Network is an interconnectec set of related objects.

Computer System Network is an interconnected system where a personal computer can directly communicate with another personal computer or accessories through a media for exchanging data or message. USES: 1) To exchange data or information between users. 2) To exchange different programs, utilities of data files. 3) To share the workload between individual users. 4) To share the expensive resources. For example Printers, Modems, Costly softwares etc. Network Topologies [Categories of network acording to architecture] BUS: Here all nodes of networks are interconnected through a bus (data carier). The bus may be linear or ring shaped. Ring: Here all nodes will be inside a ring shaped area.
1)

Star:

Here

all

nodes

are

connected

to

each

other

and

after

connection the network takes the shape of a star. 2) Tree: Here connection starts from a single node and from each terminal has a scope to produce more than one terminal. It takes a shape of tree after connection where root is at the top and leaves are in the bottom level. [picture required] 3) Fully Connected: Here all nodes are connected directly to each other and no via node is there between source and destination. For N no of nodes there will be N(N-1)/2 communicating paths. 4) Mesh: Here all nodes are interconnected without following any shape stated above.

Categories according to area:1)

LAN (Local Area Network) All the nodes or workstations are connected through a cable within a building area. CAN (Campus Area Network) All the nodes are kept in different buildings but within a campus area.

2)

3)

MAN (Metropoliton Area Network) The network is spreaded over a city or metropoliton area. Ex: Calcutta telephones. WAN (Wide Area Network) - The network is spreaded over a country. Ex: Indian Railway. GAN (Global Area Network) It includes any geographical location of the world i.e. the network lies all over the world. Ex: Satelite communication system.

4)

5)

Networking Protocols:Protocol means a set of well-defined rules and guideldines. Network protcols are the protocols followed by a network for correct and reliable communication. Popular network protocls discussed below
1)

NetBEUI: This protocol is developed by IBM for small type of networking like windows networking. Previously it was developed as NetBIOS with 18 commands only.

2)

IPX/SPX:

The

term

refers

to

Internetwork

Packet

Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. This protocol is developed by Novell Netware. Windows NT or Windows 2000 based LAN uses this type protocol mostly.
3)

TCP/IP:

The

term

stands

for

Transmission

Control

Protocol/Internet Protocol. It is the most efficient type network developed ARPANET. It can connect many networks even if there are non-similar type. It is the best supported internetworking protocol spreaded all over the world today. This protocol is developed for UNIX based networking as most of the servers of Internet runs on UNIX platform for huge distribution of resources. It mainly used for email, file transfer and other applications.
4)

ATM:

ATM

stands

for

Asynchronous

Transfer

mode.

It

has

communication technology that does not depends on master clock. It is a connection-oriented network.

5)

BlueTOOTH: Recently IBM has developed this protocol for wireless communication which is very promising for the comming communication technology.

INTERNET: It is the interconnection between different networks may be of dissimilar type. So, it is also called network of networks. It is the ocean of information. Different services (Emailing, File transporting), entertaining (gaming, chating, listening music) and Business facilities are richly available on Internet. Research works on Information Technology is going on to make Internet useful both for end users and researh cariers. Tools of Internet:
1)

Computer system.

System:

full

set

of

computer

includes

monitor,

keyboard, mouse and proccessor with Internet compatible operating

2)

Modem: The term stands for Modulator and Demodulator. It is a device for converting analog signale to digital and vice versa at the receiving end.

3)

Communicating media: Active telephone lines, co-axial cable and optical fibers are most commonly used for internet. Web Browsers: It is a software for managing through the

4)

internetwork. Some Terms Refered to Internet:1)

Web Page: When user log on to any website, all informations available to him/her through a rich text formatted page known as web page.

2)

Web Site: It is the commercial place where any user can visit through (last 3 Internet letters) For .edu browser. that example stands There us for are for some specific the for extensions has .mil commercial tell whome stands website

developed.

.com

organization,

educational

institutions,

Military sites, .gov stands for Government sites, .org stands

for
3)

Professional The term

societies, for

.int File

stands Transfer

for

international Whatever

organizations. FTP: stands Protocol. information we see in Internet is kept in a file format. We usually log in to our local server. If required file kept inside the server of another country is downloaded by the local server following the FTP and distributed.
4)

TELNET: It is an Internet exploration tool that allows one user to connect to another network even he/she is not a regular user of that network. Telnet is widely used to access database and explore public access computer by remote users

5)

IP Address: Internet includes more than a million of computers. In order to communicate them properly, an addressing system is followed system
a.

known uses

as

Internet

Protocol

Addressing as

system. as

This

letter

addressing

system

well

number

addressing system. Letter Addressing System Computers (Servers) are accessed here by some letters usually seperated by three dots. These seperated letters represent the path of the server to be accessed. The last it three letters represent the This kind type of of organization www.msn.com
b.

belongs

to.

