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Tools to cut and scrape go back at least 150,000 yrs

Machining
2.810 Fall 2009 T. Gutowski
go to website below
http://electron.mit.edu/~gsteele/mirrors/www.nmis.org/EducationTraining/machineshop/mill/intro.html

Stone work in Cuzco

Readings
Kalpakjian Ch 21-27
Simplified Time Estimation Booklet
for Basic Machining Operations

Design for Machining handout

Outline
1. Basics 2. Machine Configurations 3. Production Configurations 4. Processing Planning 5. Environment

Basics: Machining Process

Single point machining


Turning, boring, trepanning, planing

Multiple point machining


Drilling, milling, reaming, sawing, broaching, grinding

Tool Stationary: turning, boring

Tool moves: sawing, milling, drilling, broaching


Work Piece moves: milling, boring Both move: milling, 5 axis milling

Machining processes
Turning
*

Grinding
V D Grinding wheel Grains

Workpiece

Milling
* Cutter Arbor Spindle Spindle Shank End mill

Arbor

Horizontal Slab milling

Face milling

End milling

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machine Tools
* * Headstock

Horizontal-spindle surface grinder

Spindle speed selector

Spindle
Ways Cross slide Carriage Center Tailstock quill Tailstock

Feed change gearbox

Compound rest and slides (swivels)

* Apron Bed Lead screw Feed rod Column

Head

Table
Saddle Knee

Basic Lathe

Vertical-Spindle Mill
Base * Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Basic Mechanics Issues

Power, Forces
Heat, Tool materials, Rate limits Temperature Surface finish

See Video on Plastic Deformation

Basic Machining Mechanism


Shear takes place in a narrow zone near the tool tip at angle , the tool has rake angle , the resulting shears is From geometry, = cot( ) + tan ( - ) becomes large for small , and small or negative

Basic Machining Mechanism

Basic Machining Mechanism


F V Power
Chip
- + tc

d(work) dt

work

work
V

Rake angle

specific energy u S

vol uS u plastic work (65 to 80%) u friction d 1 H ( 2 4) 6 2 4 up up

Tool
t0

Shear plane

Shear angle Workpiece

Approximation us ~ H (Hardness)

Specific energy, uS

For comparison see Table 26.2 for grinding

Basic Machining Mechanism


Hence we have the approximation;

Power us X MRR
MRR is the Material Removal Rate or d(Vol)/dt Since Power is P=F*V and MRR can be written as, d(Vol)/dt = A * V Where A is the cross-sectional area of the undeformed chip, we can get an estimate for the cutting force as,

F us

Note that this approximation is the cutting force in the cutting direction.

Cutting Force Directions in Milling


Fcn Fp Fc Fp Fcn Fc

Fp Fcn Fc

Fc ~ H

Ac

Fp

(Tangential Cutting Force ~ Chip Cross-section Hardness)

Fcn

Fc

Feed per Tooth and MRR


= rotational rate (rpm)

Top view of face milling With 4 tooth cutter

v (m/s)

w = width of cut (m)

f = feed per tooth (m)

Side view

Consider the workpiece moving into the cutter at rate v. In travel time t the feed is v t. The time for one rotation is t = The travel for one tooth is 1/4 Hence the feed per tooth is f = v/4 . In general, a cutter may have N teeth, so the feed per tooth is The material removal rate (MRR) is,

f=v/N

MRR = v w d
where d is the depth of the tool into the workpiece.

Ex) Face milling of Al Alloy


vw

N = 4 (number of teeth) D = 2 (cutter diameter) Let w = 1 (width of cut), d=0.1 (depth of cut) f = 0.007 (feed per tooth), vs = 2500 ft/min (surface speed; depends on cutting tool material; here, we must have a coated tool such as TiN or PCD)

d w

The rotational rate for the spindle is = vs / D = 4775 rpm Now, we can calculate vw, workpiece velocity, f = vw / N => vw= 134 [in/min]

Material removal rate, MRR = vw*w*d = 13.4 [in3/min] Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 5.36 [hp] Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = 111 [lbf]
us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

Ex) Turning a stainless steel bar


f D=1 d Tool

Recommended feed = 0.006 (Table 23.4 (22.4)) Recommended surface speed = 1000 ft/min = 1000 ft/min = 3820 rpm 1 1ft/12

Let d = 0.1

Material removal rate, MRR = 0.1 0.006 1 3820) = 7.2 [in3/min] Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 1.9*7.2 = 13.7 [hp] Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = (1.9*3.96*105)*(0.1*0.006) = 450 [lbf]
us from Table 21.2 (20.2 ed 4); Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

