CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND

In this chapter, we will introduce for the increased use of the digital computers, and the basic requirements that must exist as complementary parts which are necessary in accomplishing the required functions. These requirements are Hardware, Software, and Theoretical. 1-2 Digital Computer Application
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Digital computers are used nowadays for different purposes in huge number of applications. They are used as an example for data acquisition and monitoring, control, and CAD. And so, they could be seen used in plants, space ships, airports, weapons, machines, and many other applications. Among the different advantages of digital computers which makes them used widely and preferred compared to analog ones, are:- Digital computers are capable of performing complex computations with constant accuracy at high speed. - They are extremely versatile. - Digital signals are less affected by noise compared with analog ones. - Their continuously decreasing manufacturing size. 1-3 Digital Computer Nature
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When dealing with computers it must be kept in mind that:-They deal with signals as voltage, and in digital form. -They deal with signals in discrete way. That is, when it processes a given signals it does it the following way, it takes a sample from the signal, processes it, give result, and then takes another sample, and so on.

-These 1-1 Introduction points create the need for different hardware, software and theoretical requirements, depending on the specific application which the digital computers is used for. 1-4 An overview of Hardware The main operation in the computer is execution of program code by the central processor, and the CPU must be able to interact with peripheral devices. Peripheral devices are all computer components not pertaining to the core. They can be divided into several types:Data storage devices (external memory devices): disk

(magnetic, optical, magneto-optical), tape (streamers), solid state (flash memory cards, modules, and USB devices). - Input/output (I/O): It is to adapt a computer to control any equipment; all that is needed are sensors and actuating units. To this category, displays (output devices), keyboards and mice (input devices. The form, into which these devices convert binary information, is determined by their functions. - Communications devices are used to transfer information between computers and/or their parts. To this category, modems (wire, radio, infrared, etc.) and local and global network adapters belong. Connection of peripheral devices being under control or monitoring, always, cannot be done directly. It is done usually through an interface circuit or system, which involves different hardware parts, like (in general): data latches, buffers, A/D and D/A converters, sample and hold units, real time clock, decoders, transducers, ...etc.

1-5 An overview of software In a digital monitoring or control system (DM&C), almost action is under control and timing with the aid of programs written for this purpose. A typical (DM&C) program may contain the following modules and facilities: - Program configuration routines - Diagnostics modules - System maintenance and calibration modules - Run-Time modules - Device drivers - Data analysis modules. With the exception of device drivers, these modules are executed more or less independently of each other (although it is, of course, possible for multi-tasking systems to execute two or more concurrently). A brief overview of the main software components of a typical DM&C system is given below. Particular systems may, of Software considerations course, differ somewhat in the detail of their implementation but most applications will require at least some of these modules.

1-5-A-1 High speed

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The most obvious requirement of a real-time system is that it should be able to provide adequate throughput rates and response times. Obviously a fast and efficient processor is the key to meeting this requirement. 1-5-A-2 Determinism
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A deterministic system has the ability to respond to external events (interrupts, perform task switches and execute operating system services etc.) within a guaranteed time interval.

1-5-A-3 High resolution timekeeping and pacing Facilities

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It is important for most systems to be able to precisely measure elapsed time. This ability is essential for the software to accurately schedule I/O operations and other tasks. The PC is equipped with a realtime clock and a set of timers which are useful for this purpose. 1-5-A-4 Flexible interfacing capability
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It should be obvious that any data-acquisition and control system should be able to interface easily to sensors, actuators and other equipment. The PC possesses a very flexible interfacing system. This is implemented by means of the standard bus systems and ports which can be used to interface to certain types of DM&C hardware. 1-5-A-5 Robustness and reliability
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Failure of a DM&C system may result in lost time and associated expense or, in the case of safety-critical systems, even in injury or death! The quality of hardware components used will of course influence the reliability of the system. Predefined statements can be taken to maximize the reliability of both hardware and software.

Figure (1.1) shows the schematic for the structure of a typical DM&C program.

INITIALIZE: Displays, files, program variables

WAIT FOR START CONDITION: Keystroke, External signal, Elapsed time/Alarm

WAIT FOR PACING SIGNAL

AQUIRE DATA

SCALE/LINEARIZE

One Or more Physical Processes

CONTROL ALGORITHM

UPDATE DISPLAYS

1-5-A Requirements of the LOG DATA systems DM&C

(File, Printer, etc)

END CONDITION?

NO

Key stroke, time, data count& etc.

YES
POST-ACQUISITION PROCESSING: Update displays, close files analyze data, pass/fail test

Figure (1.1) - Schematic illustration of the structure of a typical DM&C Program.

1-6 System monitoring, error checks and testing Thorough testing is essential to ensure that each routine behaves as expected when subjected to every possible combination of inputs. testing each program module independently of the others in order to ensure that all possible code paths are executed. The reliability of a working DM&C system can often be improved by incorporating facilities for automatic selftesting. Such facilities might be used to periodically test the status of hardware components or to check the integrity of software modules. 1-7 Theoretical Requirements 1-7-1 Sampling Rate Due to the discrete way of digital computers in dealing with signals, as mentioned earlier, to reconstruct the original signal from a sampled signal, there is a certain minimum frequency that the sampling operation must satisfy. Such a minimum frequency is specified in the sampling theorem. Nyquist theorem states that the sampling rate of a given signal must be equal or greater than two times of the maximum frequency in that signal. But for safety in reconstruction of the signal many control books give the number ten times of maximum signal's frequency. 1-7-2 Difference Equation Dynamic behavior of continuous control system is described by differential equations, while in discrete control system it is described by difference equations. 1-7-3 Data Representation Signal in digital control system take different forms as it moves from one point to another. And we have to trace and care for these changes (which the signals undergo) in the design procedure. Otherwise, the control or monitoring will fail for sure.