SOIL PROPERTIES

TESTING, MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

LABORATORY HAND BOOK FIRST EDITION

THANAPPAN SUBASH

Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia.

DEDICATED TO MY
Beloved Parents Mr. Thanappan (Gandhi) and Mrs. Lakshmi & My Wife Mrs. Sivanpillai Muthulekshmi My Daughters Laxmitha & Sivanika Sri

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Acknowledgement
I most grateful to all those who have given me valuable advice in particular Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia
1. Dr. Mitiku Tesso 2. Ato Lakew Wondimu 3. Prof. P. Natarajan 4. Ato Tamirat W/gebriel 5. Ato Anteneh Tadese President Ambo University, Ethiopia Vice- President, Ambo University, Ethiopia Director, CATER, Ambo University, Ethiopia Dean, Institute of Technology Ambo University, Ethiopia Head, Department of Civil Engineering Institute of Technology, Ambo University, Ethiopia Assistant Professor Dept. of Biology, Ambo University, Ethiopia Lecturer Dept. of Computer Science, Eritrea Institute of Technology, Asmara, Eritrea.

6. Dr.V.Sreenivasa 7. Mr. Karthikeyan

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SL.NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

TITLE Introduction Description and Identification of Soil Determination of Water content of soil Determination of Specific gravity of soil Determination of Atterberg limits Compaction test Permeability test Particle size analysis of soil Tri-axial compression test Direct shear test Unconfined compression test California bearing ratio test Consolidation test Determination of In-situ density of soil Percolation test

PAGE NO. 1-3 4-5 6-9 10-16 17-32 33- 40 41-49 50-61 62-68 69-78 79-89 90-101 102-109 110-112 113-121

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Preface This book is primarily intended for the Undergraduates and Post graduate students of Civil engineering. All Civil Engineering Structures (House Buildings, Departmental Complexes, Railways, highways, canals, flyovers etc.) rest on soil only. The safe design of such structures is of prime importance to ensure that these structures remain safe and free of undue settling and collapse. Therefore, Quantitative results of laboratory tests on soil samples are necessary to analyze the soil type, conditions etc. The book deals with soil laboratory testing procedures, as well as the collection and evaluation of test data. Moreover, the individual experiments introduced with its definition, concept and objective. Fifteen different soil tests are included in this book, with a single chapter devoted to each. All except a very few procedures follow those of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and/ or the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

Ambo, 1, January 2012

THANAPPAN SUBASH

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Soil Mechanics An Introduction

Karl Terzeghi - Father of Soil Mechanics

Soil Mechanics Soil Mechanics is that branch of engineering which applies the principles of mechanics, hydraulics and geology to the solution of engineering problems in soils. It is one aspect of the earth science known as geotechnics, or geotechnol gy, which also encompasses rock mechanics, hydrology, and geotechnology, engineering geology. The study of soil mechanics covers the investigation, description, classification, testing, and analysis of soils to determine their inter reaction wi structures built in inter-reaction with or upon them, or built with them. Soil Mechanics is the youngest discipline of civil engineering, although soil is the oldest construction material used by man, and is also the most plentiful.
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Soils as Engineering Materials Soils, in the geotechnical sense, can be regarded as engineering materials. Their physical characteristics can be determined by experiment, and the application of methods of analysis enables these properties to be used to predict their likely behavior under defined working conditions. But unlike other engineering materials such as metals and concrete, over which control can be exercised during manufacture, soils are naturally occurring materials, which more often than not have to be used in their natural condition. Even when some kind of processing is possible, either by in-situ or by excavated material, the soil can be modified only to a limited extent by relatively simple procedures on site.

Soil formation The processes of soil formation are complex, but they need only to be considered here in so far as they directly affect the engineering properties of the resulting material. Most soils have been formed by the disintegration of rocks as a result of weathering processes which may be classified as mechanical or chemical. Mechanical weathering is the fragmentation of parent rock by physical forces, such as those resulting from temperature stresses or from the formation of ice. Temperature stresses are caused by cooling of the rock mass or as a result of daily temperature changes near the surface, lead to cracking. If water percolates into these cracks, and subsequently freezes, the resulting expansion opens the cracks further, until eventually pieces are broken from the rock mass. In dry climates, the impact of sand grains carried by high winds may also cause rapid erosion of rock surfaces.

Purpose of Soil Testing The physical properties of soils are usually determined by carrying out tests on samples of soil in a laboratory. These tests can be divided into two main categories: Classification tests, which indicate the general type of soil and the engineering category to which it belongs. Tests for the assessment of engineering properties, such as shear strength, compressibility and permeability.

Advantages of Laboratory Testing In a site investigation for a construction project, the field operations, which include studies of the geology and history of the site, subsurface exploration and insitu testing, are of prime importance. The determination of ground characteristics by insitu testing can take into account large scale effects, such as soil fabric, structure and discontinuity of strata, which cannot be represented in small laboratory specimens. Nevertheless, the measurement of soil properties by means of laboratory tests offers a number of advantages, as:

1. 2.

Full control of the test conditions, including boundary conditions, can be exercised. Laboratory testing generally permits a greater degree of accuracy of measurements than does field testing.

3. 4.

Control can be exercised over the choice of material which is to be tested. A test can be run under conditions which are similar to, or which differ from, those prevailing in situ, as may be appropriate.

5.

Changes in conditions can be simulated, as can the conditions which are likely to occur during or after completion of construction.

CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL

Various physical and engineering properties with the help of which a soil can be properly identified and classified. Such properties can be broadly divided into the following two categories: Soil grain properties: These are the properties pertaining to individual solid grains and remain unaffected by the state in which particular soils exist in nature. The most important soil grain properties are the specific gravity and the particle size distribution. Soil aggregate properties: These properties control the behavior of the soil in actual field. The most important aggregate properties are (i) (ii) For cohesionless soils: the relative density For cohesive soils: the consistency, which depends on the moisture content and which can be measured by either the Atterberg limits or the unconfined compressive strength. This chapter covers procedures for describing soils for engineering purposes and gives a procedure for identifying soils based on visual, tactile and olfactory examinations and manual tests. Of course, the results obtained through these procedures are merely a rough appraisal of a soil. Definitions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cobbles- particles of rock that will pass a 12 in (300mm) IS sieve square opening and be retained on 3 in. (75mm) sieve, and Boulders- Particles of rock that will not pass a 12 in. (300 mm) square opening. Clay- Soil passing a No. 75 sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity within a range of water contents and that exhibits considerable strength when air dry. Gravel- particles of rock that will pass a 3 in. (75mm) sieve and be retained on a 4.75 mm sieve. Organic clay- a clay with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties for classifications an organic clay is a soil that would be classified as a clay, except that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying. 6. Organic silt- silt with sufficient organic contents to influence the soil properties. For classification, organic silt is a soil that would be classified as silt except that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying.

7.

Peat- a soil comprised primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition, usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black color, a spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous.

8. 9.

Sand- Particles of rock that will pass a 4.75 mm sieve and retained on 75 sieve with the following sub divisions: Coarse- passes 4.75 mm sieve and is retained on a 2.00 mm sieve.

10. Medium- passes 2.00 mm sieve and is retained on 425 sieve. 11. Fine-passes 425 sieve and is retained on 75 sieve. 12. Silt- Soil passing 75 sieve that is non- plastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits little or no strength when air dry.

Group Symbols: The following group symbols are used to classify the soil. G S C O : gravel : sand : clay : organic

M : silt

PT : peat W : well graded P H L I : poorly graded : high plasticity : low plasticity : medium or intermediate plasticity

Normally, two group symbols are used. For example, SW indicates well -graded sand. Main group of fine grained soils are ML, MI, MH Silty soils CL, CI, CH Clayey soils OL, OI, OH Organic soils

CHAPTER 3 DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL The water content of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids. It is always expressed as a percentage. i.e., w = Ww / Ws x 100 %

Apparatus Used: a. Microwave oven (preferably with a vented chamber and power ratings of 700 W are adequate) b. Balance with accuracy of 0.01 g c. Containers (must be suitable for micro wave ovens ie., non- metallic) d. Desiccator e. Stirring tools (spatulas, knives, glass rods for cutting and stirring the test specimen before and during the test; short lengths of glass rods have been found useful for stirring and may be left in the specimen container during testing) Procedure: 1. Determine the mass of a clean, dry container or dish, and record. i.e.) Mc in gm. 2. Place the wet soil specimen in the container, and immediately record the mass. i.e.) Mcws gm. 3. Place the soil and container in a microwave oven and allow the sample to dry. 4. After drying, remove the container from the oven, either weigh the specimen immediately or place in desiccator to cool to allow handling and to prevent damage to the balance. Determine and record the mass.i.e.) Mcs gm. Now, Water content of a given soil sample can be calculated as follow: W= [(Mcws Mcs) / (Mcs Mc)] x100 Numerical Example: A laboratory test was conducted according to the procedure described above. The following data were obtained: Mass of container, Mc = 60.85 gm. Mass of container and wet specimen, Mcws = 250.25 gm. Mass of container and oven dried soil, Mcs = 216.48 gm. variable power controls; input

Mw = Mcws Mcs Mw = 250.25 216.48 = 33.77 gm. Ms = Mcs Mc = 216.48 60.85 = 155.63 gm. W= [(Mcws Mcs)/ (Mcs Mc)] x100 = (33.77 / 155.63) x 100 = 21.69%

Soil Testing Laboratory Specific Gravity Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Project No____________________ Location___________________ Depth _______________________ Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ Observation Container no. Mass of container plus wet specimen, Mcws gm. Mass of container plus oven - dried specimen, Mcws gm. Mass of container, Mc gm. Mass of water, Mw gm. Mass of solid particle, Ms gm. Moisture content, w (%) 1 A-1 250.25 216.48 60.85 33.77 155.63 21.69 2 3

Soil Testing Laboratory Specific Gravity Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Project No____________________ Location___________________ Depth _______________________ Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ Observation Container no. Mass of container plus wet specimen, Mcws gm. Mass of container plus oven - dried specimen, Mcws gm. Mass of container, Mc gm. Mass of water, Mw gm. Mass of solid particle, Ms gm. Moisture content, w (%) 1 2 3

CHAPTER 4 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY (G) OF SOIL Definition: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of solid grains to the mass of an equal volume of water, measured at the same temperature. i.e) G = Ms / Mw where Ms = mass of any volume V of solid grains Mv = mass of water of volume V In effect, it tells how much the material is heavier / lighter than water.

