Chapter 28 Physical Optics

the wave description of light Phase Shift in phase

slightly out of phase

totally out of phase (that is pi radians or 180 out of phase)

Superposition light waves add just like any other wave constructive interference

destructive interference

Interference of Two Monochromatic, Coherent, In-Phase Sources monochromatic (single color or frequency) coherent (light from a light source has the same phase) in-phase (coherence between light sources) when both waves arrive at the same location, if both waves differ by an integer number of wavelengths, then there is constructive interference
L1 = 5 wavelengths destination

L2 = 6 wavelengths source 1 source 2 page 1

L1 L2 = m

where m = 0, 1, 2, ... if both waves differ by 1/2 wavelength plus some integer number of wavelengths then there is destructive interference 1 L1 L2 = (m ) 2 where m = 1, 2, ... Example Two radio antennas separated by 7.50 km broadcast the same signal to two radios. One radio is located equidistance from both antenna 14.0 km from the middle of the antennas and it receives a strong signal. The other radio is 1.88 km to the side and it receives a weak signal. If the second radio is the rst minimum, what is the wavelength of the radio waves? The diagram shows the dimensions of the situation. The path length difference between the two paths at the rst minimum is 1 1 L1 L2 = 1.00 km = (m ) = 2 2 This means the wavelength is 2.00 km. Phase Shift from Reection reected light can change phase just like a reected rope pulse a xed end is now just a higher index of refraction material an open end is now just a lower index of refraction material light traveling from a lower index of refraction and is reected by a material of higher index of refraction undergoes a 180 or rad phase shift light traveling from a higher index of refraction and is reected by a material of lower index of refraction does not undergo a phase shift
lower index higher index higher index lower index source 1 7.50 km L2 = 15.1 km source 2 5.63 km 14.0 km 1.87 km L1 = 14.1 km radio 2 radio 1 1.88 km

Air Wedge Demo: Air Wedge an air wedge is made of two glass slides on top of each other with a thin object wedged at one end of the glass slides if the incoming light is monochromatic, then the path length difference between the two rays is 1 L1 L2 = 2d + 2

L1

L2

no phase shift d 180 phase shift

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the extra half wavelength comes from the lower reection the two reected rays will interfere constructively if their path lengths difference is an integer number of wavelengths 1 1 2d + = m 2d = (m ) 2 2 where m = 1, 2, 3, ... for destructive interference, the path length difference is still the same, but it occurs when 1 1 2d + = (m + ) 2d = m 2 2 where m = 0, 1, 2, ... Example Where the two glass plates meet, is it a bright or dark fringe? Where the two glass plates meet, the path length difference is zero, but the ray reecting from the bottom glass plate is out of phase by 180. This means the light will destructively interfere causing a dark fringe. Example A hair is pinned between two glass slides forming an air wedge. Illuminated using red light of wavelength 771 nm, 179 bright fringes are observed. How thick is the hair? Where the hair is, the interference feature is the 179th bright fringe. This means that the air gap at that location has the thickness 1 1 771 nm 2d = (m ) d = (m ) = (179 0.5) = 6.88 104 nm = 68.8 m 2 2 2 2 Thin Films light reecting off of the two surfaces of a thin lm will also interfere the path length that the rst path takes is zero but the light changes phase at the surface so it effectively has a path length of half wavelength 1 L1 = 2 the path length of the second path is
180 phase shift no phase shift d L1 L2

L2 = 2d
but the speed of light is slower inside the lm so the wavelength is shorter with the same frequency the number of wavelengths that ts within the thickness of the lm is larger than that in air c c film = film = n n the number of wavelength that the path L2 represents is actually

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L2 = 2dn
the path length difference between these two paths is 1 L1 L2 = 2nd 2 for constructive interference, this difference is an integer number of wavelengths using the negative version of the absolute value 1 1 2nd = m 2nd = (m + ) 2 2 where m = 0, 1, 2, ... for destructive interference 1 1 2nd = (m ) 2nd = m 2 2 where in this case m = 0, 1, 2, ... Example 28-4 A beam of red light of 662 nm and a beam of blue light of 465 nm are shone at right angles onto a thin soap lm of index of refraction of 1.33 suspended in air. What is the smallest thickness for which the lm appears red? The lm appears red when the blue light undergoes destructive interference.

