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1.Stylistics,itsobject,branches,function. The term stylistic is derived from the word style. The word comes from latin stylo-pen.

Stylo is instrument for writing. The word style is ambiguous . The are several concepts on style. Galperin gives his definition of style as a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. In modern stylistics there are different classification of style. Stylistic studies the principles and usage of different language elements and emotion under different conditions of communication. Stylistics deals with: a) the aesthetic function of language is an integral part of works of art ( poetry and imaginative prose ). b) expressive means of language are aim to affect the reader or listener ( poetry, fiction). c) the emotional coloring of words and sentences creates a stylistic effect and makes a text a lyrical piece a description with a different stylistic value. d) any national language contains a number of sublanguages or micro languages with their own specific features and their style. 2. Style, norm and function in the language. The norm of the language implies various realizations of the language structure that are sometimes called its subsystems or registers .The norm will be dictated by the social roles of the participants of communication, their age and family or other relations. Functional styles are subsystems of the language and represent varieties of the norm of the national language. Their evolution and development has been determined by the specific factors of communication in various spheres of human activity. Each of them is characterized by its own parameters in vocabulary usage, syntactical expression, phraseology, etc. The term 'functional style' reflects peculiar functions of the language in this or that type of communicative interaction. 3.Grammatical meaning of a word. The grammatical meaning of a word may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words, as for example , the tense meaning in the word- forms of verbs worked ,bought ,spoke or the word-forms of various nouns ( sisters, students, worlds). In modern linguistic science some elements of grammatical meaning can be identified by the position of the linguistic unit in relation to other linguistic units, by its distribution ex: only after the pronouns he, she, it and before adverbs like well, badly, today. It follows that a certain component of the meaning of a word is described when you identify it as a part of speech, since different parts of speech are distributionally different ( my work and I work ). Grammatical meaning is also called structural meaning. Grammatical meaning refers to relation between words or some forms of words. 4.Types of lexical meaning. Lexical meaning refers to the mind to some concrete concept phenomenon, or thing of objective reality. Lexical meaning is a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept. The lexical meaning of a word may be thought of as the specific value it has in a particular language system. There are 2 lexical meanings of the word : connotative and detonative meaning. A denotation- is a strict, literary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude or color. The connotation adds elements of emotion, attitude or color. Ex: if you look up the word snake in a dictionary you will discover that one of the denotative meaning is a venomous reptile but the connotative meaning of the word snake could include evil or danger. 5.Connotational meaning, its type. The emotions and feelings that word creates are called connotative meaning. There are 2 different kinds of connotation : personal and general connotation. Personal connotation is what weve just described with the word cat .Its the emotions or feelings a word creates in you or in any one individual. General connotation is different its what a word means to large group of people. Ex: if you look up the word snake in a dictionary you will discover that one of the denotative meaning is a venomous reptile but the connotative meaning of the word snake could include evil or danger.

6. Literary-non-Literary language. - there is a clear division between literary and nonliterary languages in the Middle English period. As is true of any period in English, there exists a highly literary style at one end of the spectrum and an equally clear non-literary style at the other end, but in between there are so many gradations that it is difficult to draw a precise boundary between them. Today literature is traditionally regarded as both an exclusive and an evaluative term; works which lack an aesthetic structure or an emotional appeal are readily dismissed as being not literature. The word literature comes ultimately from Latin littera, that which is written, and this definition reflects Middle English attitudes to literature more adequately than contemporary ones do, though the beginnings of a modern attitude can be traced at the end of the medieval period 7.Spoken and written language. -A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system. Written language is an invention in that it must be taught to children, who will instinctively learn or create spoken or gestural languages. A written language exists only as a complement to a specific spoken or gestural language, and no natural language is purely written. However, extinct languages may be in effect purely written when only their writings survive. Spoken languages a form of human communication in which words derived from a large vocabulary(usually at least 10,000) together with a diverse variety of names are uttered through or with the mouth. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into syntactically organized sentences and phrases.

8.What is a functional style? Types of functional style. Functional style is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style and not the language means. There are 5 functional style: 1) official (document and papers) it uses syntactical constructions and archaic words. Emotiveness is not use in this style. 2) Scientific ( articles, brochures and other scientific publications ) this style is employed in professional communication to convey some information. 3) publicistic ( essay, public speech ) 4) newspaper style (mass-media) special graphical means are used to attract the readers attention. 5) belles-lettres style ( genre of creative writing ) the richest register of communication besides its own language means. 9.Features of scientific prose style. - The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. There are following characteristic features of scientific style: 1. the logical sequence of utterances; 2. the use of terms specific to each given branch of science; 3. so-called sentence-patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. 4. the use of quotations and references; 5. the frequent use of foot-note, of the reference kind, but digressive in character. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style

10. Style of official documents. -In standard literary English this is the style of official documents. It is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants: 1. the language of business documents; 2. the language of legal documents; 3. that of diplomacy; 4. that of military documents. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most noticeable of all syntactical features are the compositional patterns of the variants of this style. The over-all code of the official style falls into a system of subcodes, each characterized by its own terminological nomenclature, its own compositional form, its own variety of syntactical arrangements. But the integrating features of all these subcodes emanating from the general aim of agreement between parties, remain the following: 1. conventionality of expression; 2. absence of any emotiveness; 3. the encoded character of language; symbols and 4. a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence 11. Publicistic style. - Publicistic style has spoken varieties, in particular, the oratorical substyle. The new spoken varieties are the radio commentary, the essay and articles. The general aim of publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essays or article. Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning; but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine. Publicistic style is also characterized by brevity of expression.

