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Human Ecology, Vol. 30, No. 3, September 2002 (°

C 2002)

Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest (Brazil):

Knowledge, Use, and Conservation1
Alpina Begossi,2,4 Natalia Hanazaki,2 and Jorge Y. Tamashiro3

This study focuses on knowledge of medicinal plants among the Caiçaras (ru-
ral inhabitants of the Atlantic Forest coast, Brazil). In particular, we examine
the use of medicinal plants according to sex and age to reveal general patterns
of Caiçara knowledge and use of plant resources. Data collected through
449 interviews at 12 Caiçara communities (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo
coastal sites) include citations of 249 plants and identification of 227 species.
We show the importance of introduced as opposed to native plants and of key
individuals for the conservation of the Caiçaras-Atlantic Forest.
KEY WORDS: Atlantic Forest; Brazil; conservation; Caiçaras; diversity; Shannon; Rarefaction;
ethnobotany; folk medicine; medicinal plants.

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants are among the forest resources most used by the
Caiçaras, rural inhabitants of the south eastern Atlantic Forest coast in
Brazil. Native knowledge of medicinal plants is fairly well documented and
there is a wide literature on the use of medicinal plants from different regions
of the world. According to Alcorn (1995), about 80% of people in the world
rely on folk, or traditional, medicine. This study focuses on medicinal plants
used in the Atlantic Forest coast. Considering the diversity of citations on
medicinal plants as a measure of knowledge of the environment and as an

1 Thisstudy is dedicated to the memory of Hermógenes de Freitas Leitão-Filho (1944–96).

2 NEPAM/UNICAMP, C.P. 6166 Campinas, S.P., Brazil, 13081-970.
3 Depto. de Botânica, UNICAMP, Campinas, S.P., Brazil.
4 To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: alpina@nepam.unicamp.br.

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282 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

estimate of the intensity of resource use, we look for

1. general patterns of plant uses observed among the Caiçaras, along
with variations within communities, for example according to sex and
age;
2. specific patterns of uses, for example the category of medicinal plants
used (native or introduced); and
3. data that might contribute to the conservation of Atlantic Forest
areas.

STUDY AREA AND INHABITANTS

Data were collected between 1986 and 1998 in different communities

along the Atlantic Forest coasts of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro States,
south eastern Brazil (Fig. 1). The Atlantic Forest includes about 7.5% of
remaining primary vegetation. It is an important area of endemism in South
America (Da Silva and Tabarelli, 2000), and one of the leading areas in terms
of endemic species and of habitat loss for both plants and animals (Myers
et al., 2000)—about 536,000 ha has been deforested between 1985 and 1990
(Capobianco, 1994). Typical Atlantic Forest formations include high alti-
tude, slope, and coastal plain forests. This study was conducted in coastal
plain forest areas where plant species such as Myrtaceae, Melastomataceae,
Lauraceae, Celastraceae, Clusiaceae, Fabaceae, Mimosaceae, Anacardi-
aceae, Compositae, Rubiaceae, Monimiaceae, and Ochnaceae are found
(Joly et al., 1990).

The Caiçaras

The rural native inhabitants of the south east Atlantic Forest coast,
Caiçaras, are descendants of native Tupinambá Indians and Portuguese selt-
ers. There is little contact between the Caiçaras and the Guarani Indians
who live inside the nine Indian reserves (aldeias) located in São Paulo State,
which cover 8953 ha. With a lifestyle comparable to the Amazonian caboclo
(Morán, 1990), Caiçaras subsist through small-scale agriculture, fishing and,
especially in the last 20 years, through tourist-related activities. They live
relatively close to urban sites, such as Santos, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro,
but in designated conservation areas, such as State and National Parks, or
even restricted Biological and Ecological Reserves.
Since the 1950s, anthropologists and geographers have studied Caiçaras
communities. See, for example, França (1954) on São Sebastião Island
(Ilhabela), and Willems (1952) and Mussolini (1980) on Búzios Island. See
also Marcı́lio (1986) on historic and demographic aspects of the Caiçaras,
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Fig. 1. Map including the 12 communities studied in the Atlantic Forest Coast: Búzios and Vitória Islands, Puruba, Sertão do
Puruba, Praia do Almada, Casa de Farinha, Picinguaba, Camburı́, Gipóia Island, Grande Island (Aventureiro), Jaguanum Island
283

(Calhaus), and Itacuruçá Island (Gamboa).