[ref.website].

addressing system is also called Domain Naming System. ExNumber Addressing System When user tries to access a

server, a numeric address is generated which is called IP Address. It has four parts seperated by three dots. Each part is called OCTET. The four parts alltogether is known as Doted Quad. Binary value of an OCTET must be within 0 255. Letter of the IP Address is mapped to the Doted Quad before the web server is accessed. INTRANET: It is an internal network belongs to a specific

organization. It uses the Internet technology. Internet is used to

access to access any remote domain publicly where it differs from Intranet. Intranet uses TCP/IP networking protocol. CLIENT SERVER SYSTEM: This is an archetecture designed to separate the database storage and its manipulation process. In this system each terminal is connected to a server directly through a network. Users can perform programming on terminals using front-end tools where the database is kept in a server. For example users are programming on terminals using Visual Basic and SQL is server is available on the server as back-end support. The main object is to store all data by in a single clients location (server) some and that will be accessed multiple implimenting validation rules.

Example of client server system The Railway Reservation System where the reservation data are accessed from different locations but the database is kept in a single location. The internal just send the instance of the required data from server to client. Hence, multiple user or client can simultaneously view the same data. OSI Layers: Network Protocol Architecture:- It is a framework to ensure on the that two of entities can send, receive and interpret informations. It also reduces the conceptual complexity. It is based concept layering. Different types of Layered Protocol architectural models are (1) OSI Layers (2) IPA (Internet Protocol Architecture) (3) SNA (System Network Architecture) (4) DNA (Digital Network Architecture). OSI The basic objective of this model is to standardize the rules of interaction among the interconnection system. In this model the total communication process is divided into 7 layers. Layering divided the total communication problem into smaller functions. Each layer is independent and provides service to the next layer. The layers are: 1) Physical Layer: It provides the physical medium for physical information flow. It is dedicated for transmitting raw bits over

the communication channel. Ex- X.21, EIA-232-D, EIA-530, V.22 bis, V.35 2) Data Link Layer: It breaks the data bits transmitted by physical layer into frames, then, transmit these frames to next layer and process acknowledgement frames sent back by receiver. Ex- HDLC, BISYNC, X.25, LAP-B 3) Network Layer: It is dedicated to provide functional and procedural means to setup and terminate a call, to route data and to control data flow across the network. Ex- CCITT, X.25, CLNP 4) Transport Layer: It is an end to end layer. It is dedicated to provide 5) Session transport Layer: transfer It of data the between means end for systems in reliable and cost effective manner. Ex- X.224 provides co-operating presentation entities to organize and synchronize their dialogue and manage their data exchange. It is the users interface in the network. 6) Presentation Layer: It Provides the mechanism for presenting data in a manner that can be understood by both sending and receiving devices. 7) Application Layer: It is the topmost layer in OSI architectural model. It directly serves the end user Distributed information appropriate to an application, to its management and to system management. It takes and provides data from and to user in the form understandable by the user of the system. Email, chating, file transfer etc are the applications used here. ATM: ATM stands for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It is also called Cell Relay. It is the result of research works in circuit switching and packet switching over past 25 years. In this technology, fixed length data packets are called Cells are relayed from node to node. It also has the feature of circuit switching, as fixed data rate circuits are available to the end system. ATM is designed to work in the range of 10 to 100 mbps.