Apparatus Used: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Pycnometer, preferably with a volume of 500 ml Balance (with accuracy to 0.01 g) Desiccator Drying oven Evaporating dish Spatula Malt mixer (stirrer) Large Beaker Thermometer

Calibration of Pycnometer: 1. 2. 3. 4. The Pycnometer must be cleaned and dried, and its mass (W1 gm) determined and recorded. The Pycnometer is then filled with distilled water, and the mass of pycnometer plus water, (Mpw), is accurately determined and recorded. The water temperature must be determined (and recorded) to the nearest Tx 0.50C (10 F) by inserting a thermometer in the water. The value of Mpw can then be calculated for any other water temperature, from the equation:

Mpw (at Tx) = Density of water at TX /Density of water at Ti [Mpw (at Ti) _ Mp] +Mp

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Procedure: The step- by- step procedure is given below: 1. The pycnometer is dried at first and weighted i.e) Mp gm. 2. About 500 gm of soil sample dried is taken in the pycnometer and weighed i.e) Mpws gm. Subtract the mass of the pycnometer, Mp, from this value to determine the mass of oven dried specimen, Ms gm. 3. Fill the pycnometer with distilled water to a level slightly above that required to cover the soil and soak the specimen for at least 12 hour. 4. Remove the entrapped air by gentle boiling for at least 10 min. 5. Then the pycnometer is weighted with its contents again i.e) Mpws gm. 6. Insert the thermometer into the water and determine and record its temperature (Tx).The pycnometer is emptied and filled with water only and weighed. i.e) Mpw gm.

Calculations: Calculate the specific gravity (G) of soil using the equation: G = KMs /[Ms + Mpw( at Tx) _ Mpws] Where G= specific gravity of soil based on water at 20C K= conversion factor used to report specific gravity based on water at 20C. Ms= mass of sample of oven dried soil (i.e., Mds _ Md ) Mpw(at Tx) = mass of pycnometer filled with water at temperature Tx=temperature of contents of pycnometer when Mpws was determined Mpws = mass of pycnometer plus water and soil (at Tx ), gm

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Table 4.1 Density of water and correction factor K for Various Temperatures: Temperature, C 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.0 26.5 27.0 27.5 28.0 28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 Density of water (g/mL) 0.99897 0.99887 0.99880 0.99871 0.99862 0.99853 0.99843 0.99833 0.99823 0.99812 0.99802 0.99791 0.99780 0.99768 0.99757 0.99745 0.99732 0.99720 0.99707 0.99694 0.99681 0.99668 0.99654 0.99640 0.99626 0.99612 0.99597 0.99582 0.99567 Correction factor K 1.0007 1.0007 1.0006 1.0005 1.0004 1.0003 1.0002 1.0001 1.0000 0.9999 0.9998 0.9997 0.9996 0.9995 0.9993 0.9992 0.9991 0.9990 0.9988 0.9987 0.9986 0.9984 0.9983 0.9982 0.9980 0.9979 0.9977 0.9976 0.9974

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Numerical Example: A laboratory test was conducted according to the procedure described previously. The following data were obtained: A. Calibration of Pycnometer Mass of pycnometer = Mp = 158.68 g Mass of pycnometer plus water, Mpw = 6565.43 g Observed Temperature of Water, Ti = 24C B. Specific Gravity Determination Mass of pycnometer plus water and soil, Mpws = 718.52 g Temp. of contents of pycnometer when Mpws was determined (Tx=22C) Mass of evaporating dish, Md = 289.14 g Mass of evaporating dish plus oven dried soil, Mds = 387.15 g Mpw (at Tx)=Density of water at TX /Density of water at Ti [Mpw (at Ti) _ Mp]+ Mp = (0.99780 / 0.99732) [656.43 158.68] + 158.68 = 656.67 g Mass of solid, Ms = 387.15 289.14 = 98.01 g And Specific gravity (G) = KMs / [Ms + Mpw( at Tx) _ Mpws] = (0.9996) (98.01) / [98.01+656.67- 718.52] = 2.71

Note 1: The density values were determined from the Table 1.1 for a value of Tx equal to 22C and a value of Ti equal to 24C. Note 2: The value of K was determined from Table 1.1 for a value of Tx equal to 22C.

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Conclusions: For most soils, the value of G falls within the range 2.65 to 2.80. Table 4 -2 Typical values of G for different types of soil Sand: 2.65 2.67 Silty Sand: 2.67 2.70 Inorganic clay 2.70 -2.80 Organic soils Variable, but under 2.00 Soils with mica / iron 2.75 3.00

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Soil Testing Laboratory Specific Gravity Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ A. Calibration of Pycnometer Mass of pycnometer = Mp = __________ g Mass of pycnometer plus water, Mpw = _________ g Observed Temperature of Water, Ti = _______C B. Tabulation Observation Mass of pycnometer + soil + water, Mpws (g) Temperature, Tx (C) Mass of pycnometer plus water, Mpw (g) Evaporating dish No. Mass of evaporating dish, Md (g) Mass of evaporating dish plus oven dried soil, Mds (g) Mass of solid, Ms (g) Conversion factor, K Specific Gravity, G KMs / [Ms + Mpw( at Tx)
_

1 718.52 22 656.67 1A 289.14 387.15 98.01 0.9996 2.71

Mpws]

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Soil Testing Laboratory Specific Gravity Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ A. Calibration of Pycnometer Mass of pycnometer = Mp = __________ g Mass of pycnometer plus water, Mpw = _________ g Observed Temperature of Water, Ti = _______C B. Tabulation Observation Mass of pycnometer + soil + water, Mpws (g) Temperature, Tx (C) Mass of pycnometer plus water, Mpw (g) Evaporating dish No. Mass of evaporating dish, Md (g) Mass of evaporating dish plus oven dried soil, Mds (g) Mass of solid, Ms (g) Conversion factor, K Specific Gravity, G KMs / [Ms + Mpw( at Tx) _ Mpws] 1 2 3

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CHAPTER 5 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

If the water content of a thick soil- water mixture is gradually reduced, the mixture passes from a liquid state to a plastic state, then to a semi-solid state and finally to a solid state. The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to another are called Atterberg limits or consistency limits. These limits are determined by some standard tests as we briefed below. In order to classify fine grained soils on the basis of their consistency limits, the following indices are used: (i) Plasticity index, Ip = WL WP eq (1)

(ii) Liquidity index, IL = w WP / WL WP eq (2) (iii) Consistency index, Ic = WL w / WL WP eq (3) Where WL ,WP, w stand for the liquid limit, plastic limit and the natural water content of the soil. (iv) Flow index = If = (w1 w2 )/ log10 (N2 /N1) eq(4) Where N2 and N1 are the number of blows corresponding to the water contents w1 and w2. (v) Toughness index, IT = Ip / If .eq(5)

The three limits and the index just defined are useful numbers in classifying soils and making judgements in regard to their applications. This chapter (5.1) gives the laboratory procedure for determining Liquid limit, while Sections 5.2 and 5.3 give the procedure for determining plastic limit and shrinkage limit, respectively. (a) Table 5-1: Classification according to the plasticity index: Plasticity Index 0 7 7 17 17 Degree of plasticity Non- plastic Low plastic Medium plastic Highly plastic Type of soil Sand Silt Silty clay or clayey silt Clay

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b) Table 5-2: Classification according to the liquidity index:

Liquidity Index 0 0.25 0.25 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.00

Consistency Stiff Medium to soft Soft Very soft

5.1 Determination of Liquid Limit (Wl) Of Soil Sample The liquid limit is the dividing lines the liquid and plastic states. It is quantified for a given soil as specific water content; from a physical stand point, its the water content at which the shear strength of the soil becomes so small that the soil flows to close a standard groove cut in a sample of soil when it is jarred in a standard manner. The liquid limit is identified in the laboratory as that water content at which the groove is closed a distance of in. When the soil sample is jarred in the standard manner by exactly 25 drops (blows) from a height of 1 cm in a standardized liquid limit device.

Apparatus Used: a. Liquid limit device (or) Casegrandes device b. Grooving tool c. Drop gauge (metal block), for adjusting the height of drop of the brass --cup d. Balance e. Evaporating dish f. Spatula g. Containers h. Oven

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Procedure: The step- by- step procedure is given below: 1. Weigh about 120 gms of soil passing through 420 sieve and place the sample in an evaporating dish. 2. Mix the soil sample thoroughly with water until the mass becomes thick paste like consistency. 3. The device is checked to have a correct fall of 10 mm using the Drop Gauge and the place the portion of prepared soil paste over the brass cup of the device. 4. Level the soil paste in the cup by using Spatula in a maximum depth of 1 cm. 5. Using the Grooving Tool, apply a groove cut in the Centre of the specimen or soil cake. 6. Rotate the handle of the device at a rate of 2 blows / sec and thus count the rotations (or) blows (N) taken until the two halves of the soil pat come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) 7. Record the number of blows required to close the groove. 8. Transfer the entire soil paste into the dish, wash and dry the cup and grooving tool and reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next trail.
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9. Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to increase the water content of the soil and decrease the number of blows required to close the groove. Repeat the steps (3) to (6) for at least three additional trails producing successively lower numbers of blows to close the groove. 10. Determine the water content of the soil specimen from each trail (Using the container and oven). 11. Draw a graph (Flow curve) showing water content in percentage versus its corresponding number of blows. 12. From this graph, note down the moisture content in % corresponding to 25 number of blows, which is the Liquid limit of the soil sample. Numerical Example: A laboratory test was conducted according to the previous procedure. The following data were obtained: Determination no: Number of blows Container no. Mass of container + moist soil, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry soil, Mcs (g) Mass of container, Mc (g) 1 30 A 34.06 27.15 11.80 2 23 B 32.47 25.80 11.61 3 18 C 37.46 29.00 11.69

The moisture content for determination can be computed using the equation, Mw = Mcws - Mcs For the first determination, Mw = 34.06 27.15 =6.91 g Ms = Mcs - Mc = 27.15 11.80 =15.35 g W = Mw / Ms = (6.91 /15.35) x 100=45 % Moisture contents for the second and third trails can be computed similarly. Thus, for the second trail, w = 47 % and for the third trail, w =48.9 % After the moisture contents have been determined, the flow curve can be obtained by plotting, on semi - logarithmic graph paper, moisture content along the ordinate versus number of drops along abscissa and drawing the best fitting straight line through the plotted points. (as shown in figure).

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The liquid limit can be determined by noting the water content that corresponding to 25 drops. In this example, it is observed to be 46.5 %.

Conclusion: In most cases, the liquid limit is determined and utilized in association with the other Atterberg limits and the plasticity index, all of which are used conjointly in soil identification and classification.