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284 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

Chastan (1975), Corrêa (1981), and Lima (1985) on their history, folklore,
music, and dance, Oliveira et al. (1994) and Peroni and Martins (2000) on agri-
cultural management, Diegues (1994) on social and environmental issues,
and Ferreira (1996) on local conflicts and organized movements. Research
on aspects of the ecology of the Caiçaras, such as diet, food taboos, fishing
and ethnoichthyology, as well as territoriality, has been published elsewhere
(Begossi, 1995, 1998; Hanazaki et al., 1996; Seixas and Begossi, 1998). The
Caiçara diet is based on fish, rice and beans, manioc flour, and whenever pos-
sible, spaghetti. Among the animals consumed, marine resources account for
40–70%. Fishing is done from paddled or motorized dugout canoes, using
hook and line, set gillnets, encircling nets, and the cerco (floating net), a
Japanese introduction (Mussolini, 1980). The ethnobotany of the Caiçaras is
found in Begossi et al. (1993), Figueiredo et al. (1993, 1997), Hanazaki et al.
(2000), and Rossato et al. (1999).

METHODS

This study is based on 449 interviews and 227 plant identifications. In-
terviews with adults up to 18 years old, using open-ended questionnaires,
were conducted in 12 communities on the Atlantic Forest coast. By consid-
ering two adults per family, we estimate a sample of about 59% of residents
(Table I).
The study area covers sites from the southeastern coast of Rio de Janeiro
State to the northern coast of São Paulo State, including the coastal islands of
Itacuruçá and Jaguanum (Sepetiba Bay), Gipóia and Grande Island (Grande
Island Bay), and Búzios and Vitória Islands (São Paulo northern coast). The
number of families living at each locality is shown in Table I.

Table I. Data From the 12 Communities Studied in the Atlantic Forest Coast
Number of families Number of interviews Source
Búzios Island 44 28 Begossi et al. (1993)
Vitória Island 13 11 Rossato et al. (1999)
Puruba Beach 14 22 Rossato et al. (1999)
Sertão do Puruba 22 28 Rossato et al. (1999)
Ponta do Almada 31 45 Hanazaki et al. (2000)
Casa de Farinha 17 18 Rossato et al. (1999)
Picinguaba 70 83 Rossato et al. (1999)
Camburı́ Beach 70 57 Hanazaki et al. (2000)
Aventureiro Beach 22 26 —
Gamboa 26 58 Figueiredo et al. (1993)
Calhaus Beach 24 42 Figueiredo et al. (1997)
Gipóia Island 36 31 —
Total 389 449
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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 285

Plants collected were identified by H. F. Leitão Filho and by J. Y.

Tamashiro. Diversity indices were calculated on the basis of local names
and the number of citations per plant. We calculated the Richness, Shannon,
and Rarefaction on the plant citations per men, women, old (40 years or
more) and young (less than 40 years). Comparisons of Shannon diversity
indices were based on Zar (1984) (See Begossi, 1996).

RESULTS

Plants Used by the Caiçaras

The Caiçaras use wild and cultivated plants for food, handicrafts, the
construction of houses and canoes, as well as for medicinal purposes
(Table II). Food plants are cultivated in small gardens next to houses (hortas)
or in swiddens (roças), or bought at nearby local markets. Manioc (Manihot
esculenta Crantz) is a staple crop, but sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas (L.)
Lam.), and beans (Phaseolus spp. and Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill.), are also im-
portant. Fruits bearing trees and vines, such as avocado (Persea americana
Mill.), star apple (Syzygium jambos (L.) Alton), papaya (Carica papaya L.),
mango (Mangifera indica L.), and passion fruit (Passiflora spp.) are usu-
ally cultivated in backyards. Other fruits are collected in natural fields, such
as bacuparı́ (Rheedia spp.), coquinho (Syagrus sp.), and pitanga (Brazilian
cherry, Eugenia uniflora L.).
Native trees provide raw material for handicrafts, houses, and dugout ca-
noes, which are built using indigenous techniques. Some of the species used
are aricurana (Alchornea iricurana Casar), caixeta (Tabebuia cassinioides

