Q.

Write a note on functions of management.

Ans.1 Management can be defined as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan. As per Fayol (1949) management functions are as follows. a) Planning b) Organizing c) Commanding d) Coordinating e) Controlling Over the time managerial tasks have become highly challenging and fluidic in nature, hence management functions have been regrouped into four categories in recent times. These four functions of management allow any organization to have a controlled plan to be successful. These are very essential in building strong organizations. The four functions are:1. PLANNING It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving these goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Every organization needs to plan for change in order to reach its set goal. Benefits of planning:a) Effective planning enables an organization adapt to change by identifying opportunities and avoiding problems. b) It provides the direction for the other functions of management and for effective teamwork. c) It also enhances the decision making process. In order to be useful, planning must be linked to the strategic intent of an organization. That is why planning is often referred as strategic planning. Strategic planning is the process of developing and analyzing the organization's mission, overall goals, general strategies, and allocating resources. The steps of this process are explained below. Define the mission: A mission is the purpose of the organization. Planning begins with clearly defining the mission of the organization. The mission statement should be broad, deconcise, summarizing what the organization does. At the same time it should also be short, easily understandable and every employee should be able to narrate it from memory. The mission guides employees to work independently and yet collectively towards the realization of the organization's potential. The mission statement may be accompanied by an overarching statement of philosophy or strategic purpose designed to convey a vision for the future. Conduct a situational or SWOT analysis: The SWOT analysis is one of the several strategic planning tools that are utilized by organizations to ensure that there is a clear objective defined for the project or venture. It also helps in identifying and addressing all the positive and negative factors related to effort. SWOT is sometimes referred to as TOWS and stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. It should be noted that when identifying and classifying relevant factors, the focus should not only be on internal matters but also on external components which can impact the success of the project. Set Goals and objective: Strategic goals and objectives are developed to fill the gap between current capability and the mission. They are aligned with the mission and form the basis of the action plans of an organization. Objectives are also called performance goals. Strategic, tactical and operational planning must be accompanied by controls to ensure proper implantation of the plans, necessary to maintain the competitive advantage in the market. Tactical plans are based on strategic plans and operational plans are based on tactical plans i.e.

Strategic planning Tactical Planning Operational planning

2. ORGANIZING Organizing involves designing, structuring, and coordinating the work components to achieve organizational goal. It is the process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. The key issue identified in the accomplishment of the goal is structuring the work of the organization. Organizations are groups of people, with ideas and resources working towards common goals. The purpose of the organizing function is to make the best use of the resources to achieve the goal. Organizational structure is the formal decision making framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped and coordinated. Formalization is an important aspect of structure. The formal organization can be seen and represented in chart form. An organization chart displays the organizational structure and shows job titles, line of authority and relationships between departments. Steps in organizing process includes:a) Review plans b) List all tasks to be accomplished c) Divide tasks into groups one person can accomplish a job d) Group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner e) Assign work to individuals f) Delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs and groups of jobs.

3. LEADING An organization has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the employees work towards achieving its goals. The quality of leadership exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success. Earlier theories assumed that the primary source of leadership effectiveness lay in the personal traits of the leaders themselves. Yet, traits alone cannot explain leadership effectiveness. Thus later research was focused on what the leader actually did when dealing with employees. Studies have shown that the leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the organization. Leading involves the following functions:a) Teambuilding Rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving way to ad hoc squads whose membership changes with every project. Teams enable knowledge-based and innovative decision making. This collaboration is a revolution in the workplace. b) Consensus Building Top performance demands the joint effort of many people, working together towards a common goal. When an individual works together with others, effectiveness grows, creating greater productivity for all involved. c) Selecting Selecting competent, high-performing employees capable of sustaining their performance over the long run is a competitive advantage. The selection process consists of forecasting employment needs, recruiting candidates, interviewing applicants and hiring employees. d) Training Training refers to improving an employee s knowledge, skills and attitudes so that he/she can do the job. All employees should be trained to perform their job properly. Training is also advisable when new processes or procedures are introduced into the workplace. 4. CONTROLLING It involves monitoring the employee s behavior and organizational processes and take necessary actions to improve them, if needed. Control is the process through which standards for performance of the people and processed are set, communicated and applied. There are four steps in the control process:a) Establish performance standards b) Measure actual performance c) Compare measured performance against established standards d) Take corrective action

