1 Christopher Bates English 225 Professor Sara Talpos December 8th, 2011 An Assessment of the Benefits of Marijuana Legalization

Since 1970, the U.S. government has classified marijuana as a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act, meaning it for abuse, has a high potential

has no currently accepted medical use in treatment, and there is a

lack of accepted safety for use of the drug (Drug Enforcement Administration, 2005). Accordingly, under federal law, it is illegal to cultivate, distribute, possess, or use marijuana. Recently, however, several states have enacted legislation protecting the rights of those with a physician s recommendation to use marijuana to relieve the symptoms of certain medical conditions (Huffington Post, 2011). Additionally, a growing body of research indicates that marijuana consumption is not harmful to the user over the long-term, while other studies show that marijuana legalization may have beneficial effects on the national economy. Furthermore, some research suggests that the illegality of marijuana may actually create crime rather than prevent it. For the aforementioned reasons, marijuana should be legalized at the federal level for both medical and recreational users alike. One of the most common claims regarding marijuana is that it can kill brain cells, damage brain function, and causes learning and memory impairment (Levy, 2009). The basis of this claim lies in the results of a 1980 study published in Biological Psychiatry, which found structural changes in several regions of the brain

2 in rhesus monkeys exposed to high doses of marijuana smoke most notably the hippocampus, which plays a significant role in memory and learning (Heath et al., 1980). However, upon reviewing this study, Professors John Morgan and Lynn Zimmer found that 200 times the psychoactive dose of THC in humans had to be administered in order to achieve these results (Morgan & Zimmer, 1995). Additionally, a more recent study of rhesus monkeys, in which the equivalent of 4-5 joints per day was administered through face-mask inhalation for an entire year, found no change in hippocampal structure, cell size, cell number, or synaptic configuration seven months after the regimen (Levy, 2009). Even more recently, a 2011 study at the Australian National University in Canberra found no differences in cognitive function associated with marijuana consumption across several measures of cognition (Tait, Mackinnon, & Christensen, 2011). Furthermore, an analysis of cannabis research at Cambridge University found minimal evidence of major cannabis effects on brain structure, both in regional grey matter volumes and in the integrity of white matter fibers (Martn-Santos et al., 2009). The same analysis found no differences in spatial working memory between marijuana users and controls. Taken together, this literature discredits the results of Heath et al. s extreme study and suggests that marijuana has little, if any, long-term effects on brain structure or cognition. On November 6, 1996, California became the first state to enact legislation legalizing the use of marijuana for medical purposes (NORML, 2011). Since then, sixteen other states and the District of Columbia have passed similar legislation protecting the rights of patients with certain medical conditions to utilize marijuana

3 as an effective form of medication. Research has shown that cannabis has medical benefits for various health afflictions. The Institute of Medicine has acknowledged that cannabinoids can produce a significant analgesic effect for patients receiving chemotherapy, nausea and vomiting associated with opioid use in postoperative pain management, spinal cord injury, peripheral neuropathic pain, poststroke pain, ADIS, cachexia, or any significant chronic pain problem (Watson, Benson, & Joy, 2000). The Institute has also indicated that cannabis is effective for treating wasting syndrome and appetite loss in patients with cancer and AIDS, and reduces intraocular pressure in patients with glaucoma. Additionally, national epidemiological surveys and studies show that marijuana is not addictive and even high doses are not followed by adverse withdrawal symptoms (Morgan & Zimmer, 1995). Medical marijuana s effectiveness in treating a variety of medical ailments and its lack of addictive potential give it an advantage over many prescription medications, and it is only a matter of time until many more states recognize these benefits and protect patients seeking relief by marijuana from legal persecution. The positive effects of marijuana legalization extend beyond the user to include the economics and society of the United States as a whole. In 2005, Milton Friedman and more than 500 other economists, including some from Cornell, Stanford, and Yale universities, signed an open letter to President Bush and Congress endorsing marijuana legalization (Hardy, 2005). The letter cites a report from Harvard University s Professor Jeffrey Miron titled The Budgetary Implications of Marijuana Prohibition. It found that total state and local government expenditures were $5 billion on the enforcement of marijuana laws

4 alone in 2000, and the federal government spent $2.39 billion for enforcement of marijuana prohibition in 2002 (Miron, 2002). If marijuana were to be legalized, it would be possible to tax its use. If marijuana were taxed at a similar rate as other consumer goods, it would net at least $2.4 billion per year in tax revenues. However, if it was given a sin tax similar to that of alcohol and tobacco, it could net between $6.2 and $9.5 billion in tax revenue annually (Miron, 2002). Based on the results of this report, revenue from taxing legal marijuana would total more than what is spent on enforcing its prohibition. According to Forbes, marijuana legalization could also benefit large agricultural groups such as Archer Daniels Midland and ConAgra Foods (Hardy, 2005). This could mean that the federal government would no longer have to subsidize the farming industry, which means even further savings. Additionally, marijuana prohibition indirectly harms the economy by adding a black spot to the resumes of those convicted of marijuana offenses, which takes away their potential to contribute to society (by affecting their educational and employment status) even though they are guilty of a crime with no victims. Furthermore, an analysis of literature in 2007 by the Journal of Drug Issues found that enforcement of marijuana laws increase, rather than decrease, crime for several reasons: distribution networks are disrupted, leading to disputes over market share within illegal drug markets and increased violence; sellers, who face a greater risk of arrest and disruption of supplies, may switch to other forms of crime for income; resources used for marijuana enforcement cannot be used against other types of crime; and the incarceration of marijuana users and sellers uses prison cells in a prison system already at full capacity, leading to shorter sentences

