Propulsion New

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE
SHIP PEFORMANCE IN ACTUAL SEA
INTRODUCTION A good ship Performance is the desire of every person, it is heavily dependent on the type of ship and the ship's mission. Ships must have a good performance because the mission carried a very extreme, dealing with big waves and wind. Propulsion systems, seakeeping and manuvering to consider in designing a ship. Associated with ship propulsion performance to maintain a service speed (Vs) as planned, the ship manuvering related to the ability of motion exercise in the water, and seakeeping performance relating to the ship when subjected to waves.
I.
PROPULSION
When a propulsor is introduced behind the ship it modifies the flow around the hull at the stern. This causes an augmentation of the resistance experienced by the hull. It also modifies the wake at the stern and therefore the average velocity of water through the propulsor. This will not be the same as the ship speed through the water. These two effects are taken together as a measure of hull efficiency. The other effect of the combined hull and propulsor is that the flow through the propulsor is not uniform and generally not along the propulsor axis. The ratio of the propulsor efficiency in open water to that behind the ship is termed the relative rotative efficiency. Finally there will be losses in the transmission of power between the main machinery and the propulsor. These various effects can be illustrated by the different powers applying to each stage.
Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia
I.1 Extension of effective power concept The concept of effective power (Pg) can be extended to cover the power needed to be installed in a ship in order to obtain a given speed. If the installed power is the shaft power (Pg) then the overall propulsive efficiency is determined by the propulsive coefficient, where:
The intermediate stages in moving from the effective to the shaft power are usually taken as: Effective power for a hull with appendages = PE Thrust power developed by propulsors = PT Power delivered by propulsors when propelling ship = PD Power delivered by propulsors when in open water = PD With this notation the overall propulsive efficiency can be written:
The term PE/PE is the inverse of the appendage coefficient. The other terms in the expression are a series of efficiencies which are termed, and defined, as follows: PE / PT PT / PD PD / PD PD / PS This can be written: = hull efficiency = H = relative rotative efficiency = = shaft transmission efficiency
= propulsor efficiency in open water = o

R
The expression in brackets is termed the quasi-propulsive coefficient (QPC) and is denoted by r]iy. The QPC is obtained from model experiment and to allow for errors in applying this to the full scale an additional factor is needed. Some authorities use a QPC factor which is the ratio of the propulsive coefficient determined from a ship trial to the QPC obtained from the corresponding model. Others use a load factor, where:
In this expression the overload fraction, x, is meant to allow for hull roughness, fouling and weather conditions on trial. The student should note that some authorities use PEA the effective power of the hull with appendages. More importantly some use the term propulsive coefficient as the ratio PE/PS. It is important in using data from any source to check the definitions used. It remains to establish how the hull, propulsor and relative rotative efficiencies can be determined. This is dealt with later in this chapter.
I.2 Operation at Sea In its operations at sea, a ship must have the ability to maintain service speed (Vs) as planned. This means that, the ship must have a propulsion system design (activator) that can overcome the drag forces overall (total resistance) that occurs in order to meet the standards of his service speed. Generally, Ship Propulsion System consists of 3 (three) main
components, such as:
Figure 1 : Main Components Of A Propulsion System
a) Main Engine The function of the prime mover is to deliver mechanical energy to the propulsor. The prime mover may be one of the following: Diesel engine Gas turbine Steam turbine Electric motor The diesel engine is the most common prime mover in the merchant marine, mainly due to its low fuel consumption in comparison with other prime movers. Gas turbines find their application in fast and advanced ship types and naval vessels. The power to weight ratio of gas turbines is higher than that of diesel engines. Some ship types, such as naval vessels and LNG carriers may have a steam turbine as propulsion engine. Two kinds of steam plants can be distinguished in marine applications: fossil-fired steam plants and nuclear steam plants. Fossil-fired steam plants are frequently found on board naval vessels and LNG carriers. Submarines and aircraft carriers may be equipped with nuclear steam plants. Some commercial ice-breaking vessels especially in Russian
arctic areas were provided with nuclear power plants since these vessels may stay for months in sea. Electric motors found their way as prime mover in the 90s; they are used with electric generation plant combined of an engine (one of the above types) and an electric generator. They are mainly found in advanced passenger ships, some new designs of offshore support vessels (OSV) are intended to use electric motors especially for dynamic positioning applications. In general, in choosing the type of machinery that will be used to move the ship, it is necessary to the following considerations: weight of Installation Space & Dimensions required Investment (firstcost) System Reliability Age Components / Systems Flexibility Quietness In Operation Cost of Maintenance & Treatments Fuel Costs Compliance With Selected Propeller.
b)Transmission system
Transmission is a sub-system of the propulsion system. It is a system itself built up from components such as shafts, gearboxes and bearings. The transmissions functions are: a. To transfer the mechanical energy generated from the prime mover to the propulsor b. To transfer the thrust generated by the propulsor to the ships hull The latter is done by means of a thrust bearing; a component that is found in every transmission system. Two types of transmission are used: Direct: the prime mover is coupled directly, through a shaft to the propulsor (this is the case with low speed diesel engines) Geared: the prime mover delivers its energy through a gearbox and a shaft to the propulsor. The function of the gearbox is to reduce the rotational speed of the engine to match the desired rotational speed of the propulsor.
c) Propulsor Propulsion devices can take many forms. They all rely upon imparting momentum to a mass of fluid which causes a force to act on the ship. In the case of air cushion vehicles the fluid is air but usually it is water. By far and away the most common device is the propeller. This may take various forms but attention in this chapter is focused on the fixed pitch propeller. Before defining such a propeller it is instructive to consider the general case of a simple actuator disc imparting momentum to water. The propulsor converts the rotating mechanical power delivered by the engine into translating mechanical power to propel the ship. The most
common propulsor is the propeller. In general, two types of propeller are distinguished, fixed pitch and controllable pitch propellers. Other types of propulsors are for example, waterjets and Voith-Schneider propulsors (vertical axis propeller).
Momentum theory In this theory the propeller is replaced by an actuator disc, area A, which is assumed to be working in an ideal fluid. The actuator disc imparts an axial acceleration to the water which, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle, requires a change in pressure at the disc. Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a) Pressure; (b) Absolute velocity; (c) Velocity of water relative to screw It is assumed that the water is initially, and finally, at pressure po. At the actuator disc it receives an incremental pressure increase dp. The water is initially at rest, achieves a velocity aVa at the disc, goes on accelerating and finally has a velocity bVa at infinity behind the disc. The disc is moving at a velocity Va relative to the still water. Assuming the velocity increment is uniform across the disc and only the column of water passing through the disc is affected:
where a is termed the axial inflow factor, and:
Since this mass finally achieves a velocity bV^, the change of momentum in unit time is:
Equating this to the thrust generated by the disc:
The work done by the thrust on the water is:
This is equal to the kinetic energy in the water column,
Equating this to the work done by the thrust:
That is half the velocity ultimately reached is acquired by the time the water reaches the disc. Thus the effect of a propulsor on the flow around the hull, and therefore the hull's resistance, extends both ahead and astern of the propulsor. The useful work done by the propeller is equal to the thrust multiplied by its forward velocity. The total work done is this plus the work done in accelerating the water so:
The efficiency of the disc as a propulsor is the ratio of the useful work to the total work. That is:
This is termed the ideal efficiency. For good efficiency a must be small. For a given speed and thrust the propulsor disc must be large, which also follows from general considerations. The larger the disc area the less the velocity that has to be imparted to the water for a given thrust. A lower race velocity means less energy in the race and more energy usefully employed in driving the ship. So far it has been assumed that only an axial velocity is imparted to the water. In a real propeller, because of the rotation of the blades, the water will also have rotational motion imparted to it. Allowing for this it can be shown (Carlton, 1994) that the overall efficiency becomes:
where a' is the rotational inflow factor. Thus the effect of imparting rotational velocity to the water is to reduce efficiency further.
The third main component ( main engine, transmition system, and propulsor ) is a unity in its planning process can not be viewed in isolation. Errors in their design, will bring the 'consequences' which is very greatly to the following conditions; 1. Not achieving the planned ship service speed. 2. Fuel oil consumption is inefficient. 3. The fall in the economic value of the ship.
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4. Influence on the level of vibration that occurs in the hull, and so on. Configuration of the three main components of the propulsion system is greatly influenced by the design function of the vessel itself, and how the mission should be conducted during operations at sea.
II.
MANEUVERABILITY
Maneuverability is the ability of the vessel to maintain its position under the control of the ship operator. Maneuverability ship capability is directly related to the safety and economical than a cruise. The ship will easily have an accident if the vessel has a poor maneuvering characteristics, especially in bad weather conditions or sailing on the waters is limited. In maneuvering theory it is common to assume that the ship is moving in restricted calm water, e.g. in sheltered waters or in a harbor. Hence, the ship model is derived for a ship moving at positive speed U under a zero-frequency assumption such that added mass and damping can be represented by using hydrodynamic derivatives. The study of manoeuvring characteristics of ships assess the effect of devises used to control the heading of the ship: rudders, thrusters, and
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main propulsion systems. These characteristics are studied in calm water. A model for describing motion during manoeuvring are linear and non linear equations of motionthis depends on the application, e.g., models for course keeping can be described within a linear framework, but models for turning requires non linear terms. In a vector form, the equations of motion can be expressed as (Fossen, 2002):
Where:

M is the rigid body mass matrix A (0) is the low frequency added mass matrix: A (0) = A ( e - 0), C ( ) is the total coriolis and centripetal accelerations matrix, D ( ) is the total damping matrix, G ( ) is the restoring function, J ( ) is the kinematic transformation is the vector of forces and moments acting on the hull originated by the control devices and the propulsion system.
An schematic representation of these models are depicted in the bottom diagram of Figure 3. To summarise, manoeuvring models present the following characteristics: The equations of motion are formulated in a reference frame fixed to the ship, and not in an equilibrium frame like in seakeeping. These equations can be linear or non-linear depending on the application. The coefficients of the equations are estimated from captive scale-model tests, by measuring forces while the model is
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subjected to low frequency oscillations in 3DOF (surge, sway and yaw) or 4DOF (with the addition of roll).
The
linear
coefficientshydrodynamic
derivativestake
the
asymptotic values of the the coefficients used in the seakeeping equations of motion in the limit as 0. Manoeuvring Theory (Low frequency models)
Figure 3: Ship motion models based on manoeuvring theory. II.1 Models for Control that Require Manoeuvring in Seaway The typical manner to combine the models for control system design is to use the seakeeping model as an motion output disturbance of a manoeuvring model that captures the interaction between the control action and the motion generated by this control action. This schemme is depicter in Figure 3. A first shortcoming associated with the manoeuvring model to describe motion in waves is that the added mass and damping are constant in this model; and thus, memory effects are neglected. From a control perspective this introduces some uncertainty associated with unmodelled dynamics, which for operations in higher sea states could be significant; specially if a model based control strategy is applied. A second shortcoming is that the output disturbance modelling approach
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can only be used to study operations with a single ship. This is because the interaction between different dynamic systems require energy exchange, i.e., it requires common forces or speeds, and this is not captured by models that use motion as a disturbance. This issue is relevant to marine operations. A desirable extension is to use a model with wave loads excitation forces as inputs and memory effects in the equations of motion, as indicated in Figure 4. In this figure, FTF represents the wave excitation forces per unit of wave amplitude:
Figure 4: Typical model for ship motion control system design. The models depicted in Figure 4 are part of the state of art in timedomain ship motion simulators, but have not yet been employed in control system design. However, recent reported results suggest that this is a feasible task (Kristansen and Egeland, 2003; Fossen and Smogeli, 2004).
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Cummins (1962) showed that the frequency dependent terms in (9), A (e) and B (e) can be removed by writing the equations of motion in the following form:
From Ogilvie (1964) it follows that:
where A() is a constant generalized added mass matrix evaluated at the infinity frequency, K( ) R66 is a time-varying matrix of retardation functions which can be computed off-line using the A(e) or B(e) data sets and (5)(6), since K( ) is causal.
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Figure 5: Unified model for manoeuvring in seaway. Kristansen and Egeland (2003) developed a state-space formulation for the potential damping term in (3). Consider:
where K(t ) is the retardation function. For causal systems :
If ( ) as a unit impulse, then (t) given by (15) will be an impulse response function. Consequently, (t) can be represented by a linear state-space model:
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of zero forward speed (Fossen and Smogeli, 2004):
This result can be extended to the case of forward speed, but this technicalities are outside the scope of this report. The above model presents the following properties:
It is in a state-space form and therefore amenable to use in control system design and in common simulation tools like Matlab and Simulink.
Includes memory effects, and this allows one to use the wave excitation forces as inputs together with the control actions. This is in agreement with the physics of the motion problem.
It allows the simulation of the interaction of multiple vessels, because the interacting forces can be included.
Due to the memory effects, the model is valid for different sea states, and not for calm water as the manoeuvring model.
II.2 Types Of Maneuvering Several types of maneuvering ship are:

a. Inherent Dynamic Stability which is also commonly called the
straight line stability. changing the direction motion of Ship as a result influence external forces but without the force from the leaves of the steering wheel
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(Figure 2). Deviation Direction of motion of the ship's from preceding movement depending on the duration of the force occurs.
Figure 6 : inherent dynamic stability b. Course-Keeping directional stability. ability to maintain the direction of the ship movements. Ships with poor dynamic stability (unstable) will be easy to change the direction of motion of the boat, so to maintain the direction of its movement, the forces is required from the leaves of the wheel (Figure 3) ability which is also commonly called the
Figure 7: course keeping ability c. Initial Turning / Course Changing ability
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Ability of the ship to change direction in response to movement of the force produced by the leaves of the rudder. The ship holdings apparently included goog Initial turning / "Changing Course Ability", when the direction of motion changed soon after the ship leaves the steering wheel is turned.
Figure 8: the relationship between initial turning Ability with safety d. Yaw checking ability ship ability to respond to the opposite direction of the direction motion the wheel leaves. e. Turning ability That is the ability of the ship to turn around because of the leaf force steering
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Figure 9. Turning cycle maneuver f. Stopping ability the ability of ships to stop (driving motor is switched off) after a steady motion turning at full speed (Figure 6).
Figure 10 : stopping ability

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II.3 Ship Standard Manoeverability According To IMO In the maneuvering of a ship, the procedures used in preference to the standard rules recommended by the ability of the ship maneuver by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) that resolution MSC.137 (76) annex.6 off 4 December 2002 and into effect from the date of January 1, 2004, which this resolution is an amendment to the previous resolution that is A.751 (18) the ability to maneuver the ship standards. Referring to the explanation of the resolution mentioned above, as has been recommended by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the standard rules referred to herein based on the notion that the ability to maneuver the vessel can be evaluated based on the characteristics of the test maneuvers as usual or conventional, where the ship is meant is vessel which has a length of 100 meters or more (except tankers and gas carriers) using the propulsion system and steering system (steering) the conventional thrust generated by propeller of ship which is moved by the propeller shaft. Standard maneuvers and terminology are defined as follows:
a. Zig
zag maneuver with steering angle 10o / 10 degrees
implemented the following procedures:

Having achieved steady approach by yawing acceleration equal
to zero, then the rudder in the turns of 10 degrees to the starboard or Portside (first execution).
At the time of changing the heading angle 10 degrees from the
initial heading angle, the steering wheel turn in the opposite or turned 10 degrees to the Portside or starboard (second execute).
Once the rudder turn to the Portside / starboard, the ship will continue to turn in the direction of the turn speed of decreased. To find the response to steering the ship, the ship should be in turn further to the Portside / starboard. When the ship reached a
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heading angle of 10 degrees to the Portside / starboard of the track back then resisted further or direct the steering wheel but that is 10 degrees to starboard / Portside (the third execution).
b. The first overshoot angle is the addition from a heading angle of
deviation in zig-zag maneuver in the second execution.

c. Second overshoot angle is the heading angle of deviation
increases in zig-zag maneuver on the third execution.