Q.2 Discuss any two learning theories in detail. Ans.2 Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to increase person s willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at workplace. Two learning theories which we would be discussing in detail are listed below:1) Operant Conditioning The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1954). It is a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Operant conditioning theory is also called S-R (Stimulus-Response) Theory. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Principles of operant conditioning are as follows: a) Behavior is learned. b) Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur. c) Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ( Shaping ). d) Reinforcements will generate across similar stimuli ( stimulus generalization ) producing secondary conditioning. e) Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response. Shaping: Skinners application of his learning theory produced impressive behavioral changes even in animals we would not normally consider to be trainable, such as pigeons. This is achieved by a process Skinner called Shaping. Shaping involves reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Methods of shaping behaviors are listed below:a) Positive reinforcement - It is providing a reward for a desired behavior. b) Negative reinforcement- It is removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs. c) Punishment- It is applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior. d) Extinction- It is withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.

2) Social Learning The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning has four processes which are listed below:a) Attention Processes People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. In order to learn, it is required to pay attention. Anything that detracts the attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If this is model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, it is more likely to dedicate the full attention to learning. b) Retention Processes- A model s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model s action after it is no longer readily available. The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. c) Motor Reproduction Processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. d) Reinforcement Processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.

Q.3 Explain the classification of personality types given by Sheldon. Ans.3 Personality is a very important aspect of the individual dynamics. The organization s performance gets largely affected by the personality of people associated with it, especially those who hold significant position in the organization. William Sheldon (1940, 1942) classified personality according to body type. He called this a persona somatotype. Sheldon identified three main somatotypes: Sheldon's Somatotype Character relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort Endomorph[viscerotonic] loving Mesomorph[somatotonic] active, assertive, vigorous, combative Ectomorph[cerebrotonic] quiet, fragile, restrained, sensitive Shape plump, buxom, developed visceral structure muscular lean, delicate, poor muscles

Sheldon proposed a theory about how there are certain body types that are associated with certain personality characteristics. William Sheldon was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments. ENDOMORPHY It is focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm); has the tendency towards plumpness, corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort and luxury, extravert. Body Type:  Soft body  Underdeveloped muscles  Round shaped  Over-developed digestive system

Personality traits:  Love of food  Tolerant  Evenness of emotions  Love of comfort  Sociable  Good humored  Relaxed  Need for affection

MESOMORPHY It is focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker. Body Type:  Hard, muscular body  Overly mature appearance  Rectangular shaped  Thick skin  Upright posture

Personality traits:  Adventurous  Desire for power  Courageous  Assertive, bold  Zest for physical activity  Competitive  Love of risk and chance

ECTOMORPHY It is focused on nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) the tendency toward slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive and introvert. Body Type:  Thin  Flat chest  Delicate build  Young appearance  Tall  Lightly muscled  Large brain  Stoop-shouldered Personality traits:  Self-conscious  Preference for privacy  Introverted  Inhibited  Socially anxious  Artistic  Mentally intense  Emotionally restrained

Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they were generally Mesomorph. Body types have been criticized for very weak empirical methodology and are not generally used in psychology. Somatotype is used more often in alternative therapies and eastern psychology and spirituality. Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person s feelings, thoughts and behaviors.

Q.4 What are the factors influencing perception? Ans.4 Perception is an important aspect of individual behavior and it has a significant impact on organizational behavior. Individuals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually, is but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Individuals differ in their perceptions with regard to people and inanimate objects. An individual makes inferences about the actions of people not the same way as they do for inanimate objects. An individual s perception and judgment of another person s actions are influenced by these assumptions.