Table II. Plant Richness Mentioned in Selected Communities of the Atlantic Forest Coast
Communities
Use category
richness Almadaa Búziosb Calhausc Camburı́a Gamboad Purubae Picinguabae
Food 39 61 38 48 40 45 82
Medicine 76 53 53 68 72 64 105
Construction/ 54 32 — 64 35 29 70
handicrafts
Total richness 152 135 75 162 100 124 216
Interviews 45 28 42 57 58 22 83
Note. Coastal communities: Almada, Camburı́, Puruba, and Picinguaba; Islands: Búzios,
Itacuruçá (Gamboa), and Jaguanum (Calhaus).
a Hanazaki et al. (1996, 2000).
b Begossi et al. (1993).
c Figueiredo et al. (1997).
d Figueiredo et al. (1993).
e Rossato et al.(1999).
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286 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

(Lam.) A. P. DC), capororoca (Rapanea spp.), ingá (Inga sessilis (Vell.)

Mart.), paina (Pseudobombax grandiflorum (Cav.) A. Robyns), and
bacurubú or guapurubú (Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S. F. Blake).
Medicinal plants of the Atlantic Forest coast reflect both indigenous and
European influences. Of the 227 species we identified, 44% are introduced
and 38% are native species. The other 18% are invasive annual plants with
no defined category. Among the 49 species that represent more than 1% of
the species cited, 57% are introduced and 39% are native species (two are
undetermined).
The Caiçaras use a relatively highly diverse range of medicinal plants for
a relatively high diversity of purposes, demonstrating a wide knowledge of
the plants’ habitats and properties (Table II). In spite of proximity of urban
centers (Fig. 1), the Caiçaras rely primarily on folk medicine, because indus-
trialized drugs are usually too expensive (Figueiredo et al., 1993). Medicinal
plants are prepared as teas or baths made with leaves, roots, or bulbs, as
syrups, and as pounded leaves. Figure 2 shows the main medicinal uses of
plant species by the Caiçaras. A large number of species are cited for illnesses
associated with fever/pains, respiratory diseases (bronchitis, influenza), and
gastrointestinal problems (diarrhea, worms, stomachaches), and somewhat
fewer for circulatory and heart disorders, sedatives, and urological problems
(Table III). Medicinal plants used to treat respiratory and gastrointestinal
disorders are frequently used by tropical groups such as the Yanomami and
the Yucatec-Maya of Mexico (Ankli et al., 1999; Milliken and Albert, 1997).
Dermatological uses of medicinal plants are observed in other indigenous
pharmacopoeias (Balick and Cox, 1996), but they appear to be secondary
for the Caiçaras. The use of plants to treat high blood pressure makes sense
in coastal communities that consume fish, especially dry salted fish.

Diversity: Species, Families, and Knowledge

The Caiçaras cited 249 medicinal plants comprising 227 species belong-
ing to 77 families. Figure 3 and Table III show the most cited plants in terms of
the number of species (citations) and number of interviewees (informants).
Only 17 species were mentioned by more than 10% of the interviewees
(Table III). These results show that only 7% of the plants cited, mostly in-
troduced, have uses spread among the populations and localties. Therefore,
the knowledge and uses of medicinal plants seem widely spread among inter-
viewees, reflecting the high diversity found in the vegetation of the Atlantic
Forest coast. Diversity includes the variety and relative abundance of species
(Magurran, 1988). The spread of individuals between species is a component
of diversity (Putman and Wratten, 1984). In particular, the Shannon index is
a measure of the average degree of uncertainty in predicting to what species
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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 287

Fig. 2. Number of species per category of medicinal use, based on the plant species
with more than 1% of citations in interviews: PF = fever and pains; RE = respiratory
diseases; GI = gastrointestinal disorders; CA = circulatory and heart disorders (high
blood pressure); SE = sedative; UR = urological disorders; LI = liver associated prob-
lems; OT = others: rheumatism, diabetes, abortive, measles, chickenpox, eyes; WO =
women-associated treatments (menstrual cramps); DE = dermatological diseases.

