TEXTO 1 - Setting Realistic Crop Yield Goals George Rehm and Michael Schmitt Common logic tells us that

we can't expect the same yield from the same crop across the entire state of Minnesota. Climate, genetics, crop management, and the physical and chemical properties of soils strongly influence crop yields. Since soils can vary considerably from farm to farm and field to field on any farm, it's important to spend some time establishing a realistic yield goal for each field each year. Importance Yield goals have a direct impact on both economics and environment. Considering the economics of crop production, yield goals affect fertilizer use and plant population decisions. Therefore, yield goals have a direct impact on projected cost of production. Calculating the anticipated cost of production has a major impact on marketing decisions. Fertilizer recommendations are based on the results of a soil sample analysis in combination with a realistic yield goal. If goals are too high, money is spent needlessly on fertilizer. Fertilizer nitrogen not used by the crop during the growing season can potentially reach the ground water. If yield goals are too low, recommended fertilizer rates aren't sufficient for the most profitable yield and farm profitability is being reduced. Some Things To Consider Selection of a realistic yield goal is not an easy management decision. There are several factors to consider and some of them change from year to year. The following can have a major impact on yield goals: Soil Texture and Associated Available Water The amount of available water that soils can hold varies with texture. Sandy soils hold relatively low amounts of water that can be used by crops and should be expected to produce less than soils with a silt loam texture if irrigation is not used and rainfall is limiting. Drainage Excessive water in soils can have a negative effect on production. Well-drained soils generally produce more than those that are poorly drained. Rainfall Probabilities Average annual rainfall increases from northwest to southeast in the state. It's reasonable to expect higher yields in southeast and southern Minnesota. Length of Growing Season The length of the growing season decreases from south to north. For some crops, this has a major impact on hybrid or variety selection. Short-season hybrids or varieties usually have a lower yield potential than those requiring a longer growing season. Soil Moisture Recharge In much of Minnesota, the amount of subsoil moisture present in the root zone at the start of a growing season strongly influences crop yields. If the amount of subsoil moisture is low at planting, crop yields become highly dependent on rainfall during the growing season. Yield goals may have to be adjusted downward for these situations. Yet, if the rooting zone is fully recharged at the start of the growing season, yield goals can be raised because the probability of moisture stress is reduced. Therefore, it's important to be aware of the soil moisture situation before a yield goal is set for any year.

Differences in Inherent or Native Soil Productivity Even when moisture is not a limiting factor, soils still differ in crop production ability. There are several reasons, but they are beyond the scope and purpose of this publication. Recognition of these differences is expressed as crop equivalent ratings. These ratings consider soil characteristics and also account for the costs necessary to overcome some of the factors limiting production. For example, a soil with a crop equivalent rating of 70 should not have a yield goal as high as a soil with a crop equivalent rating of 80. Some Suggestions Setting yield goals is difficult: they should be attainable and challenging. There are several methods to use. A method that might be suitable for one producer might not work for a neighbor. There is no one right way to set yield goals. Some suggestions to consider are described in the following. Using Maximum Yield Produced In The Past This historic method revolves around remembering the top yield produced on your land or your neighbor's land in the recent past. It places only a small amount of emphasis on economics and profitability. Sometimes, however, history is not a clue to the true potential of a field. Past maximums may have been limited by diseases, weeds, inadequate fertility, or some other limiting factor. Past maximums are also closely related to favorable weather. If soil moisture is currently short, this may not be the best method for setting a yield goal for the upcoming crop. Using Farm and/or County Averages This is a relatively easy method to use. Farm or field averages can be derived from farm records. Many statistical summaries of crop production list county averages. This method might be suitable for those satisfied with the status quo or with no desire to improve. Both high and low yields are incorporated into "average" yields. This method is not suggested for progressive growers who are concerned with high farm profitability. Aiming for the average is not a method to maximize profit. Average yields do not make the most efficient use of production inputs such as herbicides and fertilizers. Adjusting The Past Average A common and realistic approach to setting yield goals, however, does consider past averages. With this approach the recent average (3-5 years) is increased by 10% to 20% with the higher yield becoming the yield goal. With this method, the average yield of fields should increase each year if not limited by stress conditions. The selection of the percentage increase can vary with both farmer attitude and climate. If, for example, soil moisture is limiting at the start of the growing season, it may be wise to strive for a low percentage increase or no increase at all. With favorable soil moisture and a good long range forecast, it would be smart to aim for a 10% to 20% increase over the recent average. This method allows for maximum flexibility in the establishment of yield goals. Crop yields will also increase slowly over time if this approach is used for setting yield goals and yield goals are met. Be Positive There is every reason to be positive in setting yield goals. If common logic is used, realistic yield goals can be established. If you plan for a poor yield, you will get a poor yield. George Rehm and Michael Schmitt are extension soil scientists, soil fertility.