d. Zig-zag
maneuver
with
steering
angle
20o
/20
degrees
implemented with the same procedure with the sequence of the above procedures. In analyzing the performance maneuvers on the ship, the testing both maneuvers toward the Portside and starboard should be implemented with the following conditions: Tests carried out on deep water (deep water) or unlimited waters (unrestricted water). Conditions waters or quiet environments (calm environment). fully loaded conditions (in accordance with the water line in the summer), even keel. Steady approach speed during the test. IMO has recommended several criteria standards for ship
maneuverability. Such criteria must be fulfilled by a vessel while operating either in deep water (deep water) or in restricted waters or operating around the harbor or in shallow waters (restricted and shallow water). For more details see the following table: Table 1. Ship maneuverability standards by IMO (Resolution MSC 137 (76) 2002)
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Maneuvers
used
in
the
experiments
at
sea
following
the
recommendations of maneuvering trial code of ITTC (1975) and the IMO circular MSC 389 (1985). IMO also determine the appearance of some of the posters, and maneuvering bucklet the IMO resolution A.601 (15) (1987). Standard testing required in maneuvering the ship is provided in the IMO Resolution MSC 137 (76) (2002)such as: Turning Cycle Test.
Turning test cycle, ranging from straight motion with constant speed, the rudder is turned by the angle maximum speed (maximum steering angle) and fixed at an angle, until the ship has conducted at least 540o turning cycle. experiments were conducted to the port and starboard. Important information obtained from such maneuvers using GPS which generally consists of (Figure 7):
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Figure 11. Turning cycle maneuver (Sumber: IMO Resolusi MSC 137 (76) 2002) Some of the parameters used to define the performance of the vessel at the time of spinning are: Drift angle, is the angle between the direction of the ship and the direction of motion. The angle varies throughout the ship.
Advanced, is the distance from the initial implementation to the
axis x at the ship while it was turned 90. The transfer, is the distance from the line to the first time the ship while the axis x at the ship has turned 90 The tactical diameter, is the distance from the initial path to the axis of x at the ship while the ship was turned 180.
The diameter of the steady turning circle, the diameter of the
circle which continues to rotate. Conditions remain generally related at some point between 90o and 180o of postal changes.
Special values are tactical diameter from 4.5 to 7 L for the slender, 2.4 to 4 for the short and the ship full of ships. Determine the ratio of lean
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L / 3 , which is the volume displacement . Cycle turning maneuvers should be performed on both halves of the ship's side with a maximum angle of 30o or rudder speed allowed on tests. Important information to be obtained from this maneuver is tactical diameter, advanced, and transfer.
Zig-zag Manuver Test
Figure 12. Zig-zag Maneuver (Sumber : IMO Resolusi MSC 137 (76) 2002) Several important measurement of Zig-zag Maneuver, among others:
Overshoot Angles is the amount of the increase in heading after
the rudder back. Large angle will make the quartermaster having difficulty in deciding when to use the rudder to check the rotation. Angle does not depend on the length of the ship.
first time to reverse the rudder and heading up to the first
change. Be proportional to the length of time.
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SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE overshoot angle is fixed and the period around once in a stable
condition can be achieved. A zig-zag test should be started for both the starboard and Portside by applying steering angle. Two types of zig-zag test standard, which is 10
o
/ 10 degrees and 20
o
/ 20 degrees Zig-zag test 10o / 10
degrees using the10
steering angle on both sides with the heading
10o. While the zig-zag test 20o / 20 degrees using 20o steering angle on heading 20o. Important information from this test will obtain is the angle overshoot, time to execute the initial changes and the time to check yaw.
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III.
SEAKEEPING
Seakeeping, on the other hand, is associated with motion in a seaway while the vessel keeps its course and its speed constant . In their broadest sense the terms seakeeping and seaworthiness cover all those features of a vessel which influence its ability to remain at sea in all conditions, for which it has been designed, and carry out its intended mission. They should, therefore, embrace stability, strength, manoeuvrability and endurance as well as the motions of the ship and related phenomena. Considered as a rigid body, a ship has six degrees of freedom. They are the three rotations of roll {or heel), pitching {or trim) and yaw, together with the three translations of heave, surge and sway. For a stable ship the motions of roll, pitch and heave are oscillatory and these are the three motions dealt with here. The other three degrees of freedom will be excited in a seaway but are of lesser importance. As the ship is flexible other degrees of freedom will be excited but these are dealt with under strength and vibration. Seakeeping of ships is investigated with respect to the following issues : Maximum speed in a seaway: 'involuntary' speed reduction due to added resistance in waves and 'voluntary' speed reduction to avoid excessive motions, loads etc. Route optimization (routing) to minimize, e.g., transport time, fuel consumption,or total cost. Structural design of the ship with respect to loads in seaways. Habitation comfort and safety of people on board: motion sickness, danger of accidental falls, man overboard.
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Ship safety: capsizing, large roll motions and accelerations, slamming, wave impact on superstructures or deck cargo, propeller racing resulting in excessiverpm for the engine.
Operational limits for ships (e.g. for offshore supply vessels or helicopters landing on ships).
tools to predict ship seakeeping are: Model tests. Full-scale measurements on ships at sea. Computations in the frequency domain: determination of the ship reactions to harmonic waves of different wave lengths and wave directions.
Computations
in
the
time
domain
(simulation
in
time):
computation of the forces on the ship for given motions at one point in time; based on that information the computation of the motions at a following point in time etc.
Computations
in
the
statistical
domain:
computation
of
statistically significant seakeeping values in natural (irregular) seaways, e.g. average frequency (occurrence per time) of events such as exceeding certain limits for motions or loads in a given seaway or ocean region.
For many seakeeping issues, seakeeping is determined as follows: 1. Representation of the natural seaway as superposition of many regular (harmonic) waves (Fourier decomposition).
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2. Computation (or sometimes measurement in model tests) of the ship reactions of interest in these harmonic waves. 3. Addition of the reactions in all these harmonic waves to a total reaction (superposition). This procedure assumes (respectively requires) that the reaction of one wave on the ship is not changed by the simultaneous occurrence of another wave. This assumption is valid for small wave heights for almost all ship reactions with the exception of the added resistance. This procedure is often applied also for seaways with large waves. However, in these cases it can only give rough estimates requiring proper corrections. One consequence of the assumed independence of the individual wave reactions is that all reactions of the ship are proportional to wave height. This is called linearization with respect to wave height. The computations become considerably more expensive if this simplification is not made. Non-linear computations are usually necessary for the treatment of extreme motions (e.g. for capsizing investigations); here simulation in the time domain is the proper tool. However, for the determination of maximum loads it often suffices to apply corrections to initially linearly computed loads. The timeaveraged added resistance is in good approximation proportional to the square of the wave height. Here the effect of harmonic waves of different lengths and direction can be superimposed as for the linear ship reactions. To determine global properties (e.g. ship motions and accelerations) with sufficient accuracy, simpler methods suffice than for the determination of local properties (pressures, relative motions between water and ship). Further recommended reading includes Faltinsen (1993) and Lewis (1990)
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III.1 Seakeeping Qualities The general term sea worthiness must embrace all those aspects of a ship design which affect its ability to remain at sea in all conditions and to carry out its specified duty. It should, therefore, include consideration of strength, stability and endurance, besides those factors more directly influenced by waves. In this Chapter, the term seakeeping is used to cover these more limited features, i.e. motions, speed and power in waves, wetness and slamming. The relative importance of these various aspects of performance in waves varies from design to design depending upon what the operators require of the ship, but the following general comments are applicable to most ships. 1. Motions Excessive amplitudes of motion are undesirable. They can make shipboard tasks hazardous or even impossible, and reduce crew efficiency and passenger comfort. In warships, most weapon systems require their line of sight to remain fixed in space and to this end each system is provided with its own stabilizing system. Large motion amplitudes increase the power demands of such systems and may restrict the safe arcs of fire. The phase relationships between various motions are also important. Generally, the phasing between motions is such as to lead to a point of minimum vertical movement about twothirds of the length of the ship from the bow. In a passenger liner, this area would be used for the more important accommodation spaces. If it is desirable to reduce the vertical movement at a given point, then this can be achieved if the phasing can be changed, for example in a frigate motion at the fl ight deck can be the limiting factor in helicopter operations. Such actions must inevitably lead to increased movement at some other point. In the frigate, increased movement of the bow would result and wetness or slamming might then limit operations.
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2. Speed and power in waves When moving through waves the resistance experienced by a ship is increased and, in general, high winds mean increased air resistance. These factors cause the ship speed to be reduced for a given power output, the reduction being aggravated by the less favourable conditions in which the propelleris working.. Other unpleasant features of operating in waves such as motions, slamming and wetness are generally eased by a reduction in speed so that an additional speed reduction may be made voluntarily. 3. Wetness When the relative movement of the bow and local wave surface becomes too great, water is shipped over the forecastle. At an earlier stage, spray is driven over the forward portion of the ship by the wind. Both conditions are undesirable and can be lessened by increasing freeboard. The importance of this will depend upon the positioning of upper deck equipment and its sensitivity to salt spray. Spray rails, fl are angles and knuckles may all infl uence the troublesome nature of spray which, in cold climates, causes ice accretion. 4. Slamming Under some conditions, the pressures exerted by the water on a ships hull become very large and slamming occurs. Slamming is characterized by a sudden change in the vertical acceleration of the ship followed by a vibration of the ship girder in its natural frequencies. The conditions leading to slamming are high relative velocity between ship and water, shallow draught and small rise of fl oor. The area between 10 and 25% of the length from the bow is the area most likely to suffer high pressures and to sustain damage. 5. Ship routing