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Soil Testing Laboratory Liquid limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Number of drops Container no: Mass of container + moist soil, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry soil, Mc (g) Mass of container, Mc (g) Mass of water, Mw (g) Mass of dry soil, Ms (g) Moisture content, w (%)

1 30 A -1 34.06 27.15 11.80 6.91 15.35 45.00

2 23 A -2 32.47 25.80 11.61 6.67 14.19 47.00

3 18 A -3 37.46 29.00 11.69 8. 46 17.31 48.90

Method 1: From the flow curve, the liquid limit = 46.4 % Method 2: By using the equation, LL = w (N /25)0.121 The liquid limit for no.1 determination = --------------% The liquid limit for no.2 determination = --------------% The liquid limit for no.3 determination = --------------% The liquid limit (average of the three observations) = -------- %

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Soil Testing Laboratory Liquid limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Number of drops Container no: Mass of container + moist soil, Mcws (g) Mass of container + dry soil, Mc (g) Mass of container, Mc (g) Mass of water, Mw (g) Mass of dry soil, Ms (g) Moisture content, w (%)

1 A -1

2 A -2

3 A -3

Method 1: From the flow curve, the liquid limit = ---------------- % Method 2: By using the equation, LL = w (N /25)0.121 The liquid limit for no.1 determination = --------------% The liquid limit for no.2 determination = --------------% The liquid limit for no.3 determination = --------------% The liquid limit (average of the three observations) = --------- %

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5.2 Determination of Plastic Limit (Wp) Of Soil Sample This test is done to determine the plastic limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) 1985.The plastic limit of fine-grained soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm diameter. Apparatus Used: a. Porcelain evaporating dish about 120mm dia. b. Spatula c. Container to determine moisture content d. Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g e. Oven f. Ground glass plate 20cm x 15cm g. Rod 3mm dia. and about 10cm long

Preparation of Soil Sample: Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing through 425m IS Sieve. Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporating dish and leave the soil mass for nurturing. This period may be upto 24hrs.

Procedure: The step by step procedure is given below: 1. Take about 8g of the soil and roll it with fingers on a glass plate. The rate of rolling should be between 80 to 90 strokes per minute to form a 3mm diameter. If the diameter of the threads can be reduced to less than 3mm, without any cracks appearing, it means that the water content is more than its plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water content and roll it into a thread again. 2. Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumble. 3. Collect and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread in the container used to determine the moisture content. 4. Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each time. Notice: The plastic limit should be determined for at least three portions of the soil passing through 425m IS Sieve. The average water content to the nearest whole number should be reported.

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Numerical Example: A laboratory test was conducted according to the procedure previously described. The following data were obtained:

Container No:

A-3

A-4

Weight of wet soil + pan (Wwp) gm. Weight of dry soil + pan Weight of pan (Wp) gm. Determination No: Weight of pan (Wp) gm. Weight of dry soil + pan (Wps) gm. Weight of wet soil + pan (Wwp) gm. Weight of water (Ww) gm. Weight of dry soil (Ws )gm. Moisture content (m)% Plastic limit (Wp) % (Wps) gm.

15.47 gm. 14.79 gm. 11.56 gm. A -3 11.56 14.79 15.47 0.68 3.23 21.1 22.2

16.27 gm. 15.46 gm. 11.68 gm. A -4 11.68 15.46 16.27 0.81 3.78 21.4

Liquid limit =

46.4____%

Plastic limit = ____22.2 ______ % Plasticity Index = Liquid limit Plastic limit =___ 25.2 ___%

Conclusion: As the Plasticity Index is greater than 17%, the soil is highly plastic in nature. The plastic limit is the lower boundary range of the plastic behavior of a given soil. It tends to increase in numerical value as grain size decreases.

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Soil Testing Laboratory Plastic limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Weight of pan (Wp) gm. Weight of dry soil + pan (Wps) gm. Weight of wet soil + pan (Wwp) gm. Weight of water (Ww) gm. Weight of dry soil (Ws )gm. Moisture content (m)% Plastic limit (Wp) %

1 78 128 135 7 50 14

2 78 128 137 9 50 18 17.33

3 78 128 138 10 50 20

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Soil Testing Laboratory Plastic limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Weight of pan (Wp) gm. Weight of dry soil + pan (Wps) gm. Weight of wet soil + pan (Wwp) gm. Weight of water (Ww) gm. Weight of dry soil (Ws )gm. Moisture content (m)% Plastic limit (Wp) %

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5.3 Determination of Shrinkage Limit (Ws) Of Soil Sample The shrinkage limit is the dividing line between the semi solid and solid states. It is quantified for a given soil as specific water content, and from a physical stand point it is the water content that is just sufficient to fill the voids when the soil is at the minimum volume it will attain on drying. In other words, the smallest water content at which a soil can be completely saturated is the shrinkage limit. Below the shrinkage limit, any water content change will not result in volume change; above the shrinkage limit, any water content change will result in accompanying volume change. Apparatus Used: a. Evaporating dish about 140mm dia. b. Spatula c. Shrinkage dish d. Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g e. Oven f. Ground glass plate with 3 metal pronge g. Rod 3mm dia. and about 10cm long h. Mercury i. Glass cup j. Petroleum jelly

Preparation of Soil Sample: 1. Take about 100 gm of the soil sample from thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing 425 sieve. 2. Place about 30 gm of the above sample in evaporating dish and mix it thoroughly with distilled water. Water added should be sufficient to fill the voids in the soil completely and make the soil pasty enough. Procedure: The step by step procedure is given below: I. Determination of water content of soil pat:

1. Take 2 nos. of shrinkage dishes. Weigh the empty shrinkage dishes in (Wo) gm.
2. Using spatula, place the soil paste in the dishes and allow the paste to flow towards the edges.

3. Tap the shrinkage dishes gently on a firm surface. Tapping should be continued till the paste is compacted and all the entrapped air is brought to the surface.
28

4. Strike off the excess soil paste with straight edges and weigh immediately the shrinkage dish plus the wet soil pat. (W1) gm. 5. Keep the shrinkage dish open to air until the color of pat turns from dark to light. Then keep the shrinkage dish in the oven and dry the pat at 105 to 110C for about 1 hour. Cool the dish in a desiccator i.e. cooler and weigh it immediately. (W2) gm. 6. Determine the water content of soil pat as follow: Water content (w) % = [(W1 W0) (W2 W0)] / [(W2 W0)] x 100

II.

Determination of volume of wet soil pat, V (cc):

7. Place the shrinkage dish in the evaporating dish and fill it to overflowing with the mercury. 8. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate firmly over the top of the shrinkage dish. Observe that there is no air trapped between the plate and mercury, and if there is, refill the dish and repeat the process. 9. Determine the volume of mercury held in the shrinkage dish either by means of the glass graduate or by dividing the measured mass of mercury by the mass density of mercury. 10. Record this volume in cubic centimeters (cc) of the wet soil pat, V.

III.

Determination of Volume of Dry Soil Pat, V0 (cc):

11. Keep the glass cup in the evaporating dish and fill the cup to overflowing with mercury firmly over the top of the cup. 12. Transfer the cup carefully to another evaporating dish. 13. Place the oven dried soil pat on the surface of mercury in the cup and gently press the pat into the mercury by using the same glass plate having 3 prongs. 14. Measure the volume of mercury by means of density of mercury. 15. Record the volume in cubic centimeters (cc) of dry soil pat, V0.

29

Numerical Example: A laboratory test was conducted according to the procedure described previously. The following data were obtained: Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly, MT = 11.30 gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly plus wet soil, Mw = 38.51 gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly plus oven dried soil, MD = 32.81 gm. Volume of oven- dried soil pat, V0 = 12.83 cc. The water content of the wet soil pat can be computed using the equation: M = Mw MT = 38.51 11.30 = 27.21 gm. M0 = MD MT = 32.81 11.30 = 21.51 gm. w = [ (M M0) / M0} x 100 = { (27.21 21.51) / 21.51} x 100 = 26.5 % Shrinkage limit Ws = w {(V V0)w / (M0)} x 100 = 26.5 {(15.26 12.83) (1.0) / (21.51)} x 100 = 15.2 % Conclusion: The shrinkage limit is useful in analyzing soils that undergo large volume changes with changes in water content (such as clay). The shrinkage ratio gives an indication of how much volume change may occur as changes in water content above the shrinkage limit take place. Large changes in soil volume are important considerations for soils that are to be used as fill material for highways, rail roads and structural foundations. Unequal settlements resulting from such volume changes can result in cracks in structures or unevenness in road beds.

30

Soil Testing Laboratory Shrinkage limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Mass of empty shrinkage dish Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + wet soil, Mw gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + oven dried soil, MD gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly, MT gm. Mass of wet soil pat, M gm. Mass of oven dried soil pat, M0, gm. Mass of water in wet soil pat, gm. Water content of soil when placed in dish, w % Volume of wet soil pat, V (c.c.) Volume of oven dried soil pat, V0 (c.c.) Shrinkage limit, SL = w { (V V0)w / (M0)} x 100 Shrinkage ratio, SR = M0 / (V0 x w)

104 85 58 46 27 19 30 24.41 19.85 13.11 1.36

31

Soil Testing Laboratory Shrinkage limit Determination

Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Tested by___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Determination No: Mass of empty shrinkage dish Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + wet soil, Mw gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + oven dried soil, MD gm. Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly, MT gm. Mass of wet soil pat, M gm. Mass of oven dried soil pat, M0, gm. Mass of water in wet soil pat, gm. Water content of soil when placed in dish, w % Volume of wet soil pat, V (c.c.) Volume of oven dried soil pat, V0 (c.c.) Shrinkage limit, SL = w { (V V0)w / (M0)} x 100 Shrinkage ratio, SR = M0 / (V0 x w)

32

CHAPTER 6 COMPACTION TEST

This test is done to determine the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content of soil using heavy compaction. In general, Compact means that to press the soil particles together. In soil mechanics, it means that the closer packing of soil particles by expelling out air from voids between the particles before the construction of various civil engineering works such as highways, railway embankments, etc. Usually, the dry soils are compacted by adding some amount of water to them, which gives the better compaction and thus water act as lubricant. The necessity of compaction includes: i) Increases the shear strength ii) Decreases the permeability of soil iii) Decreases the future settlement of soil These three changes in characteristics are beneficial for some types of earth construction, such as highways, railways, air fields, earth dams etc. In general, the greater the compaction, the greater the benefits will be. The amount of compaction is quantified in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil. Usually, the dry soils can be compacted best if for each soil, a certain amount of water is added for allowing soil particles to be packed together better. Thus, for a given compactive effort, there is a particular moisture content at which dry unit weight is greatest, and compaction is best. This moisture content is known as the optimum moisture content, and the associated dry unit weight is called the maximum dry unit weight. The usual practice in a construction project is to perform laboratory test on respective samples from the construction site to determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight and which can be used by designers in specifying design shear strength; resistance to future settlement; and the permeability characteristics. Apparatus Used: a. Cylindrical metal mould it should be either of 100mm dia. and 1000cc volume or 150mm dia. and 2250cc volume and should conform to IS: 10074 1982. b. Balances one of 10kg capacity, sensitive to 1g and the other of 200g capacity, sensitive to 0.01g c. Oven thermostatically controlled with an interior of non- corroding material to maintain temperature between 105 and 110oC. d. Steel straightedge 30cm long
33

e. IS Sieves of sizes 4.75mm, 19mm and 37.5mm f. Steel Rammer, 4.9 kg g. Mixing tray

34

35

Preparation of sample: A representative portion of air-dried soil material, large enough to provide about 6kg of material passing through a 19mm IS Sieve (for soils not susceptible to crushing during compaction) or about 15kg of material passing through a 19mm IS Sieve (for soils susceptible to crushing during compaction), should be taken. This portion should be sieved through a 19mm IS Sieve and the coarse fraction rejected after its proportion of the total sample has been recorded. Aggregations of particles should be broken down so that if the sample was sieved through a 4.75mm IS Sieve, only separated individual particles can be retained.