2nd = m The smallest thickness at which this happens is when m = 1 d=

Example A camera lens (n = 1.52) is coated with a lm of magnesium uoride (n = 1.38), an anti-reective coating. What is the minimum thickness required for light in the middle visible region (565 nm) to destructively interfere? light reecting off of the two surfaces of a thin lm where the other side is of higher index of refraction will have two 180 phase shifts the path length that the rst path takes is zero with a half wavelength shift 1 L1 = 2 the path length of the second path is 2d with a half wavelength shift as well 1 L2 = 2d + 2 but the wavelength is shorter inside the lm so it is actually 1 L2 = 2nd + 2
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465 nm = = 175 nm 2n 2(1.33)

L1 L2

180 phase shift 180 phase shift

coating lens

when the path length difference is half wavelength (m = 1 minimum)

L1 L2 = 2nd
CD Lasers

1 565 nm 2nd = d = = = 102 nm 2 4n 4(1.38)

constructive interference 1 destructive interference 0

reading a CD/DVD/blue-ray disk uses interference between the two reected rays when there is constructive interference between reected light, it is considered a 1 when there is destructive interference between reected light, it is considered a 0 this is how data is stored Diffraction bending of a wave as it passes by an opening this is detectable only when the size of the opening is comparable to the wavelength of the wave for sound, it is about a meter for visible light, it is about a micrometer example: a laser through a large hole produces no noticeable diffraction Youngs Experiment

180 phase shift

incoherent monochromatic light diffracts through a single narrow slit and becomes coherent

coherent

this coherent light travels through a double slit and diffracts through both slits the diffracted light interfere with each other forming an interference pattern
coherent light source m=1 m=0

m=1

Demo: Youngs Experiment

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Double Slit Diffraction

L1 L2 slit 1 d slit 2 d

L1 L2 d dsin

L1 L2 y

the path length differences where constructive interference occur are

L1 L2 = d sin = m
where m = 0, 1, 2, ... the path length differences where destructive interference occur are

L1 L2 = d sin = (2m 1)
where m = 1, 2, 3, ...

alternatively, relating the location of the feature from the central maximum, y

tan =

y L

for small angles

tan sin = L1 L2 = d

y L m = 0,1,2,... m = 1,2,3,...

y = m L y L1 L2 = d = (2m 1) L 2
Example

Coherent red light of wavelength 752 nm passes through a double slit with a slit separation of 62.0 m. What are the angles of the rst bright fringe from the center and the second dark fringe from the center? The rst bright fringe from the center is m = 1.

d sin = m sin =

m 0.752 m = = 0.0121 rad = 0.695 d 62.0 m (m 1 2) 3 0.752 m = = 0.0182 rad = 1.04 d 2 62.0 m
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The second dark fringe is m = 2.

d sin = (m 1 2) sin =

Example A double slit with a separation of 8.5 x 10-5 m generates an interference pattern on a screen 2.3 m away. If the tenth bright fringe is 12 cm away from the center, what is the wavelength of the light? The angle of the feature is located at the angle y y 0.12 m tan = = tan 1 ( ) = tan 1 ( ) = 3.0 L L 2.3 m At this angle,

d sin = m =

d sin (8.5 105 m)(sin3.0) = = 4.4 107 m = 440 nm m 10

What is the distance to the tenth dark fringe from the center? The tenth dark fringe is located at the angle

d sin = (m 1 2) = sin 1 (

(9.5)(4.4 107 m) (m 1 2) ) = sin 1 = 2.8 d 8.5 105 m

At this angle, the distance from the center is y tan = y = L tan = (2.3 m) tan(2.8) = 0.11 m L Example A double slit diffraction experiment is done in air and repeated in water without changing anything. What is the difference in the observed pattern (closer, no change, or farther apart)? In the water, the only thing that changes is the wavelength. The frequency does not change because the source color is still the same, but the speed of light does change. c c water = air n water Replacing the speeds with the wavelengths and frequency gives f air f water = water = air water < air n water n water Since the wavelength in water is smaller, the angle of each interference feature must be smaller as well. Single-Slit Diffraction when monochromatic, coherent light is shone onto a single, narrow slit, the diffracted light interferes with itself
coherent light source m=1 m=0

m=1

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the argument for the observed pattern

L1 L2 top half bottom half w y

(1/2)wsin L

constructive interference occurs when the waves from the top half of the slit interferes constructively with corresponding points in the wave from the bottom half of the slit the next location for constructive interference occurs when the top quarter of the slit interferes with the next three quarters of the slit constructively this means for constructive interference 1 w sin = m w sin = 2m 2 where m = 0, 1, 2, ... for destructive interference 1 1 w sin = m w sin = m 2 2 where m = 1, 2, 3, ... dark fringes are used because they are better dened the width of the central fringe is about twice that of the other bright fringes at

central bright fringe width = 2

Example 28-5

Light with a wavelength of 511 nm passes through a single slit of width 2.20 x 10-6 m. What are the angle of the rst and second dark fringes? The rst dark fringe is m = 1 and is located at

W sin = m = sin 1 (
The second dark fringe is at

m 511 nm ) = sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 (0.232) = 13.4 6 W 2.20 10 m m 2(511 nm) ) = sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 (2 0.232) = 27.7 6 W 2.20 10 m