5 and less frequent imprisonment for other criminals (Shepard & Blackley, 2007). Given this information, it is evident that marijuana prohibition is harmful, rather than beneficial, to American society and its economy. Tobacco and alcohol are both legal in all 50 states. However, extensive research has shown dramatic negative health consequences from use of these two legal substances. Tobacco use causes several types of cancer as well as coronary heart disease and emphysema, and is highly addictive (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). Long-term alcohol consumption has been shown to cause cirrhosis, several heart diseases, and various psychological effects such as tremors, seizures, dementia, and delayed cognitive development (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). According to the CDC, tobacco use accounts for an estimated 443,000 deaths, or nearly one of every five deaths, each year in the United States and alcohol poisoning causes approximately 79,000 deaths in the U.S. In comparison, not a single death has ever been attributable to marijuana intoxication (Cloud, 2002). Drunk driving claimed the lives of 10,839 people in 2009 and the annual cost of alcohol-related crashes totals more than $51 billion (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). Research at the University of Iowa has shown that subjects driving under the influence of marijuana perform better on driving simulators than those driving while under the influence of alcohol (Turner, 2007). Additionally, in a NHTSA study, the only statistically significant outcome associated with marijuana on driving simulators was speed reduction (Morgan & Zimmer, 1995). Interestingly, researchers from the National Household Survey on Drug Use and Health and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found

6 that fatal car wrecks dropped by 9% in states that legalized medical use even when controlling for other factors (Szalavitz, 2011). These studies provide compelling evidence that marijuana use is safer than use of tobacco or alcohol, and national laws should reflect these indications. The detriments of marijuana consist only of the problems caused by prohibition not the drug itself. Research has shown that marijuana use does not

lead to long-term structural changes in the brain or cognition loss. Several studies have proven the medical benefits of marijuana use. It is evident that marijuana prohibition is costly to society in multiple ways. It is expensive to enforce, while taxation would increase government revenues. It also increases other forms of crime, adding further to the expenditures of law enforcement. Research also seems to indicate that marijuana is even less harmful than tobacco or alcohol use, and driving with under the influence of marijuana may even be safer than driving sober and is certainly safer than driving while under the influence of alcohol. Lastly, it reduces the potential of individuals to contribute to society when they are convicted of marijuana offenses. Legislators must take these findings into consideration and realize that, in American society, marijuana prohibition has no place.

Works Cited

7 "Alcohol and Public Health." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 28 Oct. 2011. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/alcohol-use.htm>. Cloud, John. "Is Pot Good For You?" TIME Magazine. 4 Nov. 2002. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1003570,00.html>. "Drugs of Abuse." U.S. Department of Justice. Drug Enforcement Administration, 2005. 7 Dec. 2011. <http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/abuse/doa-p.pdf>. Hardy, Quentin. "Milton Friedman: Legalize It!" Forbes. 2 June 2005. 9 Dec. 2011. <http://www.forbes.com/2005/06/02/cz_qh_0602pot.html>. "Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 21 Mar. 2011. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/eff ects_cig_smoking/>. Heath, R. G. RG, et al. "Cannabis Sativa: Effects on Brain Function and Ultrastructure in Rhesus Monkeys." Biological Psychiatry 15.5 (1980): 657-90. Environmental Science and Pollution Management. 7 Dec. 2011. "Impaired Driving: Get the Facts." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 18 Oct. 2011. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://www.cdc.gov/motorvehiclesafety/impaired_driving/impaireddrv_factsheet.html>. Levy, Jordan. "Marijuana Damages Brain Cells: Anti-Drug Propaganda or Legitimate Health Concern?" Vanderbilt University Department of Psychology. 4 Oct. 2009. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://healthpsych.psy.vanderbilt.edu/2009/MarijuanaBrain.htm>.

8 Martn-Santos, R., et al. "Neuroimaging in Cannabis Use: A Systematic Review of the Literature." Psychological Medicine 40.3 (2010): 383-98. 8 Dec. 2011. "Medical Marijuana." National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws. 2011. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://norml.org/legal/medical-marijuana-2>. "Medical Marijuana: A State-By-State Guide." Huffington Post. 25 May 2011. 7 Dec. 2011. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/12/21/medicalmarijuana_n_797932.html>. Miron, Jeffrey. The Budgetary Implications of Marijuana Prohibition. Harvard University. 2005. 9 Dec. 2011. Morgan, J. P. & Zimmer, L. Exposing Marijuana Myths: A Review of the Scientific Evidence. Open Society Institute. 1995. 8 Dec. 2011. Shepard, Edward M., and Paul R. Blackley. "The Impact of Marijuana Law Enforcement in an Economic Model of Crime." Journal of Drug Issues 37.2 (2007): 403-24. 9 Dec. 2011. Szalavitz, Maia. "Why Medical Marijuana Laws Reduce Traffic Deaths." TIME Magazine. 2 Dec. 2011. 8 Dec. 2011. <http://healthland.time.com/2011/12/02/why-medical-marijuana-lawsreduce-traffic-deaths/>. Tait, Robert J., Andrew Mackinnon, and Helen Christensen. "Cannabis use and Cognitive Function: 8-Year Trajectory in a Young Adult Cohort." Addiction 106.12 (2011): 2195-203. 8 Dec. 2011. Turner, Beth Marie Anderson. "Sex, Drugs, and Driving: The Effects of Marijuana." The University of Iowa, 2007. 8 Dec. 2011.

9 Watson, Stanley J., John A. Benson , and Janet E. Joy. "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base: A Summary of the 1999 Institute of Medicine Report." Archives of General Psychiatry 57.6 (2000): 547-52. 8 Dec. 2011.