Procedure: 1. A 5kg sample of air-dried soil passing through the 19mm IS Sieve should be taken. The sample should be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type (for sandy and gravelly soil 3 to 5% and for cohesive soil 12 to 16% below the plastic limit). The soil sample should be stored in a sealed container for a minimum period of 16hrs. 2. The mould of 1000cc capacity with base plate attached (without collar) should be weighed to the nearest 1g (W0). Also measure the initial dimensions of the mould. 3. The mould with the attached collar should be placed on a solid base, such as a concrete floor or plinth. 4. The dry soil is poured gently into the mould to the brim and weigh it. (W1) 5. The moist soil should be slowly transferred through funnel and compacted into the mould, with the extension attached, in three layers of approximately equal mass, each layer being given 25 blows from the 4.9kg rammer dropped from a height of 450mm above the soil. The blows should be distributed uniformly over the surface of each layer. The amount of soil used should be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than about 6mm to be struck off when the extension is removed. The extension should be removed and the compacted soil should be leveled off carefully to the top of the mould by means of the straight edge. The mould without collar and moist soil should then be weighed to the nearest gram (W2). 6. The compacted soil specimen should be removed from the mould and placed onto the mixing tray. 7. The water content (w) of a representative sample of the specimen should be determined.

36

8. The remaining soil specimen should be broken up, rubbed through 19mm IS Sieve and then mixed with the remaining original sample. Suitable increments of water should be added successively and mixed into the sample, and the above steps i.e.4) to 6) should be repeated for each increment of water added. 9. The total number of determinations made should be at least five and the moisture contents should be such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry density h occurs, lies within that range. 10. The dry densities, Yd obtained in a series of determinations should be plotted against the corresponding moisture contents. A smooth curve should be drawn through the resulting points and the position of the maximum on the curve should be determined.

A sample graph is shown below:

37

Numerical example: The results of a laboratory proctor test are shown below: No. of test Wt. of mould and soil kg) Water content % 1 3.526 8.33 2 3.711 10.40 3 3.797 12.23 4 3.906 16.20 5 3.924 17.92 6 3.882 20.39

The mould is 12.7 cm high and has an internal diameter of 10 cm. The weight of the empty mould is 1.89 kg. Plot the moisture content vs. dry density curve and determine the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density. Given G = 2.68 Solution: Volume of the mould = ( {(12.7) (102) cc = 997 cc = W / V = 1636 / 997 = 1.64 gm /cc
d

In the first test, Weight of soil = 3.526 1.89 = 1.636 kg = 1636 gm and, Bulk density and dry density = / (1 +w) = 1.64 /(1 + 0.0833) = 1.515 gm /cc

Conclusions: Type of soil is the primary factor affecting maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content for a given compactive effort and compaction method. Maximum dry unit weights may range from around 60 lb/ft3 for organic soils to about 145 lb/ft3 for well-graded, granular material.

38

Soil Testing Laboratory Maximum unit weight Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ Initial Dimensions: Diameter of the mould = 10 cm Height of the mould = 11.5 cm Volume of the mould = 903.20 cc Weight of soil sample taken = 3000 gm. Weight of rammer = 2600 gm Number of layers = 3 Number of blows = 25 each Weight of the mould = 3962 gm.

Observation Weight of empty mould without collar (W0) gm. Weight of mould + dry soil (W1) gm. Weight of mould + moist soil (W2) gm. Weight of dry soil (Ws) gm. Weight of moist soil (Wms) gm. Moisture content in % Wet unit weight, Dry unit weight,
wet dry

1 3962 5570 5895 1608 1933 20.21 2.140 1.783

2 3962 5570 5910 1608 1948 21.14 2.156 1.781

3 3962 5570 6015 1608 2053 27.67 2.273 1.789

(gm. /cc) = (W2 W0) / V (gm. /cc) =

wet

/ (1 + w)

39

Soil Testing Laboratory Maximum unit weight Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ Initial Dimensions: Diameter of the mould = .. cm Height of the mould = .. cm Volume of the mould = .. cc Weight of soil sample taken = . gm. Weight of rammer = Number of layers = Number of blows = gm. each

Weight of the mould = .gm.

Observation Weight of empty mould without collar (W0) gm. Weight of mould + dry soil (W1) gm. Weight of mould + moist soil (W2) gm. Weight of dry soil (Ws) gm. Weight of moist soil (Wms) gm. Moisture content in % Wet unit weight, Dry unit weight,
wet dry

(gm. /cc) = (W2 W0) / V (gm. /cc) =

wet

/ (1 + w)

40

CHAPTER 7 PERMEABILITY TEST

For a rock or an earth material, the ability to transmit fluids. The rate at which liquid pass through soil in a specified direction. It is the measure of the ability of soil to let the water passes through its pores. The rate of flow of water through a unit cross sectional area under a unit hydraulic gradient at the prevailing temperature of 15c is known as co efficient of permeability. According to Darcys law, Discharge (Q) through a cross sectional area (A) of the soil mass is given by the equation: Q = KIA Where k= co efficient of permeability I =hydraulic gradient = h / L h = Hydraulic head L = Length of soil specimen Permeability is an important soil parameter for any project where flow of water through soil is a matter of concernfor example, seepage through or a dam and drainage fro sub grades or backfills. There are several factors that influence the permeability of a soil: the viscosity of its water, size and shape of the soil particles, degree of saturation, and void ratio. The void ratio has a significant influence on permeability. For a given soil, permeability is inversely proportional to soil density. This is intuitively obvious if one considers that the denser a soil, the more tightly its particles are packed, the smaller will be the void space and void ratio, and the lower will be the tendency of soil to allow water to pass through it. Hence permeability is directly proportional to void ratio. This chapter describes how to determine the co efficient of permeability by a constant head method for laminar flow of water through granular soils only; followed by the variable head method for both fine grained soils (silts, clay) and coarse grained soils. 7.1 Constant Head Method: Apparatus Required: a. b. Constant Head Permeameter ( including graduated scale) Metallic mould, 100 mm dia., 127.3 mm height, 1000 ml capacity, with inlet and outlet valves. The mould is provided with collar, 100 mm diameter and 60 mm height, required during compaction of soil. Graduated Jar Constant Head Reservoir Balance Timing Device

c. d. e. f.

41

42

43

Procedure: The step by step procedure is described below: 1. The soil sample is placed inside the mould between two porous stones. 2. The mould is fitted with Drainage cap (collar) at the top, having an inlet valve and an air release valve and Drainage base at the bottom. 3. The soil sample is allowed to saturate completely by allowing water to flow upward from the base to the top after soil has been placed in the mould. This is done by attaching the constant head reservoir to the drainage base. The upward flow is maintained for sufficient time till all the air has been expelled out. 4. After the soil has been saturated, the constant head reservoir is connected to the drainage cap. 5. Water is allowed to flow from the constant head reservoir and run out through the drainage base for some time till a steady state is established. 6. Water level in the constant head chamber (i.e. the bottom tank in which the mould is placed) is kept constant. 7. Water which enters the chamber after flowing through the sample spills over the chamber and is collected in a graduated jar for any convenient time (t). Now, the head causing flow (h) is equal to the difference in water levels between the constant head reservoir and the constant head chamber. Thus, K = (Q x L) / (A x h) Where Q = Discharge = (Volume of water collected in the jar / time taken)
44

= (V / t) L = length of the specimen; h = head causing flow;

A = c /s area of specimen

7.2 Falling Head Method: For relatively less permeable soils (clay), the quality of water collected in the graduated jar of the constant head permeability test is very small and cannot be measured accurately. For such soils, the variable head permeability test is used.

Apparatus Required: a. b. Constant Head Permeameter ( including graduated scale) Metallic mould, 100 mm dia., 127.3 mm height, 1000 ml capacity, with inlet and outlet valves. The mould is provided with collar, 100 mm diameter and 60 mm height, required during compaction of soil. c. d. e. f. g. h. Graduated Jar Constant Head Reservoir Balance Timing Device Large funnel Porous stones (minimum 2 nos.)

Formula Used: According to Darcys law,

------ For constant head test (Or) Co efficient of permeability K = 2.303 [(a)(L)] /[(A)(t) x log10(h1 /h2)--------For variable head test

45

46

Procedure: The step by step procedure is described below: 1. The Permeameter mould is the same as that used in the constant head permeability test. 2. A vertical, graduated stand pipe of known diameter is fitted to the top of Permeameter. (Usually, Burette). 3. The sample is placed between two porous stones and the whole assembly is placed in a constant head chamber (i.e. bottom chamber) filled with water to the brim at the start of the test. 4. The soil sample is allowed to saturate completely. Also the porous stones and water tubes are de-aired before the sample is placed. 5. When the soil is saturated, both the top and bottom outlets are closed. The stand pipe is filled with water to the required height. 6. Fix the head h1 and h2. i.e. Initial head = (h1) cm including the correction head. Correction head = length of the hose pipe used in cm. Final head = (h2) cm including the correction head. 7. Allow the water from the pipe to flow through the soil and establish a steady flow. 8. Record the time interval for the head to fall from h1 to h2 using stop watch. 9. Change the head from h2 to h3 and proceed the above steps (6) to (8). Conclusions: Compressive reports of permeability test normally include not only a graph of permeability versus void ratio for the given soil, but also other pertinent information, such as sample identifications, densities and dry unit weights of tested specimens, and so on. It should be noted that permeability determined in a laboratory may not be truly indicative of in-situ permeability. There are several reasons for this, in addition to the fact that soil in the Permeameter does not exactly duplicate the condition of soil in-situ, at least not for granular soils. For one thing, flow of water in a Permeameter is downward, where as flow in soil in -situ more nearly horizontal or in a direction horizontal and vertical. Indeed, Permeability of natural soil in the horizontal direction can be considerably greater than in the vertical direction. For another thing, naturally occurring strata in in-situ soils will not be duplicated in a Permeameter. Also, the relatively smooth walls of a Permeameter afford different boundary conditions from in- situ soil. Finally, the hydraulic head from Permeameter may differ from the field gradient.