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Since the ship behaviour depends upon the wave conditions it meets, it is reasonable to question whether overall performance can be improved by avoiding the more severe waves. This possibility has been successfully pursued by some authorities, Satchwell (1989) . Data from weather ships are used to predict the speed loss in various ocean areas and to compute the optimum route. In this way, significant savings have been made in voyage times, e.g. of the order of 1015 hours for the Atlantic crossing.
6. Importance of good seakeeping No single parameter can be used to define the seakeeping
performance of a design. In a competitive world, a comfortable ship will attract more passengers than a ship with a bad reputation. A ship with less power augment in waves will be able to maintain tighter schedules or will have a lower fuel bill. In extreme cases, the seakeeping qualities of a ship may determine its ability to make a given voyage at all. Good seakeeping is clearly desirable, but the difficulty lies in determining how far other design features must, or should, be compromised to improve seakeeping. This will depend upon each particular design, but it is essential that the designer has some means of judging the expected performance and the effect on the ships overall effectiveness. Theory, model experiment and ship trial all have a part to play. Because of the random nature of the sea surface in which the ship operates, considerable use is made of the principles of statistical analysis. Having improved the physical response characteristics of a ship in waves the overall effectiveness of a design may be further enhanced
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by judicious siting of critical activities and by fitting control devices such as anti-roll stabilizers. As with so many other aspects of ship design a rigorous treatment of seakeeping is very complex and a number of simplifying assumptions are usually made. For instance, the ship is usually regarded as responding to the waves as a rigid body when assessing motions and wetness although its true nature as an elastic body must be taken into account in a study of structure, Bishop and Price (1979) . In the same way it is instructive, although not correct, to study initially the response of a ship to regular long-crested waves ignoring the interactions between motions, for example when the ship is heaving the disturbing forces will generate a pitching motion. This very simple approach is now dealt with before considering coupled motions.
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III.2 Ship Motions I. Motions in regular waves
It was seen earlier that the apparently random surface of the sea can be represented by the summation of a large number of regular sinusoidal waves, each with its own length, height, direction and phase. Further it was postulated that the response of the ship in such a sea could be taken as the summation of its responses to all the individual wave components. Hence the basic building block for the general study of motions in a seaway is the response to a regular sinusoidal wave. For simplicity it is assumed that the pressure distribution within the wave is unaffected by the presence of the ship. This is a common assumption first made by R.E. Froude in his study of rolling and it is often referred to as Froude's hypothesis. a) Rolling in a beam sea The rolling a ship experiences is most severe in a beam sea. With Froude's hypothesis, the equation for motion will be that for still water with a forcing function added. This force arises from the changes in pressures acting on the hull due to the wave and could be found by integrating the pressures over the whole of the wetted surface. The resultant force acting on a particle in the surface of a wave must act normal to the surface. If the wavelength is long compared to the beam of the ship, and it is these longer waves which will cause the more severe rolling, it is reasonable to assume that there is a resultant force acting on the ship normal to an 'effective surface', taking account of all the subsurfaces interacting with the ship. This is a useful concept proposed by William Froude, who further assumed that the effective wave slope is that of the subsurface passing through the centre of buoyancy of the ship. When damping is present the free oscillation dies out in time, leaving the forced oscillation modified somewhat by the damping. In a truly
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regular wave train the ship would, after a while, roll only in the period of the wave. The highest forced roll amplitudes occur when the period of the wave is close to the natural period of roll when it is said to resonate. Thus heavy rolling of a ship at sea is mainly at frequencies close to its natural frequency.
b) Pitching and heaving in regular waves For these motions attention is directed to head seas as these are the more severe case. It is not reasonable to assume the wave long in relation to the length of the ship and the wave surface can no longer be represented by a straight line. However the general approach of a forcing function still applies. When a ship heads directly into a regular wave train it experiences hydrodynamic forces that can be resolved into a force at the centre of gravity and a moment about that point. As with rolling the resulting pitch and heave will be highest when the period of encounter with the waves is close to the natural period of motion in that mode. When the two periods are equal resonance occurs and it is only the action of the damping that prevents the amplitudes of motion becoming infinite. The amplitudes in practice may become quite large and in that case the master would normally change speed or course to change the period of encounter to avoid resonance. In the general study of oscillations the ratio of the periods of natural oscillation to that of the forcing function is known as the tuning factor The amplitude of the pitching or heaving will also depend upon the height of the waves. It is usual to assume that the exciting forces are proportional to the wave height and, also, the resulting motion
35
amplitude. This applies whilst the motions can be approximated to by a linear equation of motion. c) Presentation Of Motion Data The presentation of motion data for a ship should be arranged so that it can be applied easily to geometrically similar ships in waves of varying amplitude. This is possible when the motions are linear, the basic assumptions being that: Translations are proportional to the ratio of linear dimensions in waves whose lengths vary in the same way. For geometric similarity the speed varies so that V^/L is constant. Angular motions can be treated the same way bearing in mind that the maximum wave slope is proportional to wave height. All motion amplitudes vary linearly with wave height. Natural periods of motion vary as the square root of the linear dimension. These assumptions permit the results of model experiments to be applied to the full scale ship. In watching model experiments the motion always seems rather 'rapid' because of the way period changes. Thus scale model will pitch and heave in a period only a fifth of the
full scale ship. A typical presentation of heave data is as in Figure 1
36
Figure 13. Response amplitude operators
Because wave period is related to wavelength the abscissa can equally be shown as the ratio of wave to ship length. The ordinates of the curve are known as response amplitude operators (RAOs) or transfer functions. II. Motions In Irregular Seas
Usually a designer wishes to compare the seakeeping behaviour of two or more designs. If one design exhibited more acceptable response operators in all waves and at every speed of interest, the decision would be easy. Unfortunately usually one design will be superior under some conditions and another will be better under other conditions. The designer, then, needs some way of comparing designs in the generality of wave conditions. It was seen that the energy spectrum was a very useful means of representing the nature of an irregular wave system. It is equally valuable in the study of a ship's motions in irregular seas. Before proceeding, the spectrum needs to be modified to reflect the fact that the ship is moving through the waves, whereas the wave spectra so far discussed are those recorded at a fixed point.
III.
Degrees of freedom
37
A floating body has six degrees of freedom. In order to completely define the ship motion it is to consider movements in all these modes as illustrated in Figure 2 . The motions are defi ned as movements of the centre of gravity of the ship and rotations about a set of orthogonal axes through the centre of gravity, G. These are space axes moving with the mean forward speed of the ship but otherwise fixed in space. It will be noted that roll and pitch are the dynamic equivalents of heel and trim. Translations along the x- and y -axis and rotation about the z -axis lead to no residual force or moment, provided displacement remains constant, as the ship is in neutral equilibrium. For the other translation and rotations, movement is opposed by a force or moment provided the ship is stable in that mode. The magnitude of the opposition increases with increasing displacement from the equilibrium position, the variation being linear for small disturbances.
Figure 14: Ship motion. This is the characteristic of a simple spring system. Thus, it is to be expected that the equation governing the motion of a ship in still water, which is subject to a disturbance in the roll, pitch or heave
38
modes, will be similar to that governing the motion of a mass on a spring. This is indeed the case, and the undamped case the ship is said to move with simple harmonic motion. Disturbances in the yaw, surge and sway modes will not lead to such an oscillatory motion and these motions, when the ship is in a seaway, exhibit a different character to roll, pitch and heave. These are considered separately and it is the oscillatory motions which are dealt with in the next few sections. It is convenient to consider the motion which would follow a disturbance in still water, both without and with damping, before proceeding to the more realistic case of motions in waves. 1) Undamped motion in still water It is assumed that the ship is floating freely in still water when it is suddenly disturbed. The motion following the removal of the disturbing force or moment is now studied for the three oscillatory motions. Rolling Let be the inclination of the ship to the vertical at any instant. The moment, acting on a stable ship, will be in a sense such as to decrease . For small values of , moment = - GM
39
Figure 15: Rolling Applying Newtons laws of motion moment = (moment of inertia about 0 x ) (angular acceleration)
i.e
i.e
This is the differential equation denoting simple harmonic motion with period T where
It will be noted that the period of roll is independent of and that this will hold as long as the approximation GZ = GM applies, i.e. typically up to 10 degrees. Such rolling is termed isochronous.
40
In practice k xx must be increased to allow for what are usually termed added mass effects due to motion induced in the water although this does not mean that a specifi c body of water actually moves with the ship.. Added mass values vary with frequency but this variation can often be ignored to a fi rst order. Typically the effect increases kxx by about 5%. Hence
Thus the greater is GM , i.e. the more stable the ship, the shorter the period and the more rapid the motion. A ship with a short period is said to be stiff compare the stiff spring and one with a long period is said to be tender . Most people fi nd a long period roll less unpleasant than a short period roll.
Pitching This is analogous to roll and the motion is governed by the equation
and the period for very small angles of pitch of the motion is
Heaving
41
Let z be the downward displacement of the ship at any instant. The force acting on the ship tends to reduce z and has a magnitude Fz given by
where u is the reciprocal weight density of the water. Hence, the heaving motion is governed by the equation
Or
from which, periode is:
may be effectively increased by a signifi cant amount (perhaps doubled) by the added mass effect.
Figure 16. Heaving

