Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

INTRODUCTION TO BIOMECHANICS Fluid Mechanics

Philippe K. Zysset
Vienna University of Technology Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics

Winter 2010-2011

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Outline
1

Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Outline
1

Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Liquids and gases

When compared to solids, uids are characterized by low resistance to shear forces. The distinction between liquids and gases is then made in their resistance to hydrostatic compression. Liquids have a low compressibility while the one of gases is very high. In the continuum description adopted here, it is supposed that the dimensions of the representative volume element or particle of uid is at least one order of magnitude larger than those of its molecules.

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Density

The density of a uid particle (RVE) is a continuous function of space and time (y, t) = lim dM dV 0 dV

Fluids are typically considered as isotropic and homogeneous.

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Compressible and incompressible ow

When the density of a uid particle is approximately constant along its trajectory, the ow is called incompressible. Alternatively, when the density of a uid particle is uctuating signicantly along its motion, the ow is called compressible

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Continuity equation

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Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Pressure

A motionless uid is only subjected to normal contact forces in the form of a hydrostatic pressure (y, t). In contrast, tangential forces due to friction, i.e. viscosity of the uid, are related to velocity gradients.

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Newtonian uids
A Newtonian uid satises the equation = Vf L

where V f is velocity of the uid and L a characteristic length. The ratio represents a velocity gradient and the coecient is the dynamic viscosity coecient in Nsm2 . For instance, air and water are Newtonian uids.

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Introduction

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Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Ideal uid

An ideal uid is free of friction and has no viscosity. The boundary conditions of an ideal uid owing along a wall dier from those of a viscous uid which velocity is typically zero at the wall.

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Introduction

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Continuity equation

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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics provides equations of state which provides relationships between macroscopic variables such as density , pressure and temperature T . These equations are valid for systems at equilibrium which is reached after 10 intermolecular collisions in gas theory. The macroscopic changes must therefore occur on a longer time scale than the molecular ones. This assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is valid in most of the applications in uid mechanics.

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Heat transfer
Related to viscosity, heat transfer occurs in uids when a temperature gradient is present: Q= T L

where Q is the heat ux in Wm2 , is the heat transfer coecient in Wm1 K 1 , T is temperature and Lf a characteristic length in m. The ratio represents the gradient of temperature. The specic heat in Jkg 1 K 1 represents the quantity of energy you need to increase the temperature of a unit mass of uid by one degree. For gases, distinction is made between specic heat with constant volume cV and constant pressure cP .
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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Equations of a uid

Continuity equation (conservation of mass) Linear momentum equation (Navier-Stokes for a Newtonian uid) Balance of energy (conservation of energy) Thermodynamical state equation (constitutive equation) These 6 equations allow for identication of 6 unknowns which are the velocity eld v(y, t), density (y, t), pressure (y, t) and temperature T (y, t).

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Outline
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Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

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Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Euler description
Motion of a uid is usually modeled in Eulerian description, where the velocity eld v is function of the actual position y and time t
actual: t > 0

y
e3

v(y,t)
e2 e1

The Eulerian description is incomplete because initial conditions are necessary to obtain trajectories.
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Euler description

In fact, velocity is the time derivative of the actual position v(y, t) = dy dt

In Eulerian description all ow variables are function of the actual position and time: v(y, t), (y, t), (y, t), T (y, t)

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Flow classes

Among general ows, external ows around an object such as a wing are distinguished from internal ows within a pipe or a containment.
In the special class of steady ows, the partial derivatives t of all variables with respect to time are zero: v(y, t) = v(y), (y, t) = (y), (y, t) = (y) and T (y, t) = T (y). This classication depends on the selected referential.

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Stream lines

In contrast to trajectories, which describe the successive positions of a uid particle in time, stream lines are the tangent vectors to the velocity eld v(y, t) at time t. Adjacent stream lines can form impermeable stream surfaces and in particular stream tubes.

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Introduction

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Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Boundary layer
Viscous uids tend to adhere to solid surfaces and the ow velocity tends towards zero at this location. This means that frictional forces become important in the adjacent layer which is called boundary layer. In this layer, the ow may be laminar or turbulent. A laminar ow is characterized by regular and stable stream lines that coincide with trajectories, while a turbulent ow is unsteady and unstable. In case of a steady and laminar ow, the trajectories overlap with stream lines.

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The particle derivative

The total or particle derivative of a uid variable is given by the chain rule dy dF F (y, t) = (y, t) + y F dt t dt Formally, the operator can be expressed by D = + v y Dt t As an example, acceleration of a uid particle is the particle derivative of the velocity a=
Fluid Mechanics

Dv v = + (v y )v Dt t
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The Reynolds number

The number of Reynolds was introduced in the analysis of a ow around an obstacle and represents the ratio between 2 pressure gradients V and shear force gradients V /L: Re = V L

When the pressure gradients dominate, the number of Reynolds is large and the relative size of the boundary layer becomes small. Accordingly, the ow problem can be decomposed into an external problem where the uid is ideal and an internal problem within the boundary layer where the velocity vanishes at the surface of the obstacle.
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The Reynolds number

Organism Bacteria Sperm Fruit y Small bird Squid Large whale

Reynolds Number 106 102 102 105 106 108

Table 1: Typical Reynolds numbers.

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Introduction

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Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Outline
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Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Continuity equation
The continuity equation enforces conservation of mass of the uid particle DM =0 Dt This condition means that the internal change of mass is balanced by the mass leaving the volume of interest: (y, t) + y ((y, t)v(y, t)) = 0 t

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Continuity equation
Example of a steady ow in a rigid tube 1 v1 A1 = 2 v2 A2 For an incompressible ow (steady or not) D = 0 v = 0 Dt This means that the velocity eld can be expressed by v =r

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Continuity equation

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Ideal uids

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Continuity equation

For a compressible but steady ow (v) = 0 This means that the product can be expressed by v = 0 r where r can be a divergence free ( r = 0) rotation vector.