an individual, chosen at random from a collection of S species and N individ-

uals, will belong (Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988). The high diversity found in
the Atlantic Forest environments allowed the citations of different species
by different interviewees, at different sites, because a high diversity means
a small probability of encounter per species.
Some plant families that included many medicinal species were men-
tioned in few interviews. For example, Solanaceae (not represented in Fig. 3)
included 11 cited species of plants mentioned by less than 1% of intervie-
wees. Similar cases were observed for Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae.
The most important families are Asteranceae, Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
and Rutaceae, if we consider a minimum of 1% of cited species (Fig. 3).
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Table III. Medicinal Plants Cited by at Least 10% of the Interviewees, Ranked in Decreasing Order
Ethnospecies Botanical species Family T M W Y O Status Main uses
Erva cidreira Melissa officinalis L.; Lamiaceae 45 27 61 43 46 I High blood pressure, sedative,
Lippia citriodora H.B.K. Verbenaceae I influenza, menstrual cramps
Boldo Vernonia condensata Baker; Asteraceae 38 35 41 39 37 I Sedative, digestive, stomach
Coleus barbatus Benth Lamiaceae I aches, diarrhea, liver
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Erva Santa Chenopodium ambrosioides L.; Chenopodiaceae 20 21 18 18 21 I Injuries, pains, cough, lung problems,
Maria/Canema C. album L. stomach aches, worms, diarrhea
Erva doce Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn Apiaceae 19 12 26 20 15 I Sedative, digestive, worms, diarrhea,
child colic
Capim cheiroso Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Poaceae 19 14 23 17 19 I Sedative, stomach aches, nausea,
Stapf. high blood pressure, influenza,
fever, worms
July 25, 2002

Hortelã Mentha piperita L.; M. spicata L. Lamiaceae 16 12 21 18 11 I Headache, fever, bronchitis,

diarrhea, worms, cough
Laranja Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. Rutaceae 15 13 17 15 14 I Fever, influenza, cough, headache
Saião Kalanchoe pinnatum Crassulaceae 15 13 17 17 13 N General aches, cough, bronchitis,
12:11

(Lam.) Pers. influenza, pneumonia, dermatitis

Poejo Cunila spicata L. Lamiaceae 14 8 20 16 11 I Bronchitis, menstrual cramps, cough,
diarrhea, influenza
Camomila Matricaria chamomilla L. Asteraceae 11 4 17 12 10 I Stomach aches, pains, diarrhea
Carqueja Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC. Asteraceae 10 13 8 9 12 N Stomach disturbs, diabetes, diarrhea,
liver, high blood pressure
Goiaba Psidium guajava Raddi Myrtaceae 10 7 14 13 7 N Diarrhea, bronchitis
Pitanga Eugenia uniflora L. Myrtaceae 10 7 12 7 14 N Influenza, toothaches, throat aches,
diarrhea, painful urination
Note. T= Total number of interviewees (449), M = men (215), W = women (234), Y = younger (223), O = older (219). I = introduced, N = native.
Data are in percentage.
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Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

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Fig. 3. The most mentioned medicinal families of the Atlantic Forest coast. Black bars include the number of species
289

with more than 1% citations (25 plant families, 49 species). White bars include all medicinal plants cited in interviews
(77 plant families, 227 species).
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290 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

Table IV. Diversity Indices of the Medicinal Plants Quoted According to Sex and Age
Men Women Young (less than 40) Old (40 or more)
Number of interviews 215 234 223 219
Number of quotations 924 1,315 1,003 1,172
Richness (S) 176 191 169 197
Mean of citation per speciesa 5.25 6.88 5.93 5.95
SD 9.39 15.44 12.50 11.38
Shannon-Wiener (base e) (H 0 )b 4.38 4.19 4.12 4.44
Evennessc 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.84
Hmax (lnS) 5.17 5.25 5.13 5.28
Note. There are some interviews where the age is missing, leading to different sample sizes.
at tests: Difference of citation means, using “Welch’s approximate t” considering unequal vari-
ances of the samples (Zar, 1984, p. 130), men and women (t = 3.10, p < 0.002, df = 2194).
The confidence intervals (two-tailed, t[0.05] are men (L1 = 4,88, L2 = 5,62), women (L1 =
6,57, L2 = 7,19).
b t tests: Differences of two diversity indices (Zar, 1984, p. 146), men and women (t = 3.35, p <
0.01, df = 2,124), younger and older (t = 5.57, p < 0.01, df = 2076).
c Evenness = H 0 /lnS