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside in:  The perceiver  The object or target being perceived  The context of the situation in which the perception is made

Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect the perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics are: a) Attitudes The perceiver s attitudes affect perception For example, suppose Mr. A is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization. A position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. A may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. b) Moods Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in positive mood we form more positive impressions of others. When in negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavorably. c) Motives Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, a boss who is insecure perceives a subordinate s efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. d) Self-Concept An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others. e) Interest The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. What one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive because our individual interests differ considerably. f) Cognitive structure An individual pattern of thinking also affects perception. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits. g) Expectations Expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveals: Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favorable aspects of other people. One s own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.

Characteristics of the Target: Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. The perceiver will notice the target s physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender. Physical attractiveness often colors our entire impression of another person. Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone and their accent and make judgments based on this input. Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements and posture all in a attempt to form an impression of the target. For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume that their departures are related when in fact, they might be totally unrelated.

Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver s impression of the target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behavior. In these situations, we assume that individual s behavior can be accounted for by the situation, and it may not reflect the individual s disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may encounter an automobile salesperson that has a warm and personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behavior reflects the salesperson s personality? You probable cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner.

Q.5 Mr. Solanki is the VP-HR of a leading financial services company. He is having a meeting with Ms. Ramani leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned about creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant. What suggestions you will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job satisfaction. Ans.5 Job satisfaction is the sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well. Satisfied and delighted employees are a prerequisite to satisfied and delighted customers, thus improving the overall image of the organization and reducing complaints, absenteeism and termination. A motivating environment is one that gives workers a sense of pride in what they do. Leaders can improve employee motivation and employee engagement and job satisfaction within their organizations by following this process:
 Provide a positive working environment  Reward and recognition  Involve and increase employee engagement  Develop the skills and potential of your workforce  Evaluate and measure job satisfaction

STEP 1 PROVIDE A POSITIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENT Job satisfaction begins by first providing a positive work environment. In order to find what motivates people, you have to find what turns people on. This is the most important factor in the process. A motivating working environment requires going over and beyond the call of duty and providing for the needs of the worker. Walt Disney World Company provides an excellent work environment for their employees or cast members. Employee assistance centers are spread strategically across the theme park. Some of the services included employee discount programs, childcare information, money orders, postage stamps, check cashing and bus passes. The Walt Disney Company realizes that taking care of their employee s needs keep them motivated, on the job and loyal to the company.

STEP 2 REWARD, REINFORCEMENT AND RECOGNITION Personal recognition is a powerful tool in building morale and motivation. A pat on the back, a personal note from a peer or a supervisor does wonders. Small, informal celebrations are many times more effective than a once a quarter or once a year formal event. Graham Weston, co-founder and CEO of Rackspace Managed Hosting, gives the keys to his BMW M3 convertible for a week to his top performing employees. This creative way to reward employees has a bigger impact than cash. He says, If you gave somebody a bonus, it wouldn t mean very much. When someone gets to drive my car for a week, they never forget it.

STEP 3 INVOLVE AND ENGAGE THE WORKFORCE People may show up for work, but are they engaged and productive? People are more committed and have higher levels of employee engagement when there is a process for them to contribute their ideas and employee suggestions. This gives them a sense of ownership and pride in their work. The Sony Corporation fosters the exchange of ideas within departments by sponsoring an annual Idea Exposition. During the exposition, scientists and engineers display projects and ideas they are working on. Open only to Sony s employees, this process creates a healthy climate of innovation and engages all those who participate. Capturing employee suggestions and ideas engages and improves employee motivation, creating a more productive and satisfying work environment. Yet many ignore the untapped resource of their employees who know their jobs better than any expert. Idea Campaigns are different than typical employee suggestion programs. The Campaign is a proven way to capture hundreds of ideas to improve productivity, cut costs and drive improvements from the bottom up in a short time period.