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Irrotational ow

A velocity eld is irrotational if v =0 This means that it derives from a potential v = Such a ow is also called a potential ow and can be either incompressible or compressible.

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Irrotational ow
For an irrotational ow, the continuity equation becomes 1 D + 2 = 0 Dt In the case of an incompressible ow (steady or not), this leads to the Laplace equation: 2 = 0 The stream lines of such a ow are orthogonal to the surfaces with constant .

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Rotational ow

A rotational ow involves a vortex vector =v In similarity with the angular velocity of solids, the vortex vector is twice the angular velocity of the uid particle. By extension to trajectories and stream lines, the vortex lines are the tangent of the vortex vector eld. Adjacent vortex lines can form vortex surfaces and tubes.

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Boundary conditions

At an impermeable surface, the boundary condition on the velocity eld will be for a viscous (real) ow v = ys and for an ideal ow v = y s

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Outline
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Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

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Ideal uids

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Linear momentum

The total linear momentum is the sum of the linear momentum of all the uid particles enclosed in the domain t mt (t ) =
t

v(y, t)(y)dV

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Inertial forces

As usual, the inertial forces are expressed by the total derivative of the linear momentum
inertia

f(t ) =

D t t m ( ) Dt (v) dV + = t t

(v n)vdA
t

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Body forces

The body forces are described by a body force density

body

f(t ) =
t

g(y, t)dV

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Contact forces
Contact forces are described by the stress tensor
contact

f(t ) =
t

p(y, t)dA =
t

ndA

with = I + For an ideal uid: = I =0

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Equilibrium
Balance of all the involved forces gives:
inertia

f(t ) body f(t ) contact f(t ) = 0

Therefore (v) dV + t (v n)vdA

t t

gdV
t

dA = 0

This represents Newtons second law for a domain of uid in the actual conguration.

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Outline
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Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids

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Introduction

Kinematics

Continuity equation

Linear momentum

Ideal uids

Viscous uids

Euler equations
For an ideal uid, the balance of forces can be expressed in volumetric form (v) + (v v) + gdV = 0 t

Using the continuity equation the Euler equations can be derived in local form 1 Dv = + g Dt

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Continuity equation

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Euler equations

For an incompressible uid D =0 Dt the ow is entirely described by the continuity and Euler equations with pressure (y, t) and velocity v(y, t) as the 4 unknowns.

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Euler equations

Eulers equations admit explicit integrals when the body forces derive from a potential i.e. g = and if 1 The ow is irrotational v = and barotrope = () 2 The ow is rotational and steady

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Archimedes theorem
In the case of a body immerged in an incompressible and static uid A dA f=
t

From the equilibrium equations

t

gdV
t

dA = 0

Archimedes force becomes

A

f=
t

dV =
t

gdV = M f g

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Bernoulli equations
In the case of an incompressible and steady ow, the Euler equations become (v v) + gdV = 0
t

The projection of this equation on a stream line (v) leads to the famous Bernoulli equation 1 + v 2 + gy3 = cte 2 If the ow is irrotational, the constant is 0, but if the ow is rotational, the constant is dierent from one stream line to the other.
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The Venturi phenomenon

Despite the lack of viscosity, Bernoullis equation is able to explain a number of phenomenon, in particular that, along a stream line, the velocity is high where pressure is low: 1 1 + v 2 + gy3 = + v 2 + gy3 2 2 This eect is called Venturi phenomenon and explains for instance the vaporisator mechanism.

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The circulation theorem of Kelvin

When the body forces derive from a potential and the uid is barotrope, the circulation theorem of Kelvin can be stated v ds =
C

( v) ndA =

ndA = cte

In the case of an irrotational ow v d s = 0 = v = 0

C

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Potential theory
In the general case of an incompressible, irrotational and steady ow, the Euler equations become a Laplace equation for the potential: v = = 0 1 + ||2 + = cte t 2
2

The resolution of these equation system, which is equivalent to the equations of electrostatics and magnetostatics for the electric and magnetic elds, is beyond the scope of this introduction and can be found in uid mechanics textbooks.
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Outline
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Newtons hypothesis
Conguration of Couette ow

The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient dv = dy where the viscosity coecient is a property of the uid which depends mainly on temperature and to some extent on pressure.
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Viscous ow
In the viscous general case, the stress tensor becomes = ( v)I + (y v + T v) y = ( v)I + 2D where is a volumetric and is the deviatoric (shear) viscosity. For incompressible uids v = 0, the volumetric viscosity disappears. For irrotational ows (v = T v), the divergence of the shear stress D is given by 2 v.
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Navier-Stokes equations
Under these assumptions, the linear momentum equations become the Navier-Stokes equations Dv g + ( )v 2 D = 0 Dt

For the incompressible and irrotational case where Dv g + 2 v = 0 Dt

1 1 D = 2 v + ( )v 2 2
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Hagen-Poiseuille ow
A simple solution of the Navier-Stokes equations is the incompressible and steady Hagen-Poiseuille ow between two plates 2 v1 1 = 2 v1 = y2 (d y2 ) y1 y2 2 y1 where d is the distance between the plates.

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Hagen-Poiseuille ow
Similarly, the velocity prole of a laminar ow within a cylindrical tube is parabolic v (r ) = The mass transfer is
4 = R M 8 y3

r R 2 (1 ( )2 ) 4 y3 R

The shear stress =

R 2 y3
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