42
2) Damped motion in still water Now consider what happens when the motion is damped. It is adequate to illustrate the effect of damping on the rolling motion. Only the simplest case of damping is considered here namely, that in which the damping moment varies linearly with the angular velocity. It opposes the motion since energy is always absorbed Allowing for the entrained water the equation for rolling in still water becomes
Where B is damping cooficient and ship due to entrained water.
augment of rolling inertia of
This can be likened to the standard differential equation
Where
which in turn defi nes the effective period T of the motion as
When the damping is not proportional to the angular velocity the differential equation is no longer capable of ready solution.
43
III.3 Numerical Analysis Of Ship Motion These two areas of study of ship motion are well established and there are accurate models to describe the motion of the ship in each. Seakeeping uses linear equations of motion to describe the response of the vessel to the wave excitation loads. This way, the principle of superposition holds for the responses, and ship motion can be studied using simple filtering and stochastic process theory (St Denis and Pierson, 1953). Most of the analysis done in seakeeping is performed in the frequency domain, and the end result sought is to compare ship performance with prescribed limits in statistical terms see. for example, (Lloyd, 1989). The key elements of this analysis are the, so-called Response Amplitude Operators (RAO). These are transfer function like operators that that give the frequency response of the of the vessel motion to the wave amplitude as a function of the frequency. Having, these RAO, one can then combine them with the se spectrum to obtain the power spectrum of the motion components of the ship: surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch and yaw. From the power spectrum of the motion components all the necessary statistics of ship motion are obtained and the seakeeping analysis performed. The equations of motion are given by, (Salvesen et al., 1970; Faltinsen, 1990),
Where
are the rigid body generalised mass coefficients,
are
the the added mass coefficients,
are the potential and are the forces in are the

