5% of the total energy in the body 2. aerobic phase (Krebs Cycle) which produces 95% of the total energy in the body Excess glucose not immediately used for energy is converted to glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles. The glucose that remains after energy needs and glycogen stores has been attended to is converted to fat and stored in adipose tissues.

FOOD SOURCES

Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature, particularly in the vegetable kingdom* Fruits and vegetables contain varying amounts of sugars and polysaccharides, while cereals, roots, and tubers contain mainly starch. Milk, which contains lactose, is the only animal food that contributes to the daily carbohydrate intake.

RECOMMENDED ENERGY and NUTRIENT INTAKE (RENI) There is no RENI for carbohydrate; a wide variation in carbohydrate intake is compatible with health because of the interrelationships with fatty acids and amino acids in meeting the energy needs of the body. A daily intake of 50-100 grams of available carbohydrates is adequate to prevent ketosis, excessive breakdown of tissue protein, loss of sodium and other cations, and involuntary dehydration. A daily intake higher than this minimum range is desirable for a diet to be acceptable. It is best to eat complex carbohydrates in an unrefined or minimally refined state to avail of their natural fiber and nutrients.

GLYCEMIC EFFECTS OF FOODS The glycemic effect of a food is its effect on person's blood glucose level and insulin response. It refers to how fast and how high the blood glucose rises, and how quickly the body responds by bringing it back to normal. A low glycemic effect is desirable. It is characterized by slow absorption of carbohydrates, a modest rise in blood glucose, and a smooth return to normal blood glucose level. A high glycemic effect is not desirable. It is characterized by fast absorption of carbohydrates, a surge in blood glucose, and an overreaction that plunges blood glucose below normal. A high glycemic diet seems to promote overeating in overweight people. Absorption and glycemic effect of carbohydrate foods can be affected by many factors: 1. Gastric emptying and small intestinal absorption. 2. Food Factors ROLE OF FIBER IN VARIOUS DISEASE STATES Constipation and diarrhea Diverticulosis Colon cancer Hemorrhoids

Appendicitis Diabetes Weight Control Heart Disease

ISSUES RELATED TO CARBOHYDRATE Obesity Weight Control Dental Caries Diabetes Sugar and nutrient intake Lipid profile Heart Disease Cancer Mineral Deficiencies Honey. Misbehavior and Hyperactivity Glycemic effect / glycemic index