Temperature Rise in Cutting


*

Adiabatic Temperature Rise: cp T = uS


Note : uS ~ H, Hardness Tadiabatic > Tmelt (Al & Steel)
Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone

Interface Temperature: T = 0.4 (H / cp)(v f / )0.33

v = cutting speed f = feed = thermal diffusivity of workpiece Note v f / = Pe = convection/conduction


* Reference: N. Cook, Material Removal Processes * Source: Kalpakjian, and Schmidt 5th ed

Cutting tool materials & process conditions


Hardness (HRA)

Tool life (min)

Cutting Speed (ft/min)

Temperature ( F)

Machining time (min)

Cutting speed (ft/min)

Year

Feed (in/rev)

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

m/min

HRC

Limits to MRR in Machining



Spindle Power for rigid, well supported parts Cutting Force may distort part, break delicate tools Vibration and Chatter lack of sufficient rigidity in the machine, workpiece and cutting tool may result in self-excited vibration Heat heat build-up may produce welding, poor surface finish, excessive work hardening; can be reduced with cutting fluid See Video on Rate Limits In Machining

Typical Material Removal Rate


10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 [cm3/sec] EBM1 EDM1,2 Machining 25A, 6um RMS1 Grinding3 Creep Feed2 Grinding Rough milling of Al > 35hp

LASER3 Chem. Milling2

Note: 1cm3/sec = 3.67 in3/min

1m X 1m area

* References: 1. Advanced Methods of Machining, J.A.McGeough, Chapman and Hall, 1988 2. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, S. Kalpakjian, Addison-Wesley, 1992 3. Laser Machining, G. Chryssolouris, Springer-Verlag, 1991

High speed Machining and Assembly


High Speed Machined aluminum parts are replacing built-up parts made by forming and assembly (riveting) in the aerospace industry. The part below was machined on a 5-axis Makino (A77) at Boeing using a 8-15k rpm spindle speed, and a feed of 240 ipm vs 60 ipm conventional machining. This part replaces a build up of 25 parts. A similar example exists for the F/A-18 bulkhead (Boeing, St. Louis) going from 90 pieces (sheetmetal build-up) to 1 piece. High speed machining is able to cut walls to 0.020 (0.51mm) without distortion. Part can be fixtured using window frame type fixture.

MRR = f d * N

Variation Vs Part Size

Machine tool configurations


Machine tool
number of axes, spindles, serial and parallel configurations

Cutter geometry
Form tool, cutter radius, inserts, tool changers

Software
flexibility, geometrical compensation, look ahead dynamics compensation

Head

Column

Table Saddle Knee

Base

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

New developments
Micro machines

Diamond turning And grinding of optical parts

Hexapod Milling Machines


*

Stewart Platform

Linear actuator

Tool

Hexapod machining center (Ingersoll, USA)

Schematics

* Source: http://macea.snu.ac.kr/eclipse/background/background.html

Institut fr Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigung Hexaglide from Zurich (ETH)

www.iwf.mavt.ethz.ch/

http://web.mit.edu/pmc/www/index.html

Fast Tool Server

NC machine tool developed at MIT mid 1950s

* Source: Reintjes, Numerical Control 1991

Machining Part 2
System Configurations
Part Holding / Fixturing

Process Planning
Environment

Simple Classification Scheme for Part Geometry

Primary Rotational

Primary Rotational with secondary

Primary Planar

Primary Planar with secondary

Primary Rotational and Planar

Primary Rotational and Planar with secondary

Secondary

Pop quiz; how would you make a gun stock?

See video

Machining Systems Classification

Ref J T. Black

Job shop

Flow Shop
L L M D G A A

Receiving

Shipping

Flexible Manufacturing System

Transfer line

* Source: Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machining Cell
HM VM Part movement VM Decoupler (Kanban square)

G
Worker path Final inspection Finished part cart

Worker position
Raw material cart

OUT

Part Fixturing for Prismatic Parts


Job Shop

Vise Jaws / T-slot Bolt clamps / T-slot Direct bolt to plate / T-slot Special work holding jaws and clamps
Soft jaws, custom jaws, stops, mechanical clamps,

Production

hydraulic clamps, pneumatic clamps, magnetic chuck

Multiple parts fixtures and indexing heads


Tombstones, trunnion, indexing heads

Job shop fixturing

Vise

Faceplate on lathe

T-slot & clamps on mill

Production

Indexing Trunnion http://www.royalworkholding.com Quad-Vertical combination Chuck http://www.royalworkholding.com/RM3.html