12. Essays. - The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. It never goes deep into the subject, but merely touches upon the surface. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are 2 of the most obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter. This literary genre has definite linguistic traits which shape the essay as a variety of publicistic style. In the 19th century the essay as a literary term gradually changed into what we now call the journalistic article or feature article which covers all kinds of subjects from politics, philosophy or aesthetics to travel, sport and fashions. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers, especially weeklies and Sunday editions In comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect.

13. Newspaper style - English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. There are four basic newspaper features are: 1. Brief news - the function of a brief news is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. 2. Advertisements and announcements; - The function of advertisements and announcements, like that of brief news, is to inform the reader. There are two basic types of advertisements in the modern English newspaper: classified and non-classified. 3. The headline; - The headline is the title given to a news item or a newspaper article. The main function of the headline is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follows is about. 14. Belles-lettres style. - The belles-lettres style is a generic term for 3 substyles: 1. the language of poetry or simply verse; 2. emotive prose, or the language of fiction; 3. the language of the drama. The purpose of the belles-lettres style is to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style. An aesthetico-cognitive effect is a system of language means which secure the effect sought. The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are: 1. genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. 2. the use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment. 3. a vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the authors personal evaluation of things or phenomena. 4. a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy. 5. the introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree(in plays) or a lesser one(in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any(in poems). The belles-lettres style is individual in essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties.

15. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary. - Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so far prolific in the production of new meanings.Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary, which falls out of the standard English altogether.The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another.

16. Terms, their structure, meaning and function. -Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. They know no isolation; they always come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries which, unlike general dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms. All these clusters of terms form the nomenclature, or system of names, for the objects of study of any particular branch of science. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the belles-lettres style, etc. Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a given notion or concept. The their function is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some references to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person 17. Archaic words and forms. - The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language. Well distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use; 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete. 3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable.There is another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historic words. Words of this type never disappear from the language.Archaic words are used in historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters, legal language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.

18. Slang. is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speakers language or dialect but are considered more acceptable when used socially. The oxford English dictionary defines slang as very informal words and expressions that are more common in spoken language, especially when used by a particular group of people. Slang can be regional that is used only in a particular territory. Slang include newly coined words, shortened forms and standard words whose meaning have been metaphorically shifted as for ex : mug= face, trap=mouth, nut= head, to leg= to walk. Also people use slang in order to sound modern and up todate. Slang is mainly used by the young an uneducated. Thus the word kid = child , which was considered low slang in the 19 century, is now a legitimate colloquial unit of the English literary language. Some linguists make a distinction between slang words and colloquialisms. They said that slag refers to informal lexical items used by a specific social group of teenagers and prisoners. A colloquialisms is a word or phrase that is common in every day , a conversation rather than in formal speech or academic writing. Ex: raining cats and dogs. 19. Professional and social jargonisms . - Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work or at home. Professional words name anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. Their main feature is technicality. They are monosemantic. Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code. Jargonisms are social in character. In England and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon. There is a common jargon and special professional jargons. Jargonisms do not always remain on the outskirts of the literary language. Many words entered the standard vocabulary. 20. Vulgarisms. - The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Websters New International Dictionary defines vulgarism as a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech. I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions.There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene ones, are called four-letter words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling. The function of vulgarisms is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

21. Sound-instrumenting. Alliteration. is repetition of initial consonant sound. The initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.Examples: for the greater good of ../ safety and security Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the consonants themselves.Examples: killer command / fantastic philosophy If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated. Examples: a Canadian child 22. Onomatopoeia. from Greek onoma- name,word and poiein to make is the way of word-building when words are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, human beings and inanimate objects. The majority of onomatopoeic words serve to name sounds or movements. Most of them are verbs easily turned into nouns: bang, boom, smack. Many verbs denote sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or in expressing their feelings: giggle, murmur. Then there are sounds produced by animals, birds and insects : buzz, croak, crow, hiss, moo, mew. 23. Graphon, its type and function. - In contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, imaginative prose sound is foregrounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon. Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker's origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. Graphon, thus individualizing the character's speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act. Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue: "gimme" (give me), "lemme" (let me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), "coupla" (couple of), "mighta" (might have), "willya" (will you), etc. 24. Metaphor. - Metaphor is when you use two nouns and compare or contrast them to one another. Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile (A is like B.), like is not used in metaphor (A is B.). Metaphors are comparisons that show how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in one important way. A metaphor is more forceful (active) than an analogy, because metaphor asserts two things are the same, whereas analogy implies a difference. There are: A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is absent..An extended metaphor (conceit) establishes a principal subject (comparison) and subsidiary subjects (comparisons). A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification inconsistent with the first.Absolute metaphor denotes a figure or a concept that cannot be reduced to, or replaced with solely conceptual thought and language. Example:Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food. (Henry Ward Beecher) Through much of the last century, America's faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations.