TEXTO 2 Pesticide Safety e Environmental Education About the Program Responsible management of pests and pesticides is essential from the perspective of public health, as well as healthy functioning ecosystems. For many Minnesota industries, pest management is important: crop and livestock production, forestry, turf, horticultural plants, fisheries, food processing, waste management, transportation of commodities, and tourism. In sensitive public and urban areas, such as parks, golf courses, schools, stores, homes, lakes and rivers, and business offices, pest and pesticide management are important for both economic and aesthetic reasons. Additional expertise and knowledge is required to protect the public. Pesticide safety and security, of which education and outreach play a central role, have emerged as recognized priorities for national security. We train Minnesota farmers and other agricultural commodity producers, and offer certification courses for professional pesticide applicators. Our goals are to: enhance public health and environmental quality. improve the health and safety of pesticide application workers and their families. encourage and facilitate producers, industry, government, natural resource managers, and the public to adopt economically and environmentally sound pest and pesticide management practices. facilitate public discussion of pesticide related issues

TEXTO 3 Diseases of cole crops Cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, broccoli, kale, kohlrabi, and turnip are commonly referred to as cole crops. They are susceptible to a number of serious diseases that must be controlled to obtain desired quality and good yields. The diseases and control measures discussed affect both the home gardener and the commercial producer; however, emphasis here will be on disease control in commercial cole crop production. Before using any of the fungicides listed for control of various cole crop diseases, always read and follow label directions. Black Rot This is a very serious disease on cole crops, especially cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, and brussels sprouts. Other hosts include kohlrabi, collard, rutabaga, and radish. The disease is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. Symptoms. Plants may be affected at any stage of growth. The bacterium usually enters through the water pores around the leaf margins. Once the bacterium has entered the leaf, the tissue turns yellow. Infection progresses toward the center of the leaf, forming a V-shaped pattern. The veins within the yellow-colored tissue turn black. The bacterium moves down the leaf and is distributed throughout the entire plant. The infected leaves turn yellow and eventually drop off; some plants may be almost completely defoliated. The affected stem, when cut crosswise, reveals a black ring where infection has followed the water-conducting tissue (Fig. 1). The bacterium is carried on and in seed. When infected seed is planted, the bacteria pass from seed parts into the leaves of the small seedling and symptoms develop as previously described.