8-station Vise http://www.te-co.com/toolex/html/10a.html

Modular Fixtures http://www.royalworkholding.com/RM3.html Hydraulic Pallet Fixture http://www.royalworkholding.com Collet Index Fixture http://www.cuttingtoolmall.com/catalog/standard.cfm?FamilyID=225205

SMED
Single-Minute-Exchange-Die
Shigeo Shingo, A Study of the Toyota

Production Systems

Stage1: Separating Internal and External Setup Stage2: Converting Internal to External Setup Stage3: Streamlining all aspects of the setup operation

Standardized Fixtures

Process planning
How would you machine this part?

Assumption: 1. We begin with a stock size of 2.5 X 2.25 X 12 2. This will be manufactured in a job shop for very low quantity
We will use: - A bandsaw to roughly cut the stock to size - A manual vertical mill to create the planar features and the holes - A belt sander to sand the radii ( assuming the tolerance is not very high)

Machine

Operation

Horizontal band saw

Saw stock to ~4.125


Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.jettools.com/Catalog/Metalworking/CatalogPages/HVBS56M.html

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125

Mill two ends to length 4

Manual vertical mill

Mill width to 2 Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4

Manual vertical mill

Mill width to 2
Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4


Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4

Drill hole 1 diameter


Bore 1 radius Sand 0.5 radii

Belt sender

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter

Bore 1 radius
Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm

Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii


*

* Source: http://www.jettools.com/jet-index.html (WMH Tool Group)

Process plan
Machine
Horizontal band saw

Operation
Saw stock to ~4.125 Mill two ends to length 4 Mill width to 2

Manual vertical mill

Mill out 2X1.5X4 Drill hole 1 diameter Bore 1 radius

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii

Time estimation (minutes)


Machine
Horizontal band saw
Operation (V = Volume, A = Area, P = Perimeter) Saw stock to ~4.125 A = 5.6525 in2, P = 9 in Mill two ends to length 4 V = 0.703 in3 A = 11.25 in2, P = 19in Mill width to 2 V = 2.5 in3 A = 10 in2, P = 13in Mill out 2X1.5X4 V = 12 in3 A = 14 in2, P = 15in Drill hole 1 diameter -Center drill -Pilot drill -Pilot drill 63/64 -Ream Bore 1 radius V = 0.79 in3 A = 1.57 in2, P = 7.28in Fixture Tool Change Run (R=Rough, F=Finish) Deburr/Inspect/ Measure

0.23 0.20 0.20 0.20

2.02 0.13R 0.75F 0.46R 0.67F 2.19R 0.93F 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.96R 0.01F

0.30D, 0.05I 0.63D, 0.05I, 0.13M 0.43D, 0.05I, 0.13M 0.50D, 0.05I 0.13M, 0.13M

Manual vertical mill

2 2 2 2 2

0.20

0.21D, 0.05I 0.17M

0.20

0.24D, 0.05I 0.06M

Belt sender

Sand 0.5 radii V = 0.05 in3 A = 0.79 in2, P = 3.14in

0.08

0.20R 0.21F

0.10D, 0.05I 0.06M, 0.06M

Summary Times (minutes)


Fixture 1.31 Tool Change Run (R=Rough, F=Finish) Deburr/Inspect/Measure 12 6.08 2.58 3.63

Total Time 25.6 minutes

Environmental issues
Waste material Energy

Machine, material (embodied energy), temperature controlled environment

Lubricants and hydraulic fluids Cutting Fluids

Dry machining

A Machine Tool Vs A SUV


The average power plant in the United States is 33% efficient.

50% of the energy from the grid comes from coal


electricity from the US grid comes with

667 kg of CO2/MWh 2.75 kg of SO2/MWh 1.35 kg of NOx/MWh 12.3 g Hg/GWh etc..