Her eyes were glistening jewels. 25. Metonymy and synecdoche - Metonymy (unlike metaphor) uses figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or background. The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (see synecdoche). Examples: The White House declared (White House = US government / President),,, ///the spit-and-polish command post (meaning: shiny clean). Synecdoche is based on a specific kind of metonymic relationship which may be considered as quantitative and shows the relations between a part and the whole . This is when a part stands for the whole or vice versa. Synecdoche is some kind of generalization and specification that uses a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant. Example:Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers) 26. Pun and irony. - Pun ( a play of words) is a figure of speech in which the role of the context is similar to that of zeugma, while the structure is changed, for the central word is repeated. e.g. Im going to give you some advice. Oh! Pray dont. One should never give a woman anything that she cant wear in the evening. The main stylistic functions are: to create a humorous effect; a vehicle of the authors thought (and not a mere decoration). Irony is a literary technique or situation between what is said and what is meant. Ironic statements typically imply a meaning in opposition to their literal meaning. A situation is often said to be ironic if the actions taken have an effect exactly opposite from what was intended. There are 3 types of irony : -verbal irony is when the author says one thing and means something else. -dramatic irony is when the audience perceives something that a character in the literature doesnt know. -situational irony is a discrepansy between the expected result and actual result. 27. Antonomasia. - is the use of a proper name for a common one. It is based on the interaction of the logical and nominal meanings of a word. It may be metaphoric, i.e. based upon a similarity between two things. e.g. The Gioconda smile. It may be metonymic, when a name of a person stands, for instance, for the thing he has created. e.g. Where one man would treasure a single Degas, Renoir, Cezanne, he bought wholesale. To be employed as a common noun the proper name must have a fixed logical association between the name itself and the qualities of the bearer. Each case of antonomasia is a unique creation. The main function of antonomasia is to characterize the person simultaneously naming him. It is vastly used in the so called speaking names: Lady Teasle. Miss Sharp. 28. Epithet. - is an attributive characterization of a person, thing or phenomenon. It based on the interaction between the local and emotive meanings of a word: word epithets may be expressed by any notional part of speech in the attributive or adverbial function; two step epithets are based on illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified word, e.g. the brute of a boy; phrase epithets include an extended phrase or completed sentence into one epithet, e.g. a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look; sentence epithets are expressed by a one-member (or one word) sentence which fulfils the function of emotive nomination, e.g. Fool! conventional (standing) epithets, a sort of literary cliche. e.g. my true love, merry old England, merry month of May, wide world. In the sentence epithets may be distributed: singly, e.g. a dry look; in pairs, e.g. a wonderful and happy summer;The main functions of Epithet are: to describe the object as it appears to the speaker; to give an expressive characterization of the object described; to disclose the emotionally colored attitude of the writer towards the person or thing qualified 29. Hyperbole and understatement. -It is an expression of an idea and is based on the interaction between the logical and emotive meanings of a word. e.g. That was fiercely annoying. Their flat was a fourth-floor one and there was Oh! 15 thousand stairs. Id cross the world to find you a pin. Hyperbole is highly typical of the colloquial language and presents itself as an exaggerated statement, sometimes extravagant, but always obvious. It springs from highly emotional attitude of the speaker. Proper Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of some quality, quantity, size, age, etc., big though it might be even without exaggeration. Understatement is the smallness being hyperbolized, an expression of an idea in a restrained language. e.g. a woman of pocket size. He knows a thing or two. He thought at first that it was the warmth of the day that had caused her to be so inefficiently clothed. The main functions of hyperbole are: to contribute to the emotional manner of representation of the speakers words;

to show highly emotional attitude of the speaker towards the subject discussed. 30. Oxymoron and antithesis. - Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas. The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the reader's / listener's attention directly to the contrast. Examples: That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. /// It is easier for a father to have children than for children to have a real father. Oxymoron is based on the interaction between the logical and emotive meaning of the word, i.e. it is based upon a contrast between the words: proper oxymoron joins two antonymous words into one syntagm, most frequently attributive or adverbial (less frequently other patterns). e.g. adoring hatred, shouted silently, doomed to liberty; trite oxymorons -have lost their semantic discrepancy (are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue), e.g. pretty lousily, awfully nice. The main stylistic functions are: to indicate roused emotions; to convey the authors or the characters personal attitude towards what is modified (sweet sorrow, glad terror).

31. Speak on simile and comparison. is direct comparison. Two things are compared directly by using 'like' (A is like B.).Other possibilities are for example:

     
My friend is as good as gold.

A is (not) like B A is more/less than B A is as as B A is similar to B A is , so is B A does , so does B

Examples: The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel

When a simile is employed, two objects are compared, one of them being likened to the other. There are proper simile - e.g. ...darkness when once it fell, fell like a stone; and disguised simile to remind, to resemble, to recollect, to seem.

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