Considering all citations, the most important families in terms of the num-
ber of species are Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae, Cucur-
bitaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae. These families include many introduced
species which are not representative of the Atlantic Forest. Among the
397 medicinal species used by 291 North American tribes, Asteraceae was
the most representative family, including one species, Achillea millefolium L.,
used to treat colds by the Abnaki of North America (Moerman,
1996). This species is similarly used by the Caiçaras (cited by 5% of
interviewees).
Women cited more plants than men, (Table IV), but this result seems
related to different sample sizes. The rarefaction curves used to compare
samples of different sizes show a higher diversity of medicinal plant citations
among men, rather than among women (Fig. 4(a)). Women also showed a
higher variance of citations compared to men, indicating a more heteroge-
neous knowledge of medicinal plants (Table IV). Considering the relative
abundance of citations per species (Shannon index), we observe that men
showed a higher diversity, along with a higher homogeneity of citations,
compared to women (higher evenness). The maximum diversity of citations
(Hmax , Table IV) was observed among women and elders. Among the in-
dividuals that mentioned more than 15 plant species per interview, we find
10 women and 5 men. A 50-year-old woman from Puruba Beach cited 31
plants in one interview. This means that there are key individuals in the pop-
ulation with a very detailed knowledge of medicinal plants. Finally, older
Caiçaras (40 years old or more) showed a higher diversity of plant citations
compared to younger Caiçaras (Table IV, Fig. 4b).
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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 291

Fig. 4. Rarefaction curves comparing men and women (A), and old and young (B)
according to the quotations of medicinal plants in interviews.

DISCUSSION

The Importance of Introduced Plants

Like the Caiçaras, people living in communities in other tropical areas

have often included introduced plants in folk medicine (Bennet and Prance,
2000). A mixture of native and introduced plants has also been found in
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292 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

the folk medicine of Amazonian caboclos (Amorozo and Gély, 1988). Elis-
abetsky and Shanley (1994) observed that ethnobotanical and ethnophar-
macological studies of caboclos show intensive use of the secondary forest,
of nonnative species, and of cultivated species. Ankli et al. (1999) observed
that garden plants are usually more important to the medical system of the
Yucatec Maya (Mexico) rather than plants collected outside the villages.
Caiçaras houses and surroundings are frequently located in disturbed
habitats or on forest edges (areas with introduced and annual plants), a fact
that facilitates the collection of medicinal plants while walking the trails.
Dennis (1988) showed that the “pharmacy” of the Miskito from Nicaragua
and Honduras includes common weedy species growing widely around the
villages, and Laurance (1997) observed that weeds are likely to proliferate
in disturbed habitats. Voeks (1996) observed in coastal Bahia, north eastern
Brazil, that medicinal plants are herbaceous, cultivated, or introduced plants
found in disturbed areas. According to Voeks (1996), species with annual life
cycles are twice as likely to employ secondary compounds in defense, such as
alkaloids and phenols, suggesting that secondary forest species, weeds, and
garden plants may represent a good source of bioactive compounds. The use
of introduced plants from disturbed habitats in Caiçara medicine probably
helps preventing major detrimental impacts in the forest.