Disease cycle. The pathogen overwinters in and on the seed and in the plant debris left in the field. The bacterium may become established in a field by planting infected seed, planting infected transplants, or planting in fields where the disease was a problem the previous year. The bacteria are spread by splashing or running water and insects. Control. Control practices include (1) planting western-grown, disease-free seed, (2) using a hot water seed treatment, (3) applying a fungicide treatment, (4) maintaining good sanitation of planting beds, (5) inspecting plants and handling plants carefully, (6) using crop rotation, and (7) planting resistant cultivars when available. Plant only western-grown seed. Seed grown in the western United States is usually free of the pathogen, while seed grown in Europe and the eastern United States usually has a low percentage of infected seeds. Hot water seed treatment. The grower should request hot water-treated seed. Fungicide treatment. Copper products may help slow the progress of the disease. Refer to Midwest Vegetable Production Guide for Commercial Growers, BU-7094-S. Plant bed sanitation. Take care to avoid planting beds that have been used for cole crop production. Wait at least three years. Drainage water from old compost heaps and old cabbage fields can contaminate the soil. If disease-free soil is not available, soil fumigation may be an option. Plant inspection and handling of plants. Inspect the plants thoroughly and look for disease symptoms described earlier. Handle plants carefully to avoid injury. Crop rotation. A three-year crop rotation with unrelated crops is required since the bacterium can overwinter in the soil for two years. Seed Rot and Damping Off The pre-emergence rotting of seeds or the post-emergence damping-off (collapse) of seedlings are diseases caused by soil-borne fungal organisms. As noted under black rot control, using a good sanitation program, crop rotation, and treated seed when available are important precautions against all seed and seedling diseases. Fungicide treatments may also be used to protect seedlings. A fungicide such as PCNB is effective against wirestem, Rhizoctonia sp. root rot. Incorporate this fungicide into the top 3- 6 inches of soil. A fungicide such as mefenoxam is effective against Pythium sp. damping-off. Always follow label directions. TEXTO 4 Environmentally Pest Control In and Around Homes Conscious Methods of

Pesticides are substances or a mixture of substances used for destroying, preventing, repelling or mitigating pests. Pesticides also include substances used as plant growth regulators, defoliants, and desiccants. Substances derived from plants, microorganisms, and organic or inorganic molecules are included under the broad definition of pesticides. Pesticides used against insects are called insecticides; those used against weeds, fungi, rodents, and birds are called herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, and avicides, respectively. Pesticides are commonly used in and around homes* because they are easy to apply, fast-acting, and effective against a wide variety of pests. A 1990 nationwide survey by Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, showed that 85% of homeowners store at least

one or more household pesticide products. A 1979 United States Environmental Protection Agency survey estimated that about 87 million pounds of pesticides are used annually in and around homes. About 43% and 32% of the 87 million pounds used were insecticides and herbicides, respectively; the remaining 25% consisted of fungicides, rodenticides, disinfectants, and other chemicals. Insecticides are commonly used in and around homes because most homeowners consider insects and insect relatives (e.g., mites, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes) as pests or as a nuisance, especially if they occur indoors. A 1990 University of Minnesota survey of 440 home dwellers in Minnesota indicated that about 65% tolerated insects found outdoors and 26% disliked insects. Conversely, about 81% of the same home dwellers surveyed disliked indoor insects, and only 13% indicated any tolerance toward insects inside their homes. Pests found in and around homes Insects and insect relatives frequently encountered outdoors in Minnesota are: ants, mosquitoes, spiders, bees, wasps, flies, black flies, centipedes, carpenter ants, millipedes, sowbugs, pillbugs, boxelder bugs, ticks, crickets, aphids, daddy-long-legs, and mites. Some of these same pests (e.g., spiders, sowbugs, millipedes, and centipedes) become a nuisance when they seek harborage indoors and cause concern to residents. In addition to the invertebrate pests listed above, including fleas and pantry pests (sawtoothed grain beetle, red flour beetle, rice weevil, and Indianmeal moth), vertebrates such as rodents, bats, and birds also become pests when they seek refuge indoors. Both the invertebrate and vertebrate pests enter homes through openings in foundations and walls, and through open, unscreened or broken doors and windows. Some invertebrates are brought indoors on infested plant or food materials. If environmental and nutritional requirements for these pests are not met indoors, they may perish. Other species may thrive indoors because of stable and suitable environmental conditions, abundant availability of food, and absence of natural enemies. Some species enter homes to escape unfavorable environmental conditions outdoors. For instance, boxelder bugs, cluster flies, and elm leaf beetles overwinter indoors until conditions outdoors become conducive for their survival. Reasons for pest control Homeowners apply control measures against outdoor and indoor pests because they dislike the presence of pests, prefer to maintain a pest-free property, and want to eliminate pests that transmit diseases (e.g., cockroaches, ticks, flies, etc.). Several chemical and nonchemical approaches are effective in controlling pests outdoors and indoors. However, nonchemical methods are now becoming popular because of the public's concern about the effects of pesticides on humans, animals, and the environment. The use of pesticides may lead to the development of resistance in pests, resulting in ineffective control at recommended label rates. Several simple nonchemical methods, if used properly, can effectively reduce pest incidence and abundance in and around homes. In this article, we give an overview of some simple environmentally compatible nonchemical, chemical, and biological pest control strategies. Nonchemical methods of pest control