47

Soil Testing Laboratory Co efficient of permeability Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ A. Initial Dimensions Height of mould =Hm = 6 cm Diameter of mould =Dm = Area of mould =Am = 50 cm2 Length of specimen = L = 6 cm Diameter of specimen = D = Area of specimen = A = 50 cm2 Diameter of stand pipe = d = Area of stand pipe = a = 0.5 cm2 B. Tabulation Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________

Observation Initial head (h1) cm Final head (h2) cm Time (sec.) t1 t2 t3 Average time (t) sec Co efficient of permeability K = 2.303 [(a)(L)] /[(A)(t) x log10(h1 /h2)

1 150 20 32.3 32.6 20.0 2.222 x 10-2

48

Soil Testing Laboratory Co efficient of permeability Determination Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ A. Initial Dimensions Height of mould =Hm = cm Diameter of mould =Dm =.cm Area of mould =Am = cm2 Length of specimen = L = .cm Diameter of specimen = D =..cm Area of specimen = A = .cm2 Diameter of stand pipe = d =..cm Area of stand pipe = a = cm2 B. Tabulation Observation Initial head (h1) cm Final head (h2) cm Time (min.) t1 t2 t3 Average time (t) sec Co efficient of permeability K = 2.303 [(a)(L)] /[(A)(t) x log10(h1 /h2) 1 2 3 Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________

49

CHAPTER- 8

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOIL

8.1 Sieve (or) Mechanical Analysis for Coarse Soil

This test is done to determine the particle size distribution of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 4) 1985. In this method, the sample is sieved through a set of sieves of gradually diminishing opening sieves. The percent finer corresponding to each sieve size is determined and the results are plotted on a semi- log sheet to obtain the particle size distribution curve. However, this method is applicable only to the coarser fractions of soil and not to the silt and clay fractions as sieves having open size less than 0.075 mm are practically impossible to manufacture. Apparatus used: a. A set of fine IS Sieves of sizes 2mm, 600m, 425m, 212m and 75m b. A set of coarse IS Sieves of sizes 20mm, 10mm and 4.75mm c. Balance, with an accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of sample d. Oven e. f. g. Mechanical shaker Mortar with rubber pestle Brushes

h. Trays

50

51

Preparation: 1. Soil sample, as received from the field, should be dried in air or in the sun. In wet weather, the drying apparatus may be used in which case the temperature of the sample should not exceed 60oC. The clod may be broken with wooden mallet to hasten drying. Tree roots and pieces of bark should be removed from the sample. 2. 3. The big clods may be broken with the help of wooden mallet. Care should be taken not to break the individual soil particles. A representative soil sample of required quantity as given below is taken, dried in the oven at 105 to 120oC.

Procedure: The step by step procedure is given below: 1. The dried sample is taken in a tray, soaked in water and mixed with either 2g of sodium hexametaphosphate or 1g of sodium hydroxide and 1g of sodium carbonate per litre of water, which is added as a dispersive agent. The soaking of soil is continued for 10 to 12hrs. 2. The sample is washed through 4.75mm IS Sieve with water till substantially clean water comes out. Retained sample on 4.75mm IS Sieve should be oven-dried for 24hrs. This dried sample is sieved through 20mm and 10mm IS Sieves.

52

3. The portion passing through 4.75mm IS Sieve should be oven-dried for 24hrs. This ovendried material is riffled and about 200g taken. 4. This sample of about 200g is washed through 75m IS Sieve with half litre distilled water, till substantially clear water comes out. 5. The material retained on 75m IS Sieve is collected and dried in oven at a temperature of 105 to 120oC for 24hrs. The dried soil sample is sieved through 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600m, 425m, 300m, 212m, 150m and 75m IS Sieves. Soil retained on each sieve is weighed. 6. If the soil passing 75m is 10% or more, hydrometer method is used to analyze the soil sample.

8.2

Wet (or) Hydrometer Analysis for Fine Soil

The analysis is based on stokes law for what is known as terminal velocity. If a single sphere is allowed to fall in an indefinite liquid medium without interference, its velocity first increases under the influence of gravity, but soon, attains a constant value. This constant value is maintained indefinitely unless the boundary conditions.

53

Apparatus used: a. b. c. d. e. f. Hydrometer 1000 ml capacity control cylinder Stirrer Stop watch Balance 150 Sieve

54

Procedure: The step- by-step procedure is given below: 1. Particles passed through 75m IS Sieve along with water are collected and put into a 1000ml jar for hydrometer analysis. More water, if required, is added to make the soil water suspension just 1000ml. The suspensions in the jar are vigorously shaken horizontally by keeping the jar in-between the palms of the two hands and place the Jar on the table. Thus, all the particles are kept in suspension. 2. 3. A graduated hydrometer is carefully inserted into the suspension with minimum disturbance. At different time intervals, the density of the suspension at the centre of gravity of the hydrometer is noted by seeing the depth of sinking of the stem. The temperature of the suspension is noted for each recording of the hydrometer reading. 4. 5. Hydrometer readings are taken at a time interval of 0.5 minute, 1.0 minute, 2.0 minutes, 4.0 minutes, 15.0 minutes, 45.0 minutes, 90.0 minutes, 3hrs, 6hrs, 24hrs, and 48hrs. By using the nomogram given in IS: 2720 (Part 4) 1985, the diameter of the particles for different hydrometer readings is found out. Reporting: After completing mechanical analysis and hydrometer analysis, the results are plotted on a semi-log graph with particle size as abscissa (log scale) and the percentage smaller than the specified diameter as ordinate.

55

Numerical Example: The results of a sieve analysis performed on a dry soil sample weighing 500 gm are given below: Sieve size Wt. of soil retained (gm) 4.75 mm 9.36 2.40mm 1.20mm 600 53.75 78.10 83.22 425 85.79 300 76.82 150 75

67.02 33.88

a) Draw a particle size distribution curve. b) Find out the percentage of gravel, sand and silt present in soil sample.

Sieve size

Diameter of grains (mm)

Weight retained (gm)

% Retained

Cumulative % retained

% finer

4.75 mm 2.40 mm 1.20 mm 600 425 300 150 75

4.75 2.40 1.20 0.600 0.425 0.300 0.150 0.075

9.36 53.75 78.10 83.22 85.79 76.82 67.02 33.88

1.87 10.75 15.62 16.64 17.16 15.36 13.40 6.78

1.87 12.62 28.24 44.88 62.04 77.40 90.80 97.58

98.13 87.38 71.76 55.12 37.96 22.60 9.20 2.42

The particle size curve is shown in Fig 8-8 below: The required percentages obtained from the curve are as follows: Gravel: Coarse sand: Fine sand: Silt: 1.87% 98.1 % - 92 % = 6.1 % 38.0 % - 2.4 % = 35.6 % 2.42 %

Medium sand: 92.0 % - 38 % = 54. 0 %

56

98.13

100 90

87.38 80 71.76 70 60 55.12 50 40 30 22.6 20 10 0 1 10 100

37.96

9.2 2.42 0.01 0.1

Particle Size Distribution Curve (Sieve Analysis)

Conclusion: Grain size analysis is widely used in the identification and classification of soils. It is also utilized in part of the specifications of soil for airfields, roads, earth dams, and other soil embankment constructions.

57

Soil Testing Laboratory Sieve Analysis

Work Sheet Soil No ___________ Project No ________ Depth ________

Location ___________ Tested by ___________

Sieve Size

Weight retained in each Sieve (gm)

Cumulative weight of soil retained (gm) 5 48 210 518 698 908 957 992 1000

Cumulative % of soil retained 0.5 4.8 21 51.8 69.8 90.8 95.7 99.2 100

% finer

4.75 mm 2.00 mm 1.00 mm 600 425 300 150 75 Pan

5 43 162 308 180 210 49 35 8

99.5 95.2 79 48.2 30.2 9.2 4.3 0.8 0

From the graph, Effective size of soil, D10 = 0.32 D30 = 0.40 D60 = 0.71 Then, Uniformly Co-efficient (Cu) = D60 / D10 = 2.22 Co-efficient of Curvature (Cc) = (D30)2 / (D10 x D60) =0.704

58

Soil Testing Laboratory Sieve Analysis

Work Sheet Soil No Location ___________ ___________ Project No ________ Depth ________

Tested by ___________

Sieve Size

Weight retained in each Sieve (gm)

Cumulative weight of soil retained (gm)

Cumulative % of soil retained

% finer

From the graph, Effective size of soil, D10 = D30 = D60 = Then, Uniformly Co-efficient (Cu) = D60 / D10 = Co-efficient of Curvature (Cc) = (D30)2 / (D10 x D60) =

59

Soil Testing Laboratory Hydrometer Analysis

Work Sheet Soil No ___________ Project No ________ Depth ________

Location ___________ Tested by ___________

Time elapsed (t) min.

Hydrometer Reading (Rh1) 1.0150 1.0150 1.0150 1.0150 1.0145 1.0140 1.0135 1.0130 1.0130 1.0130

Corrected hydrometer reading Rh = (Rh1 + 0.5) 1.5150 1.5150 1.5150 1.5150 1.5145 1.5140 1.5135 1.5130 1.5130 1.5130

Effective depth, He (19.638-0.4Rh) 19.032 19.032 19.032 19.032 19.0322 19.0324 19.0326 19.0328 19.0328 19.0328 6.1698 4.3625 3.0848 2.1813 1.5424 1.1264 0.9755 0.7965 0.7965 0.7965 (He / t)

% finer (N) = 3.2 Rh 4.848 4.848 4.848 4.848 4.8464 4.8464 4.8432 4.8416 4.8416 4.8416

Particle size, (D) = 13.5 (He / t) 83.29 58.89 41.64 29.45 20.82 15.21 13.17 10.75 10.75 10.75

0.5 1 2 4 8 15 20 30 45 60

From the Particle Size Distribution Curve, Effective size of soil, D10 = D30 = D60 = Then, Uniformly Co-efficient (Cu) = D60 / D10 =

60

Soil Testing Laboratory Hydrometer Analysis

Work Sheet Soil No ___________ Project No ________ Depth ________

Location ___________ Tested by ___________

Time elapsed (t) min.

Hydrometer Reading (Rh1)

Corrected hydrometer reading Rh = (Rh1 + 0.5)

Effective depth, (He) (19.638-0.4Rh) (He / t)

% finer (N) = 3.2 Rh

Particle size, (D) = 13.5 (He / t)

From the Particle Size Distribution Curve, Effective size of soil, D10 = D30 = D60 = Then, Uniformly Co-efficient (Cu) = D60 / D10 =

61

CHAPTER 9
TRI AXIAL COMPRESSION TEST This test is used for the determination of shear characteristics of all types of soils under different drainage conditions. Of two stages of test, in the first stage, the specimen is subjected to an all round pressure on the sides and at the top and the bottom. Such a pressure is called Confining pressure c and this stage is known as the Consolidation stage. In the second stage, an additional axial stress known as the deviator stress d is applied on the top of the specimen through a ram. This stage is called the Shearing stage. Thus, the total stress in the axial direction at the time of shearing 1 = c + d. As there are no shear stresses on the sides, the vertical sides of the specimen are principal planes and c is the minor principal stress 3. Apparatus used: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. Tri axial compression testing machine, with a circular base with its central pedestal. Pedestal has one or two holes which are used for the drainage of the specimen in the drained test. (or) for pore water pressure measurement in the undrained test. Tri-axail cell is fitted to the top of the base plate with the help of 3 wing nuts after the specimen is placed on the pedestal. 3 tie rods- which support the cell. Top cap, through which ram can slide which does not permit any leakage. Air release valve in the top cap which is kept open when the cell filled with water or glycerin for applying confining pressure. An oil valve is also provided on the top cap to fill light machine oil in the cell to reduce the leakage of water past ram during test. Loading frame- The apparatus is mounted on it. Strain controlled loading machine- The deviator stress is applied to the specimen from it. Mercury control system To maintain the cell / confining pressure. The cell pressure in a tri axial test is maintained constant with a self compensating mercury control system developed by Bishop & Henkel. It consists of two limbs of water mercury manometer. The water pressure in the tri axial cell develops due to the difference in level of mercury in the two pots. The water pressure at the centre of the specimen in tri axial cell, at a height h3 above the datum can be calculated using the theory of manometers. As the mercury surface in the upper part is open to atmosphere, the pressure there is zero.
62

i.e., 0+

h1

m c

h2

( h3 h2) =

where

= cell pressure at the centre of the specimen unit weight of water unit weight of mercury

w=

m=

The upper pot is supported by a spring. When the volume of the specimen decreases due to consolidation or when the water leaks past the ram, water flows from the lower pot to the cell and the mercury level in the lower part rises by a small amount h. The mercury level in the upper pot would also fall by the same amount if the cross sectional area of two pots are same. Nevertheless, the difference in level of mercury in the two pots is maintained constant by the spring. k. Pore water pressure measurement device: (Null indicator) Null indicator filled with mercury, one limb of it is connected to the specimen in the tri axial cell and the other limb is connected to a pressure gauge. A Control cylinder is filled with water is attached to the system. Any change in the pore water pressure in the specimen tends to cause a movement of the mercury level in the null indicator. However, the No flow condition is maintained by making the corresponding change in the other limbs by means of the control cylinder. Thus, the mercury levels in the two limbs remain constant. The pressure applied by the control cylinder is recorded by pressure gauge. l. Volume changes measurement: With the help of Burette connected to the specimen in the tri axial cell.