Tropical and Local Medicinal Plant Diversity

The diversity of plants used by the Atlantic Forest Caiçaras (249 species)
is high when compared to other tropical forest communities, even taking
into account different numbers of informants (Table V). Other studies in
the Atlantic Forest coast (Figueiredo et al., 1993, 1997; Rossato et al., 1999)
showed that Caiçaras from coastal communities cited a higher diversity of
medicinal plants compared to Caiçaras living on islands. If islanders have a
low diversity of plants available (even from disturbed areas), there appears
to be an association of plant knowledge with plant diversity in the Atlantic
Forest coast. The majority of medicinal species are nonnative and do not
belong to typical plant families of the Atlantic Forest. Nevertheless, coastal
sites have an expected high plant diversity, and show a higher diversity of
citations in interviews compared to the islands.
Elders demonstrated a detailed knowledge of medicinal plants and they
rely more often on traditional care than young people. The importance of el-
ders and of women in the retention of knowledge of plant resources has been
stressed in many communities. Among the Carib population of Guatemala,
the majority of people who knew and used medicinal plants were women,
mostly housewives, with an average age of 46 (Girón et al., 1991). Women of
the Extractive Reserve Cachoeira in Acre (Brazilian Amazon) possess great
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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 293

Table V. The Richness of Medicinal Plants in Other tropical Areas

Richness Informants or Interviews Locality Source
50 14 Brazilian Amazon Kainer and Duryea (1992)
64 ? Central Guyana Johnston and
Colquhoun (1996)
100a 6 NE Brazil Voeks (1996)
103 300 Guatemala Girón et al. (1991)
105 50 Tonga Whistler (1991)
149 809 Nicaragua Barret (1994)
150 9 Thailand Pake (1987)
164 ? Thailand Anderson (1986)
198 ? Brazilian Amazon Milliken and Albert (1997)
220 17 Brazilian Amazon Amorozo and Gély (1988)
229 15 Nicaragua Coe and Anderson (1996)
249 449 SE Brazil This study
320 40 Mexico Ankli et al. (1999)
a Thenumber of species reach 200 species if species used to treat spiritual problems and magic
were included.

skills and knowledge of plant resources and there are local institutions assist-
ing women in product diversification and marketing (Kainer and Duryea,
1992). Nohan and Robbins (1999) observed that in rural communities in
Arkansas and Missouri that rely on folk medicine women play a pivotal
role in health care: they gather wild plants, they are experienced in child-
birth and in treating illnesses from childhood to geriatric ailments. The same
study suggested that communities with an older structure appear to con-
servate knowledge of medicinal plants, compared to those with a younger
structure. Caiçara knowledge of medicianl plants is not concentrated among
women. Men have a fairly well-balanced knowledge (equitable distribution)
of medicinal plants, whereas women show a heterogeneous knowledge. How-
ever, we found a few women with very wide knowledge of medicinal plants
who are key elements in retaining medicinal knowledge in the community.
Models of cultural transmission predict the importance of “cultural os-
cillations” (as an analog of genetic oscillation) as a form of losing cultural
traits (Boyd and Richerson, 1985). Cultural oscillation may increase the
fragility of the native system, affecting its resilience. Holling (1992) defined
cycles in terms of functions, such as exploitation, conservation, release, and
organization: Resilience is determined by release and reorganization se-
quences. Berkes and Folke (1998) consider as a measure of resilience the
magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes:
It may be a measure of the buffering capacity of the system. Schlapfer and
Schmid (1999) define resilience as the rate at which an ecosystem variable
returns toward a reference state following a perturbation, and resistance as
the degree to which an ecosystem is changed, followed a perturbation. In
other words, the resilience of native systems may be disrupted by cultural
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294 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

oscillations: First, because knowledge of medicinal plants may be not evenly

distributed through the population (elders and a few women); second, be-
cause native populations are usually small in number; and third, because
the probability of losing such cultural traits increases inversely to the size
of the population. For example, the death of a knowledgeable individual
may cause shifts in local medical treatments, or even push people to look for
other kinds of medical care. Thus, for Atlantic Forest conservation elders
play an important role in management due to their wide knowledge of plant
resources, but only a few women seem to be pivotal elements in the system.