The range of nonchemical options available may vary with the pest species, pest intensity or severity, and effectiveness of the option. Several key nonchemical options that may help reduce the amount of pesticides used in and around homes are listed below. However, it is important to realize that for effective use of nonchemical methods, an understanding of pest biology, ecology, and behavior is essential. Such an understanding is not always required when using synthetic pesticides. Exclusion: Any measure used to prevent entry of organisms indoors through openings in the building structure, doors, windows, or on infested plant or food materials. Some techniques include screening openings to prevent entry of flies, mosquitoes, and beetles; caulking cracks and crevices to remove existing or potential harborages of pantry pests and cockroaches; and sealing or repairing exterior openings to prevent entry of bats, mice, bees, and wasps. Plants and food products must be carefully inspected for infestations at the time of purchase and before they are brought indoors. Sanitation: Maintaining clean surroundings both outdoors and indoors removes potential areas where pests can feed, breed, and hide. Sanitary measures include: disposing of garbage on a weekly basis during warm weather to control filth flies and cockroaches; discarding overripe fruits to control fruit flies and fungus beetles; removing bird nests as these harbor dermestids, clothes moths, mites, and lice; and vacuuming to reduce populations of fleas, carpet beetles, house dust mites, and several ground-dwelling insects and insect relatives. It is also important to keep kitchen areas clean to reduce incidence of pantry pests and cockroaches. Habitat modification: Includes any method used to eliminate or disrupt areas where pests reside. For example, removing weeds and keeping well-mowed lawns reduces incidence of crickets and ticks. Removing debris and fallen leaves near foundations reduces sowbug and centipede populations. Wood or wooden piles, where carpenter ants, ground beetles, and spiders seek harborage, must be stored away from structures. Creating a vegetation-free barrier around the perimeter of the building will reduce incidence of many ground-dwelling pests such as clover mites. The use of dehumidifiers is recommended, especially in basements, to create and maintain a dry environment to discourage incidence of sowbugs, centipedes, firebrats, and house dust mites. Temperature control: Artificially manipulating the temperature of substrates infested by pests or areas where pests reside is an inexpensive nonchemical strategy. The time from treatment to death of a pest and numbers of the pest killed, may vary with the pest stage, temperature, and duration of exposure. Pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles can be eliminated by subjecting infested foods, clothes, and carpets, respectively, to extremely hot or cold temperatures. In general, all developmental stages of pantry pests, clothes moths, and carpet beetles can be killed within minutes to hours when exposed to temperatures below 32 F and above 104 F. Mechanical control: A rolled newspaper or magazine and fly swatters are some tools used for killing visible and less mobile or immobile pests. On infested plants, handpicking insects (e.g., hornworms) is a partially effective means of pest control. Infested leaves must be excised from plants, bagged, and discarded. Traps: Traps are escape-proof devices that capture highly mobile and active pests. Live traps can be used for rabbits, pocket gophers, and squirrels. Unbaited sticky traps such as red spheres, resembling apples, are useful for trapping apple maggot adults. Colored (yellow) sticky traps are effective in capturing whiteflies and aphids. Sticky traps can be baited with commercial lures (pheromones and food attractants) to enhance trap catch.