Procedure: Consolidated Undrained test: 1. Place the porous stone on the top of the pedestal. 2. Place the filter paper disc over the porous stone. 3. The specimen of cohesive soil is placed over the filter paper disc (usual size of specimen is about 37.5 mm diameter and 75 mm height). 4. Another porous stone is placed on the top of specimen. 5. The sample is then enclosed in a rubber membrane which slide over the specimen, which is sealed with O rings. 6. The tri axial cell is placed over the base and fixed to it by tightening the nuts. 7. The cell is then filled with water by connecting it to the pressure supply. 8. Same space in the top portion of the cell is filled by injecting oil through the oil valve. When the excess oil begins to spill over the air vent valve are closed.
63

9. Now the pressure is applied to the water filled in the cell by connecting it to the mercury pot system. 10. As soon as the pressure acts on the specimen, it starts consolidating. The specimen is connected to the burette through pressure connection for measurement volume changes. The consolidation is complete when there is No more volume change. 11. When the consolidation is complete, the specimen is ready for being sheared. The drainage valve is closed and the pore water pressure measurement device is attached to the specimen through the pressure connections. The pressure gauge is set to zero. 12. Now, the loading ram is pushed into the cell, but not allowed to touch the loading cap. 13. The loading machine is run at the selected speed, thus the pressure gauge records the force due to friction and upward thrust acting on the ram. 14. The machine is stopped and the ram is pushed further into the cell bringing it in contact with the loading cap. 15. Now the dial gauge for measuring axial deformation of the specimen is set to zero. 16. The sample is sheared by applying the deviator stress by the loading machine. 17. Proving ring readings are taken corresponding to axial strains until failure. 18. Upon the completion of the test, loading is shut off.

Unconsolidated Undrained test: The procedure is similar to that for a consolidated undrained test with one basic difference that the specimen is not allowed to consolidate in the first stage. The drainage valve is kept closed. Consolidated Drained test: The procedure is similar to that for consolidated undrained test with one basic difference that this specimen is sheared slowly in the second stage. After the consolidation in the first stage, the drainage valve is not closed.

Conclusions: Values of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are the major results of a Triaxial test. The type of tests performed (UU, CU, CD) and the type of specimen should also be reported. The average rate of axial strain to failure, the axial strain at failure, and whether strain control or stress control was used should also be indicated. The stress strain curves, pore pressure strain curve (if the CU test is performed) and shear diagram (Mohr circles) should be presented in the report. Sketches of the failed specimen might also be included.
64

Soil Testing Laboratory Triaxial Compression Test

Work Sheet Soil No: ____________________ Location: _______________ Depth: ________________ Tested by : ___________________ Date: ____________________ Description of Soil: __________________ Project No: ____________________ Boring No: ____________________

A. Initial Dimensions Type of test performed: UU Type of Specimen: Remolded Diameter of specimen =Do = 2.50 in. Area of mould =Am = 4.91 in.2 Initial height of specimen = Ho = 5.82 in. Diameter of specimen = Do = 2.50 in. Initial Area of specimen = Ao = 50 cm2 Volume of specimen = Vo = 25.58 in.3 Mass of specimen = 920.20 g

65

B. Tabulation Elapsed time (min) Deformation Dial H (in.) Axial Strain (in. /in.) C /s Area, A (in.2) Proving ring Dial (in.) Applied Axial Load (lb) Unit Axial Load (Deviator Stress) (psi) (1) (2) (3) = H / H0 (4) = Ao / (1 ) (5) (6) = (5) x proving ring calibration 0 0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 11.25 0.225 0 0.0009 0.0017 0.0026 0.0034 0.0043 0.0086 0.0129 0.0172 0.0215 0.0258 0.0301 0.0344 0.0387 4.91 4.91 4.92 4.92 4.93 4.93 4.95 4.97 5 5.02 5.04 5.06 5.08 5.11 0 0.0012 0.0025 0.0037 0.0053 0.0066 0.0140 0.0201 0.0256 0.0294 0.0321 0.0337 0.0331 0.0305 0 7.2 15.0 22.2 31.8 39.6 84.0 120.6 153.6 176.4 192.6 202.2 198.6 183.0 0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.5 8.0 17.0 24.3 30.7 35.1 38.2 40.0 39.1 35.8 (7) =(6)/ 4)

66

Soil Testing Laboratory Triaxial Compression Test

Work Sheet Soil No: ____________________ Location: _______________ Depth: ________________ Tested by : ___________________ Date: ____________________ Description of Soil: __________________ A. Initial Dimensions: Type of test performed: ________________ Type of specimen: Diameter of specimen = Area of mould = Initial height of specimen = Diameter of specimen = Initial Area of specimen = Volume of specimen = Mass of specimen = _________________ Do = __________ in. Am = __________ in.2 Ho =___________ in. Do =__________ in. Ao =_________ cm2 Vo =__________ in.3 ____________g Project No: ____________________ Boring No: ____________________

67

B. Tabulation Elapsed time (min) Deformation Dial H (in.) Axial Strain (in. /in.) C/s Area, A (in.2) Proving ring Dial (in.) Applied Axial Load (lb) (1) (2) (3) = H / H0 (4) =Ao/ (1 ) (5) (6) = (5)xproving ring calibration Unit Axial Load (Deviator Stress) (psi) (7) = (6) / (4)

68

CHAPTER 10 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

In this test, soil samples compacted at known densities and moisture content in a shear box of 6 cm x 6cm size, which can be split into two halves, is sheared by a gradually increasing lateral load. There identical samples of a soil are tested under different vertical compressive stresses and the corresponding shear stresses at failure are determined. A graph is then plotted between normal stress and shear stress. Results of each test are represented by a single point. Three points obtained from the three tests are joined by a straight line which is the failure envelope for the given soil. The slope of this line gives the angle of internal friction, while the intercept from the axis gives the value of cohesion of the soil.

Shear strength of soil is its minimum resistance to shearing stress. The shear strength is expressed as: S=c+ tan

Apparatus required: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Shear box divided into two halves by a horizontal plane and fitted with locking and spacing screws. Box container to hold the shear box Base plate Grid plates, perforated 2 numbers Porous stones 6 mm thick, 2 nos. Loading pad, frame and yoke Proving ring Dial gauges -2 nos.

Procedure: The step by step procedure is given below: 1. To carry out a direct shear test, a soil specimen is prepared and placed in a direct shear box, which may be round or square. 2. A normal load of specific magnitude is applied. 3. The box is split into two parts horizontally and if the lower half is held stationary while the upper half is pushed with increasing force, the soil will ultimately experience shear failure

69

along horizontal surface. This procedure is carried out in the direct shear apparatus and the particular normal load and shear stress and produced shear failure are recorded. 4. The soil specimen is then removed from the shear box and discarded, and another specimen of the same soil is placed in the shear box. A normal load either higher or lower than that used in the first test is applied to the second specimen, and a shear force is again applied with sufficient magnitude to cause shear failure. 5. The normal load and shear stress that produced shear failure are recorded for the second test. The entire procedure may be repeated for another specimen and another different normal load. First measure the internal dimensions of shear box. The actual step by-step procedure is as follows: 1. Measure the diameter, height, and mass of the specimen. Assemble the shear box with the frames aligned and locked in position. Carefully insert the test specimen. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part using locking screws and attach the base plate to the lower part. 2. Place the serrated grid in the shear box in such a way that the serrations (slots) of the grid makes right angle to the direction of shear. 3. Place the soil specimen in the shear box and place another grid plate over the sample and porous stone over the top of the grid plate. 4. Place the shear box inside the box container and fix the loading pad on the box. Mount the box container on the loading frame. 5. Mount the loading yoke in the hole placed on the loading pad. 6. Mount the proving ring and dial gauge to record the horizontal displacement. 7. Bring the upper hay of the box in contact with the proving ring. Check the contact by giving a slight movement. 8. Fill the container with water if the soil is to be saturated, or otherwise omit this step. 9. Place the required weight on the loading yoke. 10. Remove the locking screws when the shear force is applied. 11. Measure the vertical dial reading, Horizontal displacement dial reading, and proving ring reading in an elapsed time interval as shown in the work sheet below so as to determine its corresponding shear stress. 12. Normal stress can be calculated by dividing normal load (which includes the weight of the loading block and externally applied normal force) by the initial area of the specimen. 13. Horizontal shearing force can be computed by multiplying each dial reading by the proving ring calibration.
70

14. Each corresponding shear stress can be calculated by dividing each horizontal shear force by the initial area of the specimen. These computations must be completed for each specimen tested at different normal loads. 15. For each specimen, graphs of shear stress versus shear (horizontal) displacement and of specimen thickness change (vertical dial reading) versus shear (horizontal0 displacements should be prepared. Both graphs can be placed on the graph sheet using shear (horizontal) displacement as a common abscissa. 16. With these graphs completed, one can determine the maximum shear stress for each specimen tested by evaluating the graph of shear stress versus shear (horizontal) displacement. The maximum stresses are taken to be the peak shear stress on the graph. 17. In order to evaluate the shear strength parameters (cohesion and angle of internal friction), it is necessary to prepare a graph of maximum shear stress (ordinate) versus normal stress ( abscissa) for each specimen tested. Note: The same scale should be used along both abscissa and ordinate. 18. A straight line is drawn through the plotted points and extended to intersect the ordinate. The angle between the straight line and the horizontal line gives the angle of internal friction, and the value of shear stress where the straight line intersect the ordinate gives the cohesion ( c ).

