Submitted to: Mrs. Rose Panganiban Submitted by: Paul Michael J.

Ferma IV Hermes

Gravitation

Gravitation, or gravity, is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. Gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe. Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on Earth. Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force and weak force. Modern physics describes gravitation using the general theory of relativity by Einstein, in which it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime governing the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton's law of universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most physical situations.

Ellipse
In geometry, an ellipse (from Greek elleipsis, a "falling short") is a plane curve that results from the intersection of a cone by a plane in a way that produces a closed curve. Circles are special cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is orthogonal to the cone's axis. An ellipse is also the locus of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same constant. Ellipses are closed curves and are the bounded case of the conic sections, the curves that result from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane that does not pass through its apex; the other two (open and unbounded) cases are parabolas and hyperbolas. Ellipses arise from the intersection of a right circular cylinder with a plane that is not parallel to the cylinder's main axis of

symmetry. Ellipses also arise as images of a circle under parallel projection and the bounded cases of perspective projection, which are simply intersections of the projective cone with the plane of projection. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency.

Velocity
In physics, velocity is speed in a given direction. Speed describes only how fast an object is moving, whereas velocity gives both the speed and direction of the object's motion. To have a constant velocity, an object must have a constant speed and motion in a constant direction. Constant direction typically constrains the object to motion in a straight path. A car moving at a constant 20 kilometers per hour in a circular path does not have a constant velocity. The rate of change in velocity is acceleration. Velocity is a vector physical quantity; both magnitude and direction are required to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is speed, a quantity that is measured in metres per second (m/s or ms1) when using the SI (metric) system. For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar and not a vector, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. The average velocity v of an object moving through a displacement a time interval (t) is described by the formula: during

Newton's law of universal gravitation

Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Separately it was shown that large spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called induction. It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him see History section below.) In modern language, the law states the following: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Kepler's laws of planetary motion

First Law "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci."

An ellipse is a particular class of mathematical shapes that resemble a stretched out circle. (See the figure to the right.) Note as well that the Sun is not at the center of the ellipse but is at one of the focal points. The other focal point is marked with a lighter dot but is a point that has no physical significance for the orbit. Ellipses have two focal points neither of which is in the center of the ellipse (except for the one special case of the ellipse being a circle). Circles are a special case of an ellipse that are not stretched out and in which both focal points coincide at the center. How stretched out that ellipse is from a perfect circle is known as its eccentricity; a parameter that varies from 0 (a simple circle) to 1 (an ellipse that is so stretched out that it is a straight line back and forth between the two focal points). The eccentricities of the planets known to Kepler varies from 0.007 (Venus) to 0.2 (Mercury). (See List of planetary objects in the Solar System for more detail.) After Kepler, though, bodies with highly eccentric orbits have been identified, among them many comets and asteroids. The dwarf planet Pluto was discovered as late as 1929, the delay mostly due to its small size, far distance, and optical faintness. Heavenly bodies such as comets with parabolic or even hyperbolic orbits are possible under the Newtonian theory and have been observed. Symbolically an ellipse can be represented in polar coordinates as:

where (r, ) are the polar coordinates (from the focus) for the ellipse, p is the semi-latus rectum, and is the eccentricity of the ellipse. For a planet orbiting the Sun then r is the distance from the Sun to the planet and is the angle with its vertex at the Sun from the location where the planet is closest to the Sun. At = 0, perihelion, the distance is minimum

At = 90 and at = 270, the distance is At = 180, aphelion, the distance is maximum

The semi-major axis a is the arithmetic mean between rmin and rmax:

so

The semi-minor axis b is the geometric mean between rmin and rmax:

so

The semi-latus rectum p is the harmonic mean between rmin and rmax:

so

The eccentricity is the coefficient of variation between rmin and rmax:

The area of the ellipse is

The special case of a circle is = 0, resulting in r = p = rmin = rmax = a = b and A = r2. Second law "A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. In a small time

the planet sweeps out a small triangle having base line and height

The area of this triangle is

and so the constant areal velocity is

Now as the first law states that the planet follows an ellipse, the planet is at different distances from the Sun at different parts in its orbit. So the planet has to move faster when it is closer to the Sun so that it sweeps equal areas in equal times. The total area enclosed by the elliptical orbit is . Therefore the period

satisfies

or

where

is the angular velocity, (using Newton notation for differentiation), and

is the mean motion of the planet around the sun. Third law "The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit." The third law, published by Kepler in 1619 captures the relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun, and their orbital periods. For example, suppose planet A is 4 times as far from the Sun as planet B. Then planet A must traverse 4 times the distance of Planet B each orbit, and moreover it turns out that planet A travels at half the speed of planet B, in order to maintain equilibrium with the reduced gravitational centripetal force due to being 4 times further from the Sun. In total it takes 42=8 times as long for planet A to travel an orbit, in agreement with the law (82=43). This third law used to be known as the harmonic law, because Kepler enunciated it in a laborious attempt to determine what he viewed as the "music of the spheres" according to precise laws, and express it in terms of musical notation.

This third law currently receives additional attention as it can be used to estimate the distance from an exoplanet to its central star, and help to decide if this distance is inside the habitable zone of that star. Symbolically:

where P is the orbital period of planet and a is the semi-major axis of the orbit. Interestingly the constant is theoretically same for both-Circular and Elliptical Orbits as well. The proportionality constant is the same for any planet around the Sun.

So the constant is 1 (sidereal year)2(astronomical unit)3 or 2.974725051019 s2m3. See the actual figures: attributes of major planets.