44
equivalent linearised viscous damping coefficients and linear restoring by coefficients. . These The wave excitation are
represented
equations
solved
frequencydomain complex notation
for for
sinusoidal the
wave
excitations. wave
Indeed,
using the
harmonic
excitations
and
components of motion:
the equations of motion for sinusoidal excitation reduce to solve
(3) Equations (3) are evaluated only for a discrete set of frequencies (typically 20 to 40), and the results give the amplitude and phase of each component of motion at each frequency. Since for each frequency equations (3) are linear, the results give the amplitude and phase of each component of motion per unit of wave amplitude: (4)
These results represent the frequency response of the ship and are called the ship Response Amplitude Operators (RAO). The RAO can be expressed either in the wave frequency domain or in the encounter frequency domain:
From the control engineering perspective, time series of ship motion can be generatedfrom the motion spectrum to model disturbances. This can alternatively be done via shaping filters fitted to the motion spectrum and driven by white noise or by using the fourier representation of the stochastic process, i.e., a sum of sinusoids with constant amplitude (obtained from the spectrum) and random phases
45
(St Denis and Pierson, 1953): Indeed, by formulating the problem in the wave encounter frequency domain , we have that the time series for the different motion components can be generated as indicated in the following: for i = 1, 2, 3
for i = 1, 2, 3
and
chosen randomly in the interval
where
) is the wave directional spectrum.
This gives rise to what we call seakeeping models for disturbance and the elements of these models are depicted in Figure 17.
46
Seakeeping Theory (Wave frequency models)

