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T I M E L I N E S

HCI Is in Business Focusing on Organizational Tasks and Management


Although not many managers have been hands- on computer users u n t i l r e c e n t l y, t h e y w e r e c r i t i c a l u s e r s o f c o m p u t e r o u t p u t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f b u s i n e s s c o m p u t i n g , i n t h e 19 6 0 s . I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m s r e s e a r c h , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s i n c l u d e d a n H C I t h r e a d f o r 4 0 y e a r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y, o u r f i e l d s h a v e n o t i n t e r a c t e d e f f e c t i v e l y, a s n o t e d i n m y J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 6 c o l u m n . I n t h i s , t h e s e c o n d g u e s t - a u t h o r e d T i m e l i n e s c o l u m n , D o v Te e n i r e v i e w s f o u r d e c a d e s o f H C I r e s e a r c h i n I S , d e s c r i b e s i t s s t a t e t o d a y, a n d suggests where it is headed. Jonathan Grudin, Timelines editor

editor: Jonathan Grudin

Microsoft Research

jgrudin@microsoft.com

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Brad Yeo Collection c/o theispot.com

As a subfield of the academic field of management addresses or implicitly assumes experiences that include information systems (MIS), human computer interaction all three components: human, computer, and task. Very has traditionally been concerned with the process and little research in MIS has concentrated on interactions outcomes of users interacting with computers to accombetween human and computer regardless of task, such plish organizational tasks. The principal factors are the as finding the universally best combinations of color, a computer, the task, andmost importantthe physical, topic commonly found in human factors. In most studies cognitive, and affective aspects of human users. The of attitudes and satisfaction in MIS, task is not articulated organizational context, which is a unique assumption of in the research model but is assumed to be part of a MIS, influences the theoretical basis for research into users purpose for interacting. Moreover, as the context how these factors interact. Other fields that address HCI, is usually organizational, the tasks to be accomplished such as computer science, human factors, information are usually organizational tasks, such as data entry or science, and cognitive psychology, do not always stress business transactions (starting in the 70s), decision the organizational and workplace contexts or the organimaking and office work (starting in the 70s), communizational and managerial tasks. cation and collaboration (starting in the 80s), and online Furthermore, the scope of HCI navigation and purchasing (the past Dov Teeni research in MIS has been comparadecade). Due perhaps to the centrality Tel Aviv university tively wide. For instance, in the 1970s, of the organizational context and task, teeni@tau.ac.il when many users did not interact there has been very little research Assisted by Orly Amramy directly with mainframes but used on physical aspects of design, such printed reports generated by computer operators, HCI as the ergonomic design of keyboards, because these studies, such as studies of satisfaction [1], concentrated devices are usually designed for a wide range of tasks on the end userthe person who used the information and treated as a given in MIS, although they are popurather than the people who operated the computer. Later, lar research topics in fields such as human factors and in the 80s, Jane Carey initiated a series of symposia industrial engineering. called Human Factors in MIS [2], which included not only The past four decades have been associated studies of users, but also of developers. Anything in the with substantial developments in information technolinterplay between human agents, computer systems, and ogy: changing hardware platforms (mainframes, miniorganizational tasks that made a difference to the busicomputers, micro computers, networks/Internet, and ness seemed to interest the field. But as we demonstrate mobile) and the introduction of major applications (word below, much of the research was to be conducted in the processing, spreadsheet, email, Internet browsers, IM, tradition of social sciences that values theory and empirienterprise-wide systems, etc.). Figure 1 plots these cal-research methods. developments in the first and second rows; the third row Our review is limited to research that explicitly describes the major tasks associated with these applicaHardware/ Infrastructure New Applications Mainframes Transaction processing systemsTPS Business transactions Data entry Reporting Mini computers Standalone DSS Office System Micro computers Application and graphic generators Spreadsheet Networks/Internet Mobile/handheld Wearables Systems for small screens

GDSS/CSCW GUI Communication sys. Browsers Navigation Browsing Data search Consuming online

Task

Office work Decision making

Representative Research

Minnesota Experiments: Design and effectiveness Individual characteristics Error messages Report design Information overload

Decision support effectiveness Beliefs, Attitudes & Use Training

Group support effectiveness Communication (E-mail) E-Commerce Usability Emotion Trust

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

figure 1: developments in information Technology and corresponding research


ACM 1072-5220/07/0700 $5.00

AbouT The AuThor Dov Teeni is professor of information systems at Tel-Aviv University. He studies several
related areas of information systems including human computer interaction, computer support for communication, knowledge management, and systems design. His research usually combines model building, laboratory experiments, and development of prototypes like Spider and kMail. Dov is coauthor of a recently published book on human computer interaction for organizations.