Data from US Energy Information Administration, DOE 2002 & Klee & Graedel

annual SUV equivalents

the fine print


Assumptions: Annual emissions resulting from the operation of a typical production machine tool (22 kW spindle, cutting 57% of the time, 2 shifts, auxiliary equipment, electricity from US grid) as measured in annual SUV equivalents (12,000 miles annually, 20.7 mpg) CO2 61 SUVs SO2 248 SUVs NOx 34 SUVs

Production machining energy Vs production rate

Ref. Toyota

eye chart for energy values


Production Machining Center (2000) Electricity Breakdown Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Electricity Requirements Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Machine Use Scenario Arbitrary Number of work hours Machine uptime Machine hours (idle, positioning, or in cut) Percentage of machine hours spent idle Machine hours spent idle Active machine hours per 1000 work hours Machining Scenario Percentage of machine hours spent positioning Machine hours spent positioning Percentage of machine hours spent in cut Machine hours spent in cut Electricity Use per 1000 work hours Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Total electricity use per 1000 work hours Electricity Used per Material Removed Material Machined Material Removal Rate Material removed per 1000 work hours Electricity used/Material removed 85.2% 3.5% 11.3% 166 kW 6.8 kW 22 kW 1000 90% 900 10% 90 810 hours hours hours hours Automated Milling Machine (1998) 13.2% 20.2% 65.8% 1.2 kW 1.8 kW 5.8 kW 1000 90% 900 35% 315 585 hours hours hours hours Automated Milling Machine (1988) 27.0% 24.9% 48.1% 3.4 kW 3.1 kW 6.0 kW 1000 90% 900 35% 315 585 hours hours hours hours Manual Milling Machine (1985) 31.6% 0% (manual) 69.4% 0.7 kW 0 kW 2.1 kW 1000 90% 900 65% 585 315 hours hours hours hours

30% 243 hours 70% 567 hours 149288 5471 6237 160996 Aluminum 3 20.0 cm /sec 3 40824000 cm 3 14.2 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 4.7 cm /sec 3 9593640 cm 3 60 kJ/cm

60% 351 hours 40% 234 hours 1038 1033 673 2744 Aluminum 3 5.0 cm /sec 3 4212000 cm 3 2.3 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 1.2 cm /sec 3 1010880 cm 3 10 kJ/cm

60% 351 hours 40% 234 hours 3033 1818 702 5553 Aluminum 3 5.0 cm /sec 3 4212000 cm 3 4.7 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 1.2 cm /sec 3 1010880 cm 3 20 kJ/cm

70% 221 hours 30% 94.5 hours 600 0 100 700 Aluminum 3 1.5 cm /sec 3 510300 cm 3 4.9 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 0.35 cm /sec 3 119070 cm 3 21 kJ/cm

Results are in terms of primary energy


Production Machining Center (2000) Electricity Breakdown Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Electricity Requirements Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Machine Use Scenario Arbitrary Number of work hours Machine uptime Machine hours (idle, positioning, or in cut) Percentage of machine hours spent idle Machine hours spent idle Active machine hours per 1000 work hours Machining Scenario Percentage of machine hours spent positioning Machine hours spent positioning Percentage of machine hours spent in cut Machine hours spent in cut Electricity Use per 1000 work hours Constant start-up operations (idle) Run-time operations (positioning, loading, etc) Material removal operations (in cut) Total electricity use per 1000 work hours Electricity Used per Material Removed Material Machined Material Removal Rate Material removed per 1000 work hours Electricity used/Material removed 85.2% 3.5% 11.3% 166 kW 6.8 kW 22 kW 1000 90% 900 10% 90 810 hours hours hours hours Manual Milling Machine (1985) 31.6% 0% (manual) 69.4% 0.7 kW 0 kW 2.1 kW 1000 90% 900 65% 585 315 hours hours hours hours

30% 243 hours 70% 567 hours 149288 5471 6237 160996 Aluminum 3 20.0 cm /sec 3 40824000 cm 3 14.2 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 4.7 cm /sec 3 9593640 cm 3 60 kJ/cm

70% 221 hours 30% 94.5 hours 600 0 100 700 Aluminum 3 1.5 cm /sec 3 510300 cm 3 4.9 kJ/cm kWh kWh kWh kWh Steel 3 0.35 cm /sec 3 119070 cm 3 21 kJ/cm

Ref Smil

Sample calculation
1 kg part made from 2 kg of aluminum stock 2024 production machining 14.2 kJ/cm3 1000 g /2.7 g/cm3 = 370 cm3 (14.2 X 370 = 5.25 MJ) X 3 = 15.8 MJ material production (284.5 MJ/kg X 2 kg = 569 MJ)+15.8 = 585 MJ/ kg of part

Power plant efficiency

C. Smith 2001

emissions for the power station


585 MJ of primary energy (195 MJ of electricity / efficiency = .33), or .06 MWh. This gives:

33.35 kg of CO2 140 g of SO2 0.6 g of Hg

all for a 1 kg part

Home works
See webpage Re-do face milling of Al alloy example with uncoated tools estimate % of spindle power (7hp) used for tool break video

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