Frequency domain Time domain
Wave Spectru m
RAO
Motion Spectru m
Seakeeping Analysis (Sattistic, Operability)
Figure 17: Ship motion models based on seakeeping theory. To summarise, seakeeping models present the following characteristics: The equations of motion are described from an equilibrium frame traveling with the average forward speed of the ship and fixed at the time-average position of certain point of the ship. The mass and damping coefficients of the equations of motion are frequency dependant, so the equations are solved for a discrete set of frequencies, and since for a fixed frequency the equations are linear, the results give the amplitude and phase of the motion components per unit of wave amplitude as a function of the frequencythe RAO. Only the steady state of the motion can be computed in time domain simulations as time series. The models are not accurate at low frequency.
III.4 Limiting Factors
47
A number of factors, apart from its general strength and stability, may limit a ship's ability to carry out its intended function (Lloyd and Andrew, 1977). Ideally these would be definable and quantifiable but generally this is not possible except in fairly subjective terms. The limits may be imposed by the ship itself, its equipment or the people on board. The seakeeping criteria most frequently used as potentially limiting a ship's abilities are speed in waves, slamming, wetness and human reactions.
a. Speed in waves As the waves become more severe the power needed to propel the ship at a given speed increases. This is because of increased water and air resistance and the fact that the propulsors are working under adverse conditions. At some point the main machinery will not be able to provide the power needed and a speed reduction will be forced upon the master. The master may choose, additionally, to reduce speed to protect the ship against the harmful effects of slamming or wetness. b. Slamming Slamming is a high frequency transient vibration in response to the impact of waves on the hull, occurring at irregular intervals. The most vulnerable area is the ship's outer bottom between about 10 and 25 percent of the length from the bow. The impact may cause physical damage and can accelerate fatigue failure in this area. For this reason this area of the outer bottom should be given special attention during survey. Slamming is relatively local and often in a big ship, those on a bridge well aft may not be aware of its severity. Because the duration of the slam is only of the order of ^ of a second, it does not perceptibly modify the bodily motion of the ship but the ensuing vibration can last for 30 seconds. A prudent master will reduce speed when slamming badly. This speed reduction leads to less severe slamming or avoids it
48
altogether. Often a change of direction helps. Lightly loaded cargo ships are particularly liable to slam with their relatively full form and shallow draught forward, and enforced speed reductions may be as high as 40 per cent. Slamming is less likely in high speed ships because of their finer form. Slamming is likely when the relative velocity between the hull and water surface is large and when the bow is re-entering the water with a significantlength of bottom roughly parallel to the sea surface. It is amplified if the bottom has a low rise of floor. The pressure acting in a slam can be shown to be proportional to the square of the velocity of impact and inversely proportional to the square of the tangent of the deadrise angle. c. Wetness By wetness is meant the shipping of heavy spray or green seas over the ship. The bow area is the region most likely to be affected and is assumed in what follows. It may limit a ship's speed and the designer needs some way of assessing the conditions under which it will occur and how severe it will be. To some degree wetness is subjective and it certainly depends upon the wind speed and direction as well as the wave system. In the past it was often studied by running models in waves but it is now usually assessed by calculating the relative motion of the bow and the local sea surface. The assumption made is that the probability of deck wetness is the same as that of the relative motion exceeding the local freeboard. The greater the difference, the wetter the ship is likely to be. Direct model study of such phenomena can, of course, be made by running the model in a representative wave train over a longish period although spray does not scale accurately. Tests in regular waves can assist in a simple slamming investigation in which two designs are directly compared. It is now usual to assess slamming by calculating
49
the relative motion of the bow and the local sea surface. The assumption made is that the probability of deck wetness is the same as that of the relative motion exceeding the local freeboard. The greater the difference, the wetter the ship is likely to be. Increased freeboard, say by increasing sheer forward is one means of reducing wetness. At sea the master can reduce wetness by reducing speed and, usually, changing the ship's heading relative to the predominant waves. Good round down on the deck will help clear water quickly. A bulwark can be used to increase the effective freeboard but in that case adequate freeing ports are needed to prevent water becoming trapped on the deck. The size of freeing ports to be fitted is laid down in international regulations. The designer would avoid siting other than very robust equipment in the area where green seas are likely. Any vents would face aft and water traps provided. Even so vents do get carried away and water may enter the compartments below. This appears to have been the case of MVDerbyshire. The investigation into the loss of that ship has highlighted the need to design hatch covers to be capable of withstanding higher green seas loads than was previously regarded as adequate. It has also shown that abnormal waves are not so rare as previously thought. d. Propeller emergence The probability of the propeller emerging from the water, as the result of ship motions, can be assessed in a similar way to wetness. That is, by calculating the motion of the ship aft relative to the local sea surface. If the propeller does emerge, even partially, it will be less effective in driving the ship. It will tend to race and cause more vibration.
50
e. Human performance It is a common experience that ship motions can cause nausea and then sickness. This discomfort can itself make people less efficient and make them less willing to work. Motions can make tasks physically more difficult to accomplish. Thus the movement of weights around the ship, say when replenishing a warship at sea, is made more difficult. Also tasks requiring careful alignment of two elements may become impossible without some mechanical aid. Over and above this the motions, and the drugs taken to alleviate the symptoms of motion sickness, may adversely affect a person's mental dexterity. In broad terms the effects of motion on human behaviour depend upon the acceleration experienced and its period. The effect is most marked at frequencies between about 0.15 to 0.2 Hz. The designer can help by locating important activities in areas of lesser motion, by aligning the operator position with the ship's principal axes, providing an external visual frame of reference and providing good air quality free of odours.
III.5 Overall Seakeeping Performance The most common cause of large amplitude rolling, as shown by linear theory, is the closeness of the wave encounter frequency to the ship's natural roll frequency. Large roll angles can also be experienced due to the fact that a ship's effective metacentric height varies as it passes through waves. These are non-linear effects. One case is when waves are slowly overtaking a ship with largish waterplane area aft (for instance ships with a transom stern). Relatively large transverse stability variations can occur and roll angles of 40 degrees amplitude, or more, can rapidly build up. Secondly severe rolling can occur when the dominant encounter frequency is close to half the natural period of roll. An overall assessment of seakeeping performance is difficult because of the many different sea conditions a ship may meet and the
51
different responses that may limit the ship's ability to carry out its function. A number of authorities have tried to obtain a single 'figure of merit' but this is difficult. The approach is to take the ship's typical operating pattern over a period long enough to cover all significant activities. From this is deduced: The probability of meeting various sea conditions, using statistics on wave conditions in various areas of the world (Hogben and Lumb, 1967). The ship speed and direction in these seas. The probability of the ship being in various conditions, deep or light load. The ship responses that are likely to be critical for the ship's operations. From such considerations the probability of a ship being limited from any cause can be deduced for each set of sea conditions. These combined with the probability of each sea condition being encountered can lead to an overall probability^ of limitation. The relative merits of different designs can be 'scored' in a number of ways. Amongst those that have been suggested are: The percentage of its time a ship, in a given loading condition, can perform its intended function, in a given season at a specified speed. A generalization of (1) to cover all seasons and/or all speeds. The time a ship needs to make a given passage in calm water compared with that expected under typical weather conditions. It is really a matter for the designer to establish what is important to an owner and then assess how this might be affected by wind and waves.
52
III.6 Acquiring Seakeeping Data Computations of performance criteria require including that for waves, response experienced in ship operations. 1) Wave data The sources of wave data have been discussed. The designer must select that data which is applicable to the design under review. The data can then be aggregated depending upon where in the world the ship is to operate and in which seasons of the year. 2) Obtaining the response amplitude operators The designer can call upon theory, model testing and full scale trials. Fortunately modern ship motion theories can give good values of responses for most motions. The most difficult are the prediction of large angle rolling, due to the important non-linear damping which acts, and motions in quartering seas. The equations of motion can be written down fairly easily but the problem is in evaluating the various coefficients in the equations. Most modern approaches are based on a method known as strip theory or slender body theory. The basic assumptions are those of a slender body, linear motion, a rigid and wall-sided hull, negligible viscous effects apart from roll damping and that the presence of the hull has no effect upon the waves. The hull is considered as composed of a number of thin transverse slices or strips. The flow about each element is assumed to be two-dimensional and the same as would apply if the body were an infinitely long oscillating cylinder of that cross section. In spite of what might appear fairly gross simplification, the theory gives good results in pitch and heave and with adjustment is giving improved predictions of roll. 3) Deriving the motions
good data input, and limitations
operators
53
Based on the above it can be seen that there are three ways of assessing the motions in a given wave system for which the energy spectrum is defined. Statistically. Once the RAOs have been found the energy spectra for the various motions can be found as already discussed. The probabilities of exceeding certain levels of motion follow. Frequency domain simulation. Accepting that an irregular sea can be represented by a the super imposition of a number of regular sinusoidal waves in random phase, the responses to those wave components can be found and combined to give the ship response. The actual response at any instant will depend upon the phase relationships at that instant. To give a reasonably representation of a ship's behaviour the simulation must be continued over a long time period. Otherwise the results may only apply to a relatively quiescent period, or to a particularly severe period. Time domain simulation. This approach does not use the RAOs. Instead a specific spectrum of waves is assumed and the ship is placed in the resulting sea. The forces and moments acting on the ship are calculated and its changes in attitude deduced. The immersed hull form will be varying with time and cross coupling effects due to these changes will be built in to the analysis. It will be appreciated that this method is useful in studying wetness and slamming as these depend upon the actual time history of wave height in relation to the ship. Again the simulation must be carried out over a long period to get good results.
54
These
three
methods
present
increasingly
heavy
demands
on
computational skills. The first is very useful in comparing the expected general behaviour of different hull forms. The second is useful for the actual sequence of motions a ship may experience, although not directly related to the sea surface. The last can show how the ship moves relative to the sea surface showing, for instance, how freeboard varies with time. It is the preferred method for studying extreme loading conditions.
55
References
Dr. Mohamed Morsy El-Gohary, Eng. Hossam Ahmed El-Sherif. Ship Propulsion Systems Third Year. Alexandria University. Handayani. 2011 Naval System Engineering. Hasanuddin University Hartono Yudo. Maneuverability Kapal. Diponegoro University Suryo W. Adji. 2006. Pengenalan Sistem Propulsi Kapal. Marine Engineering-ITS.
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SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PEFORMANCE IN ACTUAL SEA

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

= propulsor efficiency in open water = o

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

components, such as:

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Figure 1 : Main Components Of A Propulsion System

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

where a is termed the axial inflow factor, and:

Equating this to the thrust generated by the disc:

The work done by the thrust on the water is:

This is equal to the kinetic energy in the water column,

Equating this to the work done by the thrust:

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

From Ogilvie (1964) it follows that:

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

where K(t ) is the retardation function. For causal systems :

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

of zero forward speed (Fossen and Smogeli, 2004):

II.2 Types Of Maneuvering Several types of maneuvering ship are:

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Figure 7: course keeping ability c. Initial Turning / Course Changing ability

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Figure 10 : stopping ability

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

zag maneuver with steering angle 10o / 10 degrees

implemented the following procedures:

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

deviation in zig-zag maneuver in the second execution.

increases in zig-zag maneuver on the third execution.

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

SHIP PROPULSION & PERFORMANCE

Zig-zag Manuver Test

change. Be proportional to the length of time.

Department of Marine Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Technology Malaysia