W sin = m = sin 1 (

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Active Example 28-2 Light of wavelength 632 nm is passed through a single slit of width 4.20x10-5 m forming a pattern 2.31 m away. What is the distance from the center of the pattern to the rst dark fringe? The angle of the rst dark fringe is

m 632 nm ) = sin 1 ( ) = sin 1 (0.0150) = 0.862 5 W 4.20 10 m The angle relates to the distance from the center of the pattern by the separation W sin = m = sin 1 ( tan =
Resolution light wave will diffract through any opening (the aperture of any optical instrument) the amount of diffraction is related to the size of the opening the larger the opening, the smaller the amount of diffraction if the opening is small enough, light sources can become bigger than they are due to refraction the resolution of an optical instrument is the minimum separation (angular or distance) that the instrument can distinguish as two distinct sources
looks like one object

y y = L tan = (2.31 m) tan(0.862) = 0.0348 m = 3.48 cm L

looks like two object

Rayleighs Criterion is a rule for determining the angular resolution of an aperture, D

min = 1.22
Exercise 28-3

When the pupil of an eye is 5 mm in diameter, what is the minimum angle that it can distinguish or what is its angular resolution for yellow light (551 nm)? Rayleighs Criterion says that it is

min = 1.22

551 nm = 1.22 = 1.34 104 rad = 0.00770 D 5 mm

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Example 28-6 The separation of two headlights is 1.1 m. The light itself has a wavelength of 460 nm. Assume that the eye has a pupil diameter of 5.0 mm and that its index of refraction is 1.36 for the entire interior of the eye. What is the maximum distance that the headlights can be distinguished as two light sources? Since the interference that occurs take place inside the eye, the wavelength that is inside the eye is the wavelength that is used in Rayleighs Criterion which is smaller than the wavelength in air Rayleighs Criterion says that the minimum angle is

min = 1.22

/n 460 nm/1.36 = 1.22 = 8.25 105 rad = 0.00473 D 5 mm

At this angle, 1.1 m can be as far as

tan =

1.1 m 1.1 m L= = 1.33 104 m L tan(0.00473)

Active Example 28-3 A rock called Dactyl orbits an asteroid named Ida. The distance between them is 2.5 km. What is the maximum distance that the Hubble Space Telescope with an aperture of 2.4 m can resolve the two objects at 550 nm? Rayleighs Criterion says that the minimum angle is

min = 1.22

550 nm = 1.22 = 2.8 107 rad D 2.4 m

At this angle, 2.4 km can be as far as

tan =
Pixels

2.5 km 2.5 km L= = 8.9 109 m L tan(2.8 107 rad)

a color television produces three pixels of different colors if you are far enough away from it, the three pixels merge into one larger pixel and the colors merge as well producing a single color Diffraction Grating a diffraction grating acts like a multiple slit the condition for the rst constructive interference position is when all of the slits have a path length difference of one wavelength with respect to the adjacent slits, so
slit 1 d slit 2 d slit 3 d slit 4 L1 L2 L3 L4

L2 L1 = 1 = d sin L3 L2 = 1 = d sin or L3 L1 = 2 = d sin L 4 L3 = 1 = d sin or L 4 L1 = 3 = d sin ...

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this means that the bright fringes are located at

d sin = m
where m = 0, 1, 2, there is no minimum spot the distance between slits can also be represented by the number of slits per unit length Example A slit separation of 10-3 m means how many slits per centimeter?

103 m 1 slit 1000 slits 10 slits = = 3 slit m cm 10 m

Example A light source of 546 nm passing through a diffraction grating produces the m = 2 maximum at an angle of 16.0. How many lines per centimeter does it have?

d sin = m d =

m 2(546 nm) = = 3.96 106 m sin sin(16)

slit separation gives the slit density

3.96 106 m 1 slit 2520 slits = 6 slit cm 3.96 10 m

Example A grating spectroscope with a line separation of 4.600 x 10-6 m is used to look at a stellar object on space. In the laboratory, the rst maximum of the hydrogen red line is observed to be located at 6.067. When viewing the stellar object, the line is now located at 7.030. What is the actual wavelength of the red line? What is the wavelength of the stellar objects red line? How is the stellar object moving relative to Earth? In the lab, the wavelength is

d sin = m = d sin = (4.600 106 m)sin(6.067) = 486.2 nm

The wavelength due to the object is

d sin = m = d sin = (4.600 106 m)sin(7.030) = 563.0 nm

The wavelength has increased which means the frequency has decreased. This means the object is moving away from the Earth. Its speed is

u c c u f observed = f (1 ) = (1 ) u = c(1 ) c observed c observed u = (3.000 108 m/s)(1 486.2 nm ) = 4.092 107 m/s = 13.6% speed of light 563.0 nm

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