STEP 4 DEVELOP WORKER S SKILLS AND POTENTIAL Training and education motivates people and makes them more productive and innovative. At Federal Express, all customer contact people are given six weeks of training before they ever answer the first phone call. Learning never stops and testing continues throughout their employment tenure. Every six months customer service people are tested using an on-line computer system. Pass/fail results are sent to each employee within 24 hours. They receive a personalized prescription on areas that need reviewing with a list of resources and lessons that will help. Federal Express s intensive training and development program has resulted in higher motivation and lower turnover. There are many reasons training and development makes sense. Well-trained employees are more capable and willing to assume more control over their jobs. They need less supervision, which frees management for other tasks. Employees are more capable to answer the questions of customers which builds better customer loyalty. Employees who understand the business, complain less, are more satisfied, and are more motivated. All this leads to better management-employee relationships.

STEP 5 EVALUATE AND MEASURE JOB SATISFACTION Continuous evaluation and never ending improvement is the final step of the PRIDE system. Evaluation is a nonstop activity that includes a specific cycle of steps focusing on job satisfaction and employee engagement. The primary purpose of evaluation is to measure progress and determine what needs improving. Continuous evaluation includes, but is not limited to, the measurement of attitudes, morale and motivation of the workforce. It includes the identification of problem areas needing improvement and the design and implementation of an improvement plan. Good organizations conduct a job satisfaction survey at least once a year. Businesses have searched far and wide for the competitive advantage, the best equipment, technology or the latest business fad. These provide only temporary solutions. The true competitive advantage is trained and motivated people proudly working together for a common purpose, contributing their vitality and energy toward the goals of the enterprise.

Q.6 Given below the HR policy glimpse of the VARK-LEARNING learning and training solutions company. 1. It offers cash rewards for staff members 2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people they know may be their best friends, ex. Colleagues, batch mates, and relatives. 3. It recognizes good performances and gives fancy titles and jackets to the people who perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company. What all aspects do it takes care of according to the Maslow s Need Hierarchy? Ans.6 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top. There are opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job design, company events, and compensation packages, some examples of which follow: Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life. Safety Needs : Provide a safe working environment, retirement benefits, and job security. Social Needs : Create a sense of community via team-based projects and social events. Esteem Needs : Recognize achievements to make employees feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles that convey the importance of the position. Self-Actualization : Provide employees a challenge and the opportunity to reach their full career potential.

However, not all people are driven by the same needs - at any time different people may be motivated by entirely different factors. It is important to understand the needs being pursued by each employee. To motivate an employee, the manager must be able to recognize the needs level at which the employee is operating, and use those needs as levers of motivation. Physiological Needs Physiological needs are those required to sustain life, such as:  air  water  nourishment  sleep According to Maslow's theory, if such needs are not satisfied then one's motivation will arise from the quest to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem are not felt until one has met the needs basic to one's bodily functioning.

Safety Needs Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by:  Living in a safe area  Medical insurance  Job security  Financial reserves According to Maslow's hierarchy, if a person feels that he or she is in harm's way, higher needs will not receive much attention.

Social Needs Once a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other people and may include:  Need for friends  Need for belonging  Need to give and receive love

Esteem Needs Once a person feels a sense of "belonging", the need to feel important arises. Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem such as self respect and achievement. External esteem needs are those such as social status and recognition. Some esteem needs are:  Self-respect  Achievement  Attention  Recognition  Reputation Maslow later refined his model to include a level between esteem needs and self-actualization: the need for knowledge and aesthetics.

Self-Actualization Self-actualization is the summit of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people tend to have needs such as:  Truth  Justice  Wisdom  Meaning Self-actualized persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences, which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony. According to Maslow, only a small percentage of the population reaches the level of selfactualization.

Hence by the above discussed theory we can say that By offering cash rewards for staff members, Vark-Learning is fulfilling its employees Physiological Needs. By promoting the culture of employee referral and encouraging people to refer people they know, Vark-Learning is fulfilling Social Needs of its employees. By recognizing good performances and gives fancy titles and jackets to the people who perform well and also felicitate them in the Annual Day of the company, Vark-Learning is fulfilling Esteem Needs for the employees.