For example, sticky traps baited with lures for pantry pests, wasps, and flies are commercially available. Traps are useful for early detection and continuous monitoring of infestations. They are not effective in reducing populations unless the pest population is isolated or confined to a small area. The chance of detecting the presence of pests in a given area is related to the number of traps used. Therefore, when pests are present in very low numbers, it is advantageous to use more than a few traps. Pests must be active or mobile to be captured in traps. Therefore, any environmental variable (temperature, humidity, wind, light, or food) or biological factor (age, sex, mating status, etc.) that influence pest activity, affects trap catch. Consequently, absence of pests in traps does not imply that the pests are not present in the sampled area. Diatomaceous earth (DE): Several DE formulations are commercially available. These products contain fossilized siliceous (silicon-containing) skeletons of aquatic diatoms (algae) of various shapes and sizes (<1 to 34 microns). DE formulations predominantly are made up of noncrystalline or amorphous silicon dioxide. Although the exact mode of action of DE products is not known, it is believed that DE kills insects and insect relatives by absorbing and abrading the water-proofing, waxy outer covering of the skin (cuticle). Absorption and abrasion to the waxy layer of the cuticle leads to water loss and subsequently death due to dehydration. DE products are most effective on softbodied insects or insect relatives. Because the mode of action is mechanical, insects and insect relatives may not develop resistance to this natural product. Biological control agents: Parasitic and predatory insects, mites, and nematodes are now commercially available to control pests. For example, lacewing larvae and ladybird beetle larvae and adults are predators of aphids. Parasitic and predatory organisms should be used only where pesticides are discontinued or were not previously used, because these beneficial organisms are highly susceptible to pesticides. The degree of control achieved with the use of beneficial organisms is variable, and the costeffectiveness for many beneficials has not been well-documented. Three different varieties of the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis are available to control larvae of moths and butterflies (caterpillars), mosquitoes and black flies (maggots), and beetles (grubs). The varieties kurstaki, israelensis, and san diego are effective against caterpillars, maggots, and grubs, respectively. The larvae succumb to the bacterial toxin after ingesting or consuming the treated substrate. For controlling Japanese beetle grubs on lawns, the use of Bacillus popillae may offer some control. Recent evidence suggests that caterpillars can develop resistance to the B. thuringiensis toxin. Miscellaneous techniques: Pantry pests have the ability to puncture and penetrate paper and cardboard materials. Therefore, storing cereal and cereal products in tight plastic or tupperware containers instead of the original paper or cardboard holders prevents infestation by pantry pests. In order to avoid black flies, wear light-colored clothing that completely covers exposed areas of legs and hands. If mosquitoes are abundant outdoors, avoid outdoor activity. Dry cleaning clothes may eliminate clothes moth infestations. Ultra sound devices and light traps are two nonchemical control measures that are ineffective in suppressing pest populations. Biorational pesticides

For some pests, nonchemical techniques do not exist or are ineffective. In such cases, the use of chemical pesticides may be necessary. Pesticides that are rational alternatives to conventional pesticides are termed "biorationale". The biorational products offer comparable control efficiency with the benefit of reduced hazards to humans, pets, wildlife and the environment. Several groups of biorational pesticides are discussed below. Insecticidal soaps: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids combined with fish or vegetable oils. These soap solutions have insecticidal value because when applied to soft-bodied insects or insect relatives, they penetrate the waxy outer protective layer (cuticle) and dissolve cell membranes. As a result, the cells collapse and leak, leading to dehydration and death. Safer's soap solution is a commercial formulation that is effective on aphids, caterpillars, fleas, mealybugs, scales, and whiteflies. The commercially available insecticidal soaps are highly refined and safe to use on most plants. Any household soap or laundry detergent can be used at a rate of cup per gallon of water on soft-bodied insects such as mealybugs and aphids. However, these mixtures may harm plants. Horticultural oils: Horticultural oils are highly refined petroleum-based oils. When applied directly on insects, the oils kill insects by asphyxiation (by clogging spiracles or exterior openings along sides of the insect body that facilitate breathing). Oils are effective on soft-bodied insects such as aphids and mealybugs. These products are safe to apply on many plant species. Botanicals: Are essentially plant-derived chemicals. Some of the common botanicals are: pyrethrum, neem, ryania, red squill, derris, nicotine, rotenone, limonene, and sabadilla. Different botanicals have different modes of action, and some botanicals have multiple modes of action. For instance, the component most active against insects in neem is azadirachtin. Azadirachtin is an effective feeding or oviposition deterrent, and also disrupts normal development of insects. Some botanicals are as highly toxic as some synthetic pesticides. The rat oral LD50S (lethal dose that kills 50% of test animals) of ryania, nicotine, red squill, and pyrethrum range between 0.7 to 200 mg of active ingredient per kg of rat body weight. According to the Environmental Protection Agency's toxicity category, pesticides with LD50S in the range of 0-50 and 50-500 mg per kg are considered highly toxic and moderately toxic, respectively. Baits: Consist of one or more food materials combined with a selective pesticide to kill pests. Boric acid (2 parts to 98 parts bait [jelly, peanut butter]) is effective in killing some types of ants. For pantry pests, the use of wheat germ plus mineral oil bait is effective in drawing insects out of their hiding places into the bait. The bait must be presented in a small shallow cup or a dispenser. The oil kills trapped insects by suffocation (by clogging spiracles). Keys to successful pest control Correct identification of the pest is the first step in control, because information on pest biology, ecology, and behavior can be easily obtained if the pest is known. Contact your local Cooperative Extension Service office if you need help in identifying a pest, and for additional information on the pest. Most pest control methods work well at low pest population densities. Therefore, it is important to detect pest problems early. Careful visual inspections or the use of traps can help in early detection of infestations.