Medicinal Plants and the Conservation of the Atlantic Forest:

Concluding Remarks

Medicinal plants comprise the most diverse category of plants used

among the Caiçaras. They are often introduced species, frequently used to
treat pains, fever, respiratory, and gastrointestinal problems. Policy-makers
need information about the value of natural resources and the way resources
are used (Alcorn, 1995). We have shown that elders and a few women are
key elements for the maintenance of local knowledge of folk medicine in
the Atlantic Forest coast. The management of Atlantic Forest areas should
consider medicinal plants as a local economic alternative because about half
of medicinal plants are introduced plants from disturbed habitats, meaning
that plant collection may have little or no impact in the forest. Moreover,
boundary limitations such as “use zones” for the Caiçaras should take into
consideration that they do not necessarily need the most preserved sites of
the forest to collect medicinal plants.
Economic alternatives are central aspects for managing inhabited trop-
ical forests. Phillips et al. (1994) stressed that collection of nontimber for-
est products is not immune to destructive harvesting, although their collec-
tion certainly has a less conspicuous impact on the forest. In the case of
medicinal plants, their cultivation, commercialization, and use for health/
environmental education seems to be a valuable contribution for the local
economy. In Mexico, among the Yucatec Maya, to encourage indigenous use
of medicinal plants, a medicinal garden was created with the cooperation of
local communities (Ankli et al., 1999). In an earlier study at the Upper Juruá
Extractive Reserve, Brazil (Begossi et al., 1999), we observed caboclos se-
lecting residences as first-aid centers with a program including medicinal
plant gardens.
The extraction of non-timber forest products by rural people is believed
to be compatible with conservation as long as there is low environmental im-
pact as well as incentives for users to conserve resources provided they hold
secure rights (Momberg et al., 2000). There are products widely used in Latin
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Medicinal Plants in the Atlantic Forest 295

America, such as zarzaparrilla (Smilax spp.) and quina (Cinchona officinalis)

(Hvalkof, 2000), that could support sustainable local economies. Examples
of local management of a sustainable and commercial system include rat-
tan (Calamus spp.) and damar (Shorea javanica) in Indonesia (Fried, 2000;
Michon et al., 2000), and in Africa the development of the extraction process
of Ancistrocladus korupensis, a medicinal plant new to science (first collected
in 1987) and used locally to treat measles and dysentery, is bringing benefits
for local people (Laird et al., 2000).
Extractive Reserves should be viewed in a broad economic sense
(Begossi et al., 1999), and as a form of controlling outsider’s entrance
(tourists). The economy of an Extractive Reserve should not be based on
one or two products but on a variety of non-timber products (Godoy et al.,
1993). What is expected is an economy integrated to a regional/global econ-
omy (Begossi, 1999), with the collection and cultivation of natural resources,
along with benefits from commerce and conservation (Fig. 5). Changes

Fig. 5. Sketch showing a possible relationship of medicinal plants,

economic alternatives, and conservation measures for the Atlantic
Forest coast.
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296 Begossi, Hanazaki, and Tamashiro

in status, such as the recognition of “traditional use zones” inside a park

(Momberg et al., 2000) might facilitate alternatives with less bureaucracy
while maintaining conservation priorities.
Maintaining resilience may be important for both resources and social
institutions (Berkes and Folke, 1998). When analyzing 12 cases of forest
degradation and local organization from different parts of the word, Kuchli
(1997) concluded that any feasible plan to preserve genetic and species di-
versity must acknowledge the reality of small-scale dynamics at the village
level. The results of our study have implications for the conservation of the
Atlantic Forest. First, like other peasant pharmacopoeia, the importance of
introduced plants in the medicine of the Caiçaras helps to prevent overuse
of native species. Second, plant use information may help in building bound-
aries concerning the use of sites of the Atlantic Forest coast. Third, elders and
a few key women should be considered in the transmission of knowledge of
medicinal plants, and the monitoring, and managing of the potential market
for them. Fourth, economic alternatives are needed to maintain the Caiçaras
and the Atlantic Forest coast environment. Fifth, the process of household
forest uses, of economic alternatives, and of environmental education may be
closely tied and may serve as a vehicle for conservation, and key individuals
from each community should be included in management programs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by CNPq (productivity scholarship) and

by FAPESP (research grants) (Brazil). We thank M. Petrere Jr. for helpful
suggestions, and S. C. Rossato and C. S. Seixas for data collected at
Aventureiro Beach. We also thank the Caiçaras for their kind patience dur-
ing the study.

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