Circuit Switching Protocol: In a circuit switched network a direct dedicated communication path is is established between two station through the nodes of network. The path is a connected sequence of physical station links are between nodes. along On the each link there path is as a logical as channel dedicated to the connection. Data generated by the source transmitted dedicated early possible. At each node incomming data are routed or switched to the appropriated outgoing channel without delay. Telephone network is one of the most common example of circuit switched network. Packet Switching Protocol: The approach of this network is quite different from circuit switched network. Direct dedicated transmission is not essential along a path through the network. Data are send out in a sequence of small packets. Each packet is passed from node to node along some other paths leading from source to destination. The entire packet is received and stored at each node and transmitted to the next node. Terminal to computer and computer to computer uses this type of network. Message switching protocol: This technique is applicable where workstation is connected to a central station. The central station accepts the message from sender and stores that to its own memory. When a line is available between switch station and destination, the switch station forwards the message. Dial-up and Leased using a Line: In a dial-up network connection is Here established modem over an ordinary telephone line.

connection is established after dialing the destination number. Leased line is a permanent direct dedicated connection usually owned by a corporate business house for connecting two LANs, which are geographically seperated. ETHERNET: Ethernet technology CSMA/CD is basically a highspeed LAN designed with (Carrier Sense Multiple a Access/Collision

Detection). The system is called Ethernet after Luminiferous Ether through which electro-magnetic radiation was thought to propagate.

The name Ethernet refers to the cable (the ether) and the cable specifications are as follows: Name 10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT 10BaseF Cable Thick Coax Thin Coax Twisted Pair Fibre Optics 2000 m 1024 LAN interconnections 100 m 1024 Easy Maintenance 200 m 30 Cheapest System Max.Segment 500 m Nodes/Segment 100 Remark Good for Backbone

ISDN: In the beginning of 21st century, the World Telephone Company and PTTS together agreed to built a new fully digital circuit switched telephone system system that named ISDN both (Integrated analogue and Service digital Digital Network). It is a replacement of old analogue voice transmission transmission. Advance features: User can setup a call instantly with a set of buttons. Telephon can display the callers name, address and telephone number at receivers end. Callers database can also be maintained. Electric meter reading, smoke or fire alarm to call police/fire brigade/hospital, e-mail, wide special video CD area on demand, music, of live LAN ISDN. television, multimedia, are quality supports

interconnection

features

Primarily, ISDN was called N-ISDN (Narrowband ISDN) that was composed of 64 kbps channels. Later on B-ISDN (Braodband ISDN) was devloped with a capacity to transmit at 155 mbps. TCP/IP Reference Model: In order to connect multiple networks in a seamless way, a reference model is designed known as TCP/IP Reference Model. This model has four layers.
1.

Host to Network Layer: It is 1st layer to connect the network using some protocols to send the IP packets over the

network. This protocol varies from host to host and network to network.
2.

Internet Layer: This is the 2nd Layer. The job of this layer is to permit the host to inject packets into any network and have traveled indepedently to the destination. It also rearranges the packets in the order they should be. This layer is very similar in functionality to the network layer of OSI reference model.

3.

Transport Layer: This is the 3rd layer. The functionality of this layer is very similar to the transport layer of OSI model. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and the fragments destination the it incomming also byte stream the into discrete message messages and passes each one on to the Internet layer. At reassembles received into the output stream. This layer also controls the tha flow of transmission to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages it can handle.

4.

Application Layer: This is the 4th or top layer of TCP/IP model. It provides the technology to support Telnet, FTP, SMTP, HTTP, DNS.

FIREWALL: It is a combination of hardware and software to protect the network or LAN from hackers and crackers. The complicacy of firewall depends on the is network administrator. using More complicated servers and firewall is more secured but reduces the access speed to the network accordingly. Firewall implimented routers, varieties of softwares. Types of Firewall: 1) Packet filtering Here all data packets are examined, then it is forwarded which is based on a predefined procedure. 2) Proxy Firewall Here a secondary connection is made with the destination at the Application, Transport or Session layer. If

the

request

from

application firewall by

layer It

is is

not the

identified technology using a

by of

the new It

firewall, then it denies the access to the resources. 3) Stagefull generation inspects inspection presented full the checkpoint layer software without technologies.

application

separate

proxy. It provides excellent performance and reliability. 4) Zone Alarm It is provided by Zone Lab, which is one of the best firewall products. It provides good protection to the Internet users from malicious programs like Spyware, Trozan horses etc. Some network devices: 1) Repeaters: To solve the problems arises out of attenuation in any transmission amplifies the media, Repeaters are used. It is a device that signal and makes it capable to travel further.