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T I M E L I N E S
tions; the bottom row identifies frequently studied topics. Generally speaking, the computer platforms, applications, and tasks dictated, at least initially, the research topics, and usually with a few years time lag. New technologies often grab the fields attention; soon after they appear, there is a surge in descriptive studies of how they are used. For instance, mainframes and transaction processing systems triggered research on errors and error messages, effective data entry, and report formatting (see Figure 1). Mini and micro computers created interactive environments that supported decision making, which in turn created interest in the impact of interactive input-output design on decision effectiveness, dramatically reducing interest in printed reports. With the expanding usage of networks and the Internet, communication support and collaboration became major issues, and with the growing interest in e-commerce, website usability and trust have become popular topics. In parallel, we can see a shift from primarily individual-level research to a more balanced portfolio, with group-level research too. Among current rapidly growing topics are attitudes and use, affect, and trust (see a thorough review of topics studied in the 90s [3]). To sum up, Figure 1 plots illustrative research topics in relation to the technology and task of each period. The research largely ignored physical aspects and focused on cognitive aspects. However, research on affective aspects is quickly growing in popularity, and with the application of wearables and miniature computing devices in the workplace, we may witness a new interest in physical aspects, too. The centrality of task in MIS showed up early in a series of cognitive and behavioral studies that examined how alternative designs impact effectiveness, which came to be known as the Minnesota Experiments [4]. First, the task was usually managerial and mainly decision making; tasks and their effectiveness were measured by decision performance. Second, designs included both the format of presentation and when, what, or how much information was presented. Thus, information overload was examined as an HCI issue in supporting decision making. The research demonstrated the importance of user-computer-decision interaction, which affects users performance as well as their assessment of the information system. The researchers concluded that while computer characteristics (such as CRT output) affected managerial work significantly, the impact of user characteristics was unclear. emphAsis on Theory Although developments in IT pushed researchers to focus on new technologies, the field (through journal editors, dissertation supervisors, etc.) has consistently demanded more theory-based research and more sophisticated measurements. The MIS field advocates theory development as essential for advancing knowledge, believing that the discovery of general laws and when to apply them should result in more flexible and more effective designs. The case of research on individual characteristics, particularly cognitive style, demonstrates this trend well. Cognitive styles are consistent patterns of organizing and processing information, and would therefore appear to be relevant to HCI design. In response to the emphasis on decision support and the ease of providing business graphics, there was a surge of empirical studies about the effect of cognitive styles on the way information should be presented, particularly whether to use tables or graphs. In a controversial 1983 article entitled Much Ado About Nothing, Huber [5] slashed into the research on cognitive style, claiming it had not in the past led to any useful conclusions and was unlikely to do so in the future because it was based on inadequately developed theory and employed faulty measures and research designs. Research on individual differences has since all but stopped (a few recent exceptions may signal a revival). But the call for a better theoretical basis has been echoed continuously in other research topics such as satisfaction [6] and decision support [7]. Interestingly, research on group decision support was relatively rich with theory in comparison with individual decision support, and consequently sustained longer [8]. Parallel calls for better measurement appeared from time to time, particularly for field surveys and laboratory experiments (e.g., [9]). In response, several general theories or models of HCI emerged that influenced many subsequent studies. The most cited model is TAM: the Technology Acceptance Model [10] and its extensions. TAM explains the users decision to adopt a system with implicit reference to task and technology. A users intention to use a system is determined by its perceived usefulness and ease of use, which may both be influenced by situational, organizational, and personal factors. In response to the ubiquity of computing and the blur between work and
Year 1970s 1986 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2006 Minnesota Experiments First Human Factors in MIS symposium Establishment of a formal community: AIS SIGHCI First annual SIGHCI workshop First journal special issue on HCI in MIS First HCI track in main MIS conference, ICIS (International Conference on Information Systems) Two edited volumes on HCI in MIS [13] First textbook for HCI in MIS [14] event