71

Numerical Example: An Unconsolidated Undrained direct shear test was performed in the laboratory according to the procedure described in this chapter. The following data were obtained: A. Specimen Data Diameter of specimen, D0 = 2.50 in. Initial height of the specimen, H0 = 1.00 in. B. Shear Stress Data Normal load on test specimen = 20.6 lb Rate of shear = 0.05 in. / min Proving ring calibration = 3,125 lb / in.

Vertical Dial Reading (in.) 0 0.0030 0.0050 0.0070 0.0080 0.0090 0.0095 0.0100 0.0100 0.0110 0.0115 0.0115

Shear (Horizontal) Displacement Reading (in.) 0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.220 0.240 0.260

Proving Ring Dial Reading (in) 0 0.0030 0.0063 0.0102 0.0124 0.0142 0.0155 0.0163 0.0166 0.0163 0.0159 0.0150

72

A. Specimen Parameters: The initial area A0 = ( /4) (D02) = ( /4) (2.50)2 = 4.91 in.2 B. Shear Stress Data: (Specimen no-1) Normal load = 20.6 lb Normal Stress = (Normal load / Initial Area of specimen) (144) = 604 lb / ft2 Proving ring calibration = 3125 lb / in. Rate of shear = 0.05 in. / min Vertical Dial Reading (in.) (1) Horizontal Displacement Dial Reading (in.) (2) (3) (4) = (3) x Proving Ring calibration 0 0.0030 0.0050 0.0070 0.0080 0.0090 0.0095 0.0100 0.0100 0.0110 0.0115 0.0115 0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.220 0.240 0.260 0 0.0030 0.0063 0.0102 0.0124 0.0142 0.0155 0.0163 0.0166 0.0163 0.0159 0.0150 0 9.4 19.7 31.9 38.8 44.4 48.4 50.9 51.9 50.9 49.7 46.9 Proving Ring Dial Reading (in.) Horizontal Shear Force (lb) C / S Area of specimen (in.2) (5) = initial area of specimen 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 0 276 578 936 1138 1302 1419 1493 1522 1493 1458 1375 (6) = {(4)/(5)} x 144 Shear Stress (lb / ft2)

73

1600 1493 1400 1302 1419 1522 1493 1458 1375

Shear stress (lb/ft2)

1200 1138 1000 936 800 600 400 276 200 0 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 578

Shear (horizontal) displacement (in.)

74

Note-1: The Normal load (20.6 lb) divided by the initial area of the specimen (4.91 in.2) gives a normal stress of 4.20 lb/in.2, or 604 lb/ ft2. The first proving ring dial reading (0.0030 in.) multiplied by the proving ring calibration (3125 lb/in.) gives a corresponding horizontal shear force of 9.4 lb. Dividing this horizontal shear force by the initial area of the specimen (4.91 in.2 ) and multiplying by 144 to convert square inches to square feet gives a corresponding shear stress of 276 lb/ft2. Likewise, in an elapsed time interval, the shear stresses were calculated. Note-2: From Figure -1, for specimen no-1, with a normal stress = 604 lb / ft2, maximum shear stress = 1522 lb / ft2. Similarly, let us consider, for specimen 2 and specimen -3 respectively, the maximum shear stress are 1605lb/ft2 and 1720 lb/ft2 under a normal stress of 926 lb/ft2 and 1248 lb/ft2. Note-3: Referring the table, Curve of Maximum shear stress versus Normal stress is produced as shown in figure-2. Conclusions: As indicated, the values of the angle of internal friction and cohesion are the major results of a direct shear test. In addition to these parameters, however, the type of test performed (UU, CU, CD) and the type (undisturbed , remolded) of specimens should be reported as well.

75

Soil Testing Laboratory Direct Shear Test Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ A. Initial Dimensions 1. Specimen no.: __________ Normal load:_____________ 2. Normal Stress: 4. Rate of shear: B. Tabulation Vertical Dial Reading (in.) (1) (2) (3) (4) = (3) x Proving Ring calibration 0 0.0030 0.0050 0.0070 0.0080 0.0090 0.0095 0.0100 0.0100 0.0110 0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.220 0 0.0030 0.0063 0.0102 0.0124 0.0142 0.0155 0.0163 0.0166 0.0163 0 9.4 19.7 31.9 38.8 44.4 48.4 50.9 51.9 50.9 (5) = initial area of specimen 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 4.91 0 276 578 936 1138 1302 1419 1493 1522 1493 (6) = {(4)/(5)} x 144 Horizontal Displacement Dial Reading (in.) Proving Ring Dial Reading (in.) Horizontal Shear Force (lb) C / S Area of specimen (in.2) Shear Stress (lb / ft2) ____________ ___________________ 3. Proving Ring Calibration:______________

76

Soil Testing Laboratory Direct Shear Test Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ A. Initial Dimensions 1. Specimen no.:__________ 2. Normal load:_____________ 3. Normal Stress:____________ 4. Proving Ring Calibration:______________ 5. Rate of shear:___________________ B. Tabulation Vertical Dial Reading (in.) (1) (2) Horizontal Displacement Dial Reading (in.) Proving Ring Dial Reading (in.) (3) (4) = (3) x Proving Ring calibration (5) = initial area of specimen (6) ={(4)/(5)} x 144 Horizontal Shear Force (lb) C / S Area of specimen (in.2) Shear Stress (lb / ft2)

77

Soil Testing Laboratory Direct Shear Test Work Sheet

Soil No____________________ Location___________________

Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ A. Initial Dimensions: 1. Specimen no.:__________ 2. Normal load:_____________ 3. Normal Stress:____________ 4. Proving Ring Calibration:______________ 5. Rate of shear:___________________ B. Tabulation: Vertical Dial Reading (in.) (1) Horizontal Displacement Dial Reading (in.) (2) (3) (4) = (3) x Proving Ring calibration Proving Ring Dial Reading (in.) Horizontal Shear Force (lb) C / S Area of specimen (in.2) (5) = initial area of specimen (6) = {(4)/(5)} x 144 Shear Stress (lb / ft2)

78

CHAPTER 11

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST FOR CLAY SOIL The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (qu) is defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. In addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength is taken as the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first during the performance of a test.

Standard Reference: ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil

Significance: For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of a cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c). This is expressed as: su = c =qu / 2 Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular stress increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + stan f, must be used. Where s= intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s = (s - u), s = total pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c and j are drained shear strength parameters.

Equipment: Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample trimming equipment, Balance, Moisture can.

79

80

81

Test Procedure: 1. Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and 2.5. Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen, respectively. 2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120 apart, and then make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the measurements and record the average as the diameter on the data sheet. 3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120 apart, and then average the measurements and record the average as the length on the data sheet. 4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet. 5. Calculate the deformation (DL) corresponding to 15% strain (). Strain (e) = L L0 Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3). 6. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the load and deformation dials to zero. 7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the dial. 8. Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly, (2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5. 9. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure. 10. Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment

Analysis:
1. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these values on the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that the conversion is done correctly, particularly proving dial gauge readings conversion into load). 2. Compute the sample cross-sectional area A0 = ( 3. Compute the strain () = L L0 (1 ) 4. Compute the corrected area, A = A0 4) (d2)

82

5. Using A, compute the specimen stress = Sc = 6. Compute the water content, w %

A1

7. Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the test. Be sure that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data. 8. Draw Mohrs circle using Qu from the last step and show the undrained shear strength Su = c =qu / 2

83

Soil Testing Laboratory Unconfined Compression Test Work sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________

Diameter = d = 7.29 cm Length = L0 = 14.78 cm Mass = 1221.4 gm Sample no. Moisture can number - Lid number MC = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams) MCMS = Mass of can, lid, and moist soil (grams) MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry soil (grams) MS = Mass of soil solids (grams) MW = Mass of pore water (grams) W = Water content, w% Area = A0 = ( / 4) (7.29)2 = 41.74 cm2 Volume = V = ( / 4) (7.29)2 (14.28) = 616.9 cm3 Wet density = = 1221.4 / 616.9 = 1.98 gm / cm3 Water content = w =25.9 % Dry density = d = 1.98 / (1+25.9/100) = 1.57 gm / cm3 Xt-01, 10/ 10 B 15.60 45.70 39.50 23.90 6.20 25.94

84

Deform-ation dial reading 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1100 1200 1300

Load dial reading 0 4 9 12 19 21 24 26 29 33 36 45 54 64 74 84 93 102 112 120 129 138 144 152 160 166 171 182 192 202

Sample (L) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0

Strain

% Strain

Corrected Load Area (lb)

Load (KN)

Stress

deformation ()

0 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.012 0.014 0.017 0.020 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.041 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.054 0.058 0.061 0.064 0.068 0.074 0.078 0.081

0.000 0.135 0.271 0.406 0.541 0.677 0.812 0.947 1.083 1.218 1.353 1.691 2.030 2.368 2.706 3.045 3.383 3.721 4.060 4.398 4.736 5.074 5.413 5.751 6.089 6.428 6.766 7.442 8.119 8.796

41.739 41.796 41.853 41.909 41.966 42.024 42.081 42.138 42.196 42.254 42.312 42.457 42.604 42.752 42.900 43.050 43.201 43.353 43.505 43.659 43.814 43.971 44.128 44.286 44.446 44.606 44.768 45.096 45.428 45.765

0.000 1.262 2.839 3.785 5.994 6.625 7.571 8.202 9.148 10.410 11.356 14.196 17.035 20.189 23.344 26.498 29.338 32.177 35.331 37.855 40.694 43.533 45.426 47.950 50.473 52.366 53.943 57.413 60.568 63.722

0.000 56.131 126.295 168.393 266.622 294.687 336.786 364.851 406.949 463.080 505.178 631.473 757.768 898.095 1038.422 1178.750 1305.044 1431.339 1571.666 1683.928 1810.223

0.000 1.343 3.018 4.018 6.353 7.012 8.003 8.658 9.644 10.959 11.939 14.873 17.786 21.007 24.205 27.381 30.209 33.016 36.126 38.570 41.316

1936.517 44.041 2020.714 45.792 2132.976 2245.237 2329.434 2399.598 2553.958 2694.000 2834.612 48.163 50.516 52.222 53.600 56.634 59.309 61.939
85

1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000

209 217 223 229 234 240 243 250 253 255 256 254

14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0

0.088 0.095 0.101 0.108 0.115 0.122 0.129 0.135 0.149 0.162 0.176 0.189

9.472 10.149 10.825 11.502 12.179 12.855 13.532 14.885 16.238 17.591 18.945 20.298

46.107 46.454 46.806 47.164 47.527 47.896 48.271 49.039 49.831 50.649 51.495 52.369

65.931 68.454 70.347 72.240 73.817 75.710 76.656 78.864 79.811 80.442 80.757 80.126

2932.841 3045.103 3129.300 3213.496 3283.660 3367.856 3409.954 3508.184 3550.282 3578.347 3592.380 3564.314

63.610 65.551 66.856 68.134 69.090 70.315 70.642 71.539 71.247 70.650 69.762 68.062