Many pests are susceptible to control measures at certain times in their lives. Therefore, control measures must be timed to target the most vulnerable stage of pests. For instance, the bacterial insecticide, B. thuringiensis variety kurstaki, is effective on younger caterpillars; the bacteria has no effect on eggs, pupae, and adults. Therefore, it is important to apply the bacteria when small-sized caterpillars are present on the foliage. Repeated applications may be necessary to obtain additional reductions in populations of the susceptible stage in the same or future generations. Pesticides should be used only as a last resort. If pesticides are used, they should complement available nonchemical or biorational methods. Please follow label directions and rates when applying pesticides. The combined use of nonchemical and chemical control tactics, with favorable economic, social, and environmental consequences is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The use of IPM practices for controlling pests in and around homes is important if we are to reduce introduction of pesticides into the environment. If we better understand and appreciate the creatures that live in and around our homes, we may be able to reduce pesticide use by being content with the degree of control attained by using nonchemical pest control methods.
TEXTO 5 AGRICULTURA ORGANICA

What is Organic Agriculture?

Definition
According to the USDA National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), organic agriculture is defined as "an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain, or enhance ecological harmony. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people." (NOSB, 1997) The term "organic" is defined by law (see "Legal" section below), as opposed to the labels "natural" and "eco-friendly," which may imply that some organic methods were used in the production of the foodstuff, but this label does not guarantee complete adherence to organic practices as defined by a law. Most "natural" products do not contain synthetic products, but may have been provided conventional (synthetic chemicals used in production) food or feed (as in "natural" beef).

History
Organic agriculture is the oldest form of agriculture on earth. Farming without the use of petroleum-based chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) was the sole option for farmers until postWorld War II. The war brought with it technologies that were useful for agricultural production. For example, ammonium nitrate used for munitions during WW II evolved into ammonium nitrate fertilizer; organophosphate nerve gas production led to the development of powerful insecticides. These technical advances since WWII have resulted in significant economic benefits as well as environmental and social detriments. Organic agriculture seeks to utilize those advances that consistently yield benefits (new varieties of crops; precision ag. technologies; more efficient machinery) while discarding those methods that have led to negative impacts on society and the environment, such as pesticide pollution and insect pest resistance. Instead of using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, organic farmers utilize crop rotations, cover crops, and natural-based products to maintain or enhance soil fertility. These farmers rely on biological, cultural and physical methods to limit pest expansion and increase populations of beneficial insects on their farm. Because genetically modified organisms

constitute synthetic inputs and pose unknown risks, GMOs, such as herbicide-resistant seeds, plants, and product ingredients, like GM-lecithin, are disallowed in organic agriculture.