Table 1: milestones in the institutionalization of hci in mis

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leisure computing, perceived enjoyment recently became another factor affecting technology acceptance. In addition to studying technology acceptance, several models attempted to explain interaction by considering the fit between user, computer, and task. Cognitive fit theory [11] explains how fit (or lack of fit) between task requirements, user representation, and computer presentation affect a users behavior. For example, presenting textual information for a spatial task reduces task performance. Similar frameworks address the group level [12]. Additionally, researchers borrowed theories from fields related to business and management in order to understand the particular task at hand and integrate it into specific human-computer interaction, such as theories of decision behavior, communication, information value, and consumer behavior [13]. These theoretical advances have been critical in promoting HCI publications in MIS. Another important factor in promoting HCI in MIS is its institutionalization within the international Association of Information Systems (AIS) after a long period of unorchestrated local initiatives. Table 1 shows some key stages. The University of Minnesota, which was the first of several MIS centers, launched the individual-level Minnesota Experiments and later group decision support systems research. A series of symposia on Human Factors in MIS began in the mid-80s [2]. Fifteen years later, the AIS formed the special-interest group on HCI (http://sigs.aisnet.org/SIGHCI/), which became one of the largest and fastest-growing SIGs within AIS. Presently, it publishes a newsletter twice a year, holds annual workshops and conference tracks in all major AIS conferences (ICIS, AMCIS, ECIS, PACIS) and in HICSS, and sponsors special issues in major MIS and general HCI journals. The last year saw the publication of two edited research collections [14] and the first textbook [15]. conclusion The subfield of HCI in MIS has been growing for 30 years, with a recent surge of activity. Organizational task and context have been central to this research. It has concentrated on cognitive aspects but recently opened up to include affective aspects. Technological innovations trigger research initially; accumulated knowledge helps uncover more general laws and eventually inform the design and use of future technologies. I believe HCI research will continue to follow these trends, capitalizing on organizational and managerial theories to better understand the link between user, computer, and task. I also believe that the idea of integrating theories of organizational task into HCI will be practiced, with appropriate theories, in other applied fields that are characterized by other types of tasks, as is already evident in education, for example. As we expand the diversity of

tasks and contexts for which we study HCI, it may be time to study human computer interaction at two interrelated levels: the human-computer-task interaction that explicitly considers what the higher-level task users wish to accomplish and the lower level that considers how users interact with computers to enable the higher level [15]. And this may result in more cases of human-computer-task interaction developing as subfields of applied F research fields.
AcknowledGmenTs Many thanks to Jonathan Grudin and
to Izak Benbasat, Jane Carey, Phillip Ein-Dor, Dennis Galletta, and Ping Zhang for their suggestions and feedback.
references 1. Bailey, J.E., and S.W. Pearson. Development of a Tool for Measuring and Analyzing Computer User Satisfaction. Management Science 29, no. 6 (1983): 519-529. 2. Carey, J. Human Factors in Management Information Systems. Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1988. 3. Zhang, P., and Na Li. The Intellectual Development of HCI Research in MIS: A Survey of the MIS Literature, 1990-2002. Journal of Association for Information Systems 6, no. 11 (2005): 227-292. 4. Dickson, G. W., J. A. Senn, and N. L. Chervany. Research in Management Information Systems: The Minnesota Experiments. Management Science 23 (1977): 913-924. 5. Huber, G. P. Cognitive Style as a Basis for Designing MIS and DSS: Much Ado About Nothing? Management Science 29, no. 5 (1983): 567-579. 6. Melone, N. A Theoretical Assessment of the User-satisfaction Construct Information Systems Research. Management Science 36, no. 1 (1990): 598-613. 7. Todd, P., and I. Benbasat. Process Tracing Methods in Decision Support Systems Research: Exploring the Black Box. MIS Quarterly 11, no. 4 (December 1987): 493-512. 8. Dennis, Alan R., and Monica J. Garfield. The Adoption and Use of GSS in Project Teams: Towards More Participative Processes and Outcomes. MIS Quarterly 27, no. 2 (2003): 289-323. 9. Newsted P.R., W.D. Salisbury, Todd P., and R.W. Zmud. Measurement issues in the study of human factors in MIS, in Human Factors in Information Systems: The Relationship Between User Interface Design and Human Performance, edited by Jane M. Carey. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1997. 10. Davis, F. Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly 13, no. 3 (1989): 319-340. 11. Vessey, I., and D. Galletta. Cognitive Fit: an Empirical Study of Information Acquisition. Information Systems Research 2, no. 1 (1991): 63-84. 12. Zigurs, I., B.K. Buckland. A Theory of Task/Technology Fit and Group Support Systems Effectiveness. MIS Quarterly 22, no. 3 (September 1998): 313-334. 13. See, respectively: Todd, P., and I. Benbasat. Evaluating the Impact of DSS, Cognitive Effort and Incentives on Strategy Selection. Information Systems Research 10, no. 4 (1999): 356-374; Srinivasan A., and Irwin G. Communicating the Message: Translating Tasks Into Queries in a Database Context. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 49, no. 2 (2006): 145-151; Rafaeli, S., and D.R. Raban. Experimental Investigation of the Subjective Value of Information in Trading. Journal of the Association for Information Systems 4, no. 5 (2003): 119-139; Koufaris, M. Applying the Technology Acceptance Model and Flow Theory to Online Consumer Behavior. Information Systems Research 13, no. 2 (2002): 205-223. 14. Human-Computer Interaction and Management Information SystemsFoundations. Edited by P. Zhang and D. Galletta. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006; Human-Computer Interaction and Management Information SystemsApplications. Edited by P. Zhang and D. Galletta. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 2006. 15. Teeni, D., J.Carey, and P.Zhang. Human-Computer Interaction: Designing Effective Organizational Information Systems. Chichester: John Wiley, 2007.

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