Repeaters are of two types: a) Amplifiers It amplifies the total incomming signal, i.e. both signal and noise. b) Signal regenerators It identifies the original signal and creates an exact dudplicate, then forwards that after boosting to its original strength. 2) Bridges: It is an electronic device that can transmit data between two non-similar types of LANs. It also filters data and keeps the traffic separate for segment of network. It reads the destination address from a data packet and compares that with a table where addresses of all nodes are stored. Then forwards the packet. 3) Routers: These are devices containing softwares to determine the best path out of the path available from source to destination. 4) Gateways: It is a device used for converting messages, addresses and protocols of one type of network to totally another type of network type of network. Features of gateways are flexibility in networking, complex design, higher cost and costly maintenance. 5) Hubs: It is a and device where data to arrive or from more one or more workstations forwarded one workstations.

Generally, it is composed of 4 to 24 ports (RJ45) for twisted pairs cabling and some uplink ports to connect other hubs or srever. It is also known as multi-port repeater. 6) Switches: It is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sendding data to its next destination. It is required for larger internetworks. It selects the best path from source to destination. Difference between Broadband and Baseband transmission: Baseband system digital signalling over a single frequency. Signal flows in the form of discrete pulses of electric or light. In this type of transmision, the entire communiction channel capacity is used to transmit a single data signal. Broadband systems use analogue signaling and a wide range of frequencies. With alanogue transmission the signals are continuous and non-discrete. Signals flow across the physical medium in the form of electromagnet or optical waves. In this transmission, signal flow is unidirectional. Comparative study of Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex: ITEMS
Direction of transmission Confirmation of message communiction Cost of communication No. of wires Efficiency Example of users

SIMPLEX
Communication is in one direction only Not possible Cheapest 2 Low Radio, TV, Keyoard to CPU etc.

HALF-DUPLEX
Communication is in both directions but not simltaneously Possible but slow Average 2 Medium Transmission of data between hard disk and memory, Walky Talkie etc

FULL-DUPLE
Communication is in both directions and simultaneously Possible Costliest 4 High Telehone Network

Comparative study of Twisted Pair, Co-axial cable and Optical Fibre:

Factors Cost Installation Bandwidth Unshieled T. P. Lowest Easy 1-155 mbps Shielded T. P. Moderate Fairly easy 1-155 mbps Co-axial Cable Moderate Fairly easy Typically 10 mbps Fibre Optics Highest Difficult Around 2 gbps

Comparative study of LAN and WAN:

Characteristics
Full form Location of computers Establishment cost No. of computers Security Transmission Maintenance

LAN
Local Area Network Usually confined within a building area Lowest Minimum Low Generally twisted pair or co-axial cable Easy

WAN
Wide Area Network All over the country Higher Comparitively much more High Generally co-axial cable or optical fibre Difficult

Bandwidth: The total frequency a communication channel can permit for transmission at a time. Effective Banddwidth The net usable bandwidth for transmission available after deducting the cut-off frequency. Cut-Off Frequency The margin kept from each virtual channel allotted for users to avoid data collisoions. Net Total Bandwidth Sum of effective bandwidth.

Total Bandwidth Logical Channels Of 10Mhz Cut-off Frequency of 1 Mhz

Channel Capacity: It is the transmision rate by which a particular user is limited to a specific speed of transmission. It is generally meauresed in bps.

Comparative study of Bus, Ring and Star Topology: Factors

Shape Existence of server Cost No. of connectors Maintenance Communication speed Security Installation cost Architectural complexities Conncting medias

BUS
Linear May or may not be Cheap 1 Low Fast Less Low Easy Twisted pairs, coaxial cables, optocal fibres

RING
Ring May or may not be Moderate Average 1,2 for FDDI Average Average Moderate Moderate Medium Twisted pairs, axial cables co-

STAR
Star Must Costly n-1 where n is the no. of nodes High Slow High High Difficult Twisted pairs

Leased line vs General Line: Leased line In this case a particular user is allotted a fixed transmission channel, which is exclusive for that user. No other user (Not subscribed for this channel) is allowed to share this line. The bandwidth is generally high in this case and it is a costly affair as well. General Line It is a circuit switched transmission channel given to user whenever user requests for transmission. Otherwise general users for transmission purpose share it. The total bandwidth is lower than that of the leased line as well as the cost. Comparative study between peer-to-peer and LAN-Server network:Factors
Topology Existance of server Cost Security Transmission speed Installation complexity Maintenance Cable specification

Peer-to-peer
Bus or Ring None Less Low Low Low Low Twisted Pair, Co-axial or Optical Fibre

LAN-Server
Bus, Ring, Star One or more High High High High High Twisted Pair or Co-axial