1. Darwins theory did not account for how traits were inherited. He did not have an understanding of genes.

2. Convergence is when organisms form similar structures as solutions to similar problems and natural selection favors similar structures. Convergence provides support for evolution because the trait is heritable, it increases fitness, and it occurs in a population. 3. One could observe strong natural selection but no evolution if natural selection is acting on variation that is not heritable. Then by definition there cannot be evolution. 4. Evolution is by definition seen over a population. Evolution takes in account the change in allele frequencies over time and in order to view this it must be looked at in individuals in a population over time. 5. Directional selection occurs when a one trait survives over another that is selected for such as with the moths. The white moths are selected for and the dark moths have an increase of mean fitness. Stabilizing selection occurs when the extreme traits are selected for as we saw when light moths and dark moths were selected for and the moths in between had an increase in mean fitness. 6. In order for us to see a viable mutation it must increase a populations fitness. On the other hand most mutations are deleterious. Selection acts to remove them from populations. Mutations occur at random with respect to the environment. A mutation is an error in replication of nucleotide sequence or any other alteration of the genome that is not due to recombination. Most errors that cause a mutation we do not expect because we cannot account for the many times we will see that error repaired or expressed silently. 7. Evolution is change through time. Changes must be heritable and occur throughout a population and not an individual. 8. Natural selection is the nonrandom survival and reproduction of phenotypes and genotypes. Conditions of natural selection are: reproduction, heredity, variation in heritable traits, and variation in fitness.

9. Three components of fitness: Increase fecundity to produce more gametes (success of gametes) Compatibility: Are the sperm and egg together compatible? Zygotes: are zygotes compatible? Juveniles have to survive adulthood and find mates. 10. Maybe u which is the mutation rate p=p-up q=q+up 11. Not enough information 12. 0.25 13. 0.368 14. Disruptive selection maintains variation in natural populations because the extreme values are favored therefore by definition variation is maintained. 15. A=.714 a=.286 16. A=.55 a=.45 17. Yes under Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. If Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is not assumed then no. 18. Directional selection: shifts the average and decreases variance Stabilizing selection: no change in the average and decreases variance Disruptive selection: no change in the average and increases variance No selection: No change

19. Given the formulas VP=VA+VN+VE and h2=VA/VP Vp=phenotypic variance VA=additive genetic variance -the part of variance transmitted from parents to offspring -the part natural selection can act on VN=non-additive genetic variance -not simply transmitted from parents to offspring -caused by interactions between genes, alleles VE=environmental variance -not transmitted from parent to offspring -e.g. caused by differences in nutrition 2 h =heritability of x Heritability is a function of phenotypic variance which accounts for environmental variance. In 1977 there was a drought and finches with larger beaks achieved a higher mean fitness. 20. The Grants estimated heritability of bill depth in Darwins finches by observing the proportion of the variation observed in the population that is due to variation of genes. If the differences amongst the finches were due to differences in the alleles they have inherited, then offspring will resemble their parents. The showed with a plot that parents with shallow beaks tend to have chicks with shallow beaks and parents with deep beaks tend to have chicks with deep beaks. A large proportion of the observed variation in beak depth is genetically based and can be passed to offspring. 21. The Fisher Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection This stated: The rate of increase in mean fitness of a population is approximately equal to its additive genetic variance (VA) in fitness. He made the assumptions that relative fitnesss are constant in time, selection is weak, and there is a simple genetic system. -experimental design -maximum likelihood -variance, variance partitioning -analysis of variance (ANOVA) -population genetics Population genetics is the study of the allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary processes: natural

selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. It also takes account of population subdivision and population structure in space. As such, it attempts to explain such phenomena as adaptation and speciation. Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the modern evolutionary synthesis, its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics. Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is a popular statistical method used for fitting a statistical model to data, and providing estimates for the model's parameters. Maximum-likelihood estimation was recommended, analyzed and vastly popularized by R. A. Fisher between 1912 and 1922 (although it had been used earlier by Gauss, Laplace, Thiele, and F. Y. Edgeworth).[1] Design of experiments, or experimental design, (DoE) is the design of all information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. (The latter situation is usually called an observational study.) Often the experimenter is interested in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some objects (the "experimental units"), which may be people, parts of people, groups of people, plants, animals, etc. Design of experiments is thus a discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social sciences. 22. Synonymous changes are substitutions which do not cause a change in amino acid because of redundancy in genetic code (silent). Nonsynonymous changes are substitutions which do cause an amino acid change. These changes are the mutation changes on the protein level that causes variation which is important to evolution.