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Axial Strain
3 2.706 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0 1.353 1.218 1.083 0.947 0.812 0.677 0.541 0.406 0.271 0.135 5 10 15 20 25 30 2.03 1.691 Axial Strain 2.368

Stress Strain Curve

Mohrs circle strain From the stress-strain curve and Mohrs circle: Unconfined compressive strength (qu) = 72.0 KPa Cohesion (c) = 36.0 KPa

87

Soil Testing Laboratory Unconfined Compression Test Work sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________

Diameter = d = ..cm Length = L0 = cm Mass = m = gm Sample no. Moisture can number - Lid number MC = Mass of empty, clean can + lid (grams) MCMS = Mass of can, lid, and moist soil (grams) MCDS = Mass of can, lid, and dry soil (grams) MS = Mass of soil solids (grams) MW = Mass of pore water (grams) W = Water content, w% Area = A0 = ( / 4) (7.29)2 = 41.74 cm2 Volume = V = ( / 4) (7.29)2 (14.28) = 616.9 cm3 Wet density = = 1221.4 / 616.9 = 1.98 gm / cm3 Water content = w =25.9 % Dry density = d = 1.98 / (1+25.9/100) = 1.57 gm / cm3

88

Deform-ation dial reading

Load dial reading

Sample (L)

Strain

% Strain

Corrected Load Area (lb)

Load (KN)

Stress

deformation ()

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CHAPTER 12 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed by California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of subgrade soil for design of flexible pavement. Tests are carried out on natural or compacted soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and the results so obtained are compared with the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil strength of the subgrade soil. Apparatus Used: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Mould Steel Cutting collar Spacer Disc Surcharge weight Dial gauges IS Sieves Penetration Plunger Loading Machine Miscellaneous Apparatus

Objective: To determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration test in the laboratory. Need and Scope: The california bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement. This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as unsoaked state.

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CBR Test Machine

ASTM Mould and accessories

Planning and Organization: Equipments and tool required. 1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick. 2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.
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3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450 mm. 4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in diameter. 5. Loading machine. With a capacity of atleast 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head or base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load indicating device. 6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length. 7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm. 8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves. 9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan, drying oven, filter paper and containers. The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different penetrations for the standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%. Table 12.1 Penetration of plunger (mm) 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 Standard load 1370 2055 2630 3180 3600 (kg)

The test may be performed on undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimens which may be compacted either statically or dynamically. Preparation of Test Specimen: Undisturbed specimen Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil, remove it from weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot. Determine the density: Remoulded specimen Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctors maximum dry density or any other density at which C.B.R is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by dynamic compaction or by static compaction.

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Dynamic Compaction 1. Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water. 2. Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the base (See Fig.38). Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc. 3. Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction. For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer by the 4.89 kg rammer. Remove the collar and trim off soil. 4. Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc. 5. Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density. 6. Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated base plate on to it. Static compaction 7. Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired density when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression. W =desired dry density * (1+w) V Where W = Weight of the wet soil w = desired water content V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in laboratory) 8. Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould. 9. Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil. 10. Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould. 11. Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc. 12. The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions. 13. If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper. 14. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and pavement expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction. A minimum of two weights should be put. 15. Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours. Remove the mould from tank. 16. Note the consolidation of the specimen.
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Procedure for Penetration Test Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the penetration test machine. (Fig.39). Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the smallest possible load, but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full contact of the piston on the sample is established. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on the piston so that the penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min. Record the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm. Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to 50 g of soil from the top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture content. Observation and Recording For Dynamic Compaction Optimum water content (%) Weight of mould + compacted specimen (gm) Weight of empty mould (gm) Weight of compacted specimen (gm) Volume of specimen cm3 Bulk density gm/cc Dry density gm/cc

For compaction Dry density gm/cc Moulding water content % Wet weight of the compacted soil, (W)gm Period of soaking 96 hrs. (4days).

For penetration Test Calibration factor of the proving ring 1 Div. = 1.176 kg Surcharge weight used (kg) 2.0 kg per 6 cm construction Water content after penetration test % Least count of penetration dial 1 Div. = 0.01 mm
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If the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shift the origin (Fig. 40). Find and record the correct load reading corresponding to each penetration. C.B.R. = (PT/PS) x100 where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the load penetration curve. PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the Table 12.1

Table 12-2 Penetration Dial Load Dial Corrected Load

Readings

Penetration (mm)

Proving ring reading

Load (kg)

Interpretation and recording C.B.R. of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration C.B.R. of specimen at 5.0 mm penetration C.B.R. of specimen at 2.5 mm penetration The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm and in such a case/the former shall be taken as C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken for design. The following is the step by step procedure for CBR test: 1. Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
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2. Weigh of empty mould 3. Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer) 4. After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface. 5. Take sample for determination of moisture content. 6. Weight of mould + compacted specimen. 7. Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked CBR. 8. Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process. 9. After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell. 10. Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain. 11. Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10 lb. 12. Apply the load and note the penetration load values. 13. Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the value of CBR. 14. Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required degree of compaction.

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Conclusions: The CBR test is one of the most commonly used methods to evaluate the strength of a sub grade soil, sub base, and base course material for design of thickness for highways and airfield pavement. The california bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement. This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as well as unsoaked state.

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CHAPTER 13 CONSOLIDATION TEST This test is performed to determine the magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to different vertical pressures. From the measured data, the consolidation curve (pressure-void ratio relationship) can be plotted. This data is useful in determining the compression index, the recompression index and the pre consolidation pressure (or maximum past pressure) of the soil. In addition, the data obtained can also be used to determine the coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of secondary compression of the soil. Equipments: a. Consolidation device (including ring, porous stones, water reservoir, and load plate) b. Dial gauge (0.0001 inch = 1.0 on dial), c. Sample trimming device, glass plate, d. Metal straight edge, e. Clock, f. Moisture can, g. Filter paper.

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Test Procedure: Step by step procedure is given below: 1. Weigh the empty consolidation ring together with glass plate. 2. Measure the height (h) of the ring and its inside diameter (d). 3. Place an undisturbed soil specimen in the consolidation ring. One porous stone is placed above the specimen, another below it. The purpose of the porous stones is to allow water to flow into and out of the specimen. 4. This assembly is immersed in water. (or) water is allowed to pass through the soil specimen from the water gauge. 5. Set the dial gauge in position on the consolidation ring. 6. Adjust the dial gauge to a zero reading. 7. Apply the initial setting pressure of say 500 lb / ft2 and allow water passing through soil specimen. 8. Record the consolidation dial readings at the elapsed times given on the data sheet. 9. Repeat steps for different preselected pressures (with 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, 16000 lb / ft2). 10. At the last elapsed time reading, record the final consolidation dial reading and time, release the load, and quickly disassemble the consolidation device and remove the specimen. 11. Draw a graph of time along the abscissa on a logarithmetic scale versus deformation dial readings along the ordinate on an arithmetic scale in order to evaluate the results of a consolidation test. 12. From the graph, determine the 50% consolidation and 100% consolidation.

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Date 15-12-2011

Time

Elapsed time (min.) 0 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 15 30 60 120 240 480 1380 1560

Deformation dial reading (in.) 0 0.0067 0.0069 0.0071 0.0077 0.0084 0.0095 0.0107 0.0120 0.0132 0.0144 0.0152 0.0158 0.0160 0.0162 0.0162

From the above graph, 100% consolidation, U100 = 0.0158 50% consolidation, U50 = 0.0108 (i.e the mid point of straight portion)

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Pressure, Initial P (lb/ft2) Height of specimen at beginning of test, H0 (in.) (1) (2)

Deformation Dial Reading at 50 % Consolidation (in.)

Thickness of Specimen at 50 % Consoli-dation (in.) (4)=(2)(3)

Time for 50% Half Consolidation thickness of Specimen at (min.) 50 % Consolidation (in.)

Coefficient of Consolidation (in2 / min)

(3) [from dial readings versus log of time curves] --0.0108 0.0233 0.0398 0.0644 0.0982 0.1387

(5) = (4) / 2

(6) [from dial readings versus log of time curves) --8.2 6.4 4.0 3.4 3.5 4.0

(7)= [0.196x(5)2]/ (6) --3.54 x 10 -3 4.38 x 10 -3 6.71 x 10 -3 7.39 x 10 -3 6.51 x 10 -3 5.02x 10 -3

0 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

0.780 0.780 0.780 0.780 0.780 0.780 0.780

--0.769 0.757 0.740 0.716 0.682 0.641

--0.385 0.378 0.370 0.358 0.341 0.320

Note: It is common practice to set the dial to a zero reading at the beginning of the first loading. Note: The same procedure should be repeated by changing the pressure, P as 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 lb / ft2 and so on. (As shown in the above table).

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Soil Testing Laboratory Consolidation Test Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________

Pressure, Initial P (lb/ft2) Height of specimen at beginning of test, H0 (in.) (1) (2)

Deformation Dial Reading at 50 % Consolidation (in.)

Thickness of Specimen at 50 % Consoli-dation (in.) (4)=(2)(3)

Half Time for 50% thickness of Consolidation Specimen at (min.) 50 % Consolidation (in.)

Coefficient of Consolidation (in2 / min)

(3) [from dial readings versus log of time curves]

(5) = (4) / 2

(6) [from dial readings versus log of time curves)

(7)= [0.196x(5)2]/ (6)

0 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

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CHAPTER 14 DETERMINATION OF IN - SITU DRY DENSITY OF SOIL BY CORE CUTTER METHOD

This test is used to determine the in-situ dry density of soil by core cutter method as per IS: 2720 (Part XXIX) 1975. Accessories: a. b. c. d. e. Procedure: 1. The internal volume (V) of the core cutter in cc should be calculated from its dimensions which should be measured to the nearest 0.25mm. 2. The core cutter should be weighed to the nearest gram (W1). 3. A small area, approximately 30cm square of the soil layer to be tested should be exposed and levelled. The steel dolly should be placed on top of the cutter and the latter should be rammed down vertically into the soil layer until only about 15mm of the dolly protrudes above the surface, care being taken not to rock the cutter. The cutter should then be dug out of the surrounding soil, care being taken to allow some soil to project from the lower end of the cutter. The ends of the soil core should then be trimmed flat in level with the ends of the cutter by means of the straightedge. 4. The cutter containing the soil core should be weighed to the nearest gram (W2). 5. The soil core should be removed from the cutter and a representative sample should be placed in an air-tight container and its water content (w) Cylindrical core cutter Steel dolly Balance Square metal tray 300 mm x 300 mm x 40 mm Trowel

Reporting the result: Bulk density of the soil g /cc Y = [W2 - W1]/ V g/cc Dry density of the soil g / cc Yd = 100Y/ [100+w] g/cc Average of at least three determinations should be reported to the second place of decimal in g/cc. A sample Performa for the record of the test results is given in table 14-1 below:

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Table 14.1

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Soil Testing Laboratory In Situ Density Determination (Core cutter method) Work Sheet Soil No____________________ Location___________________ Project No____________________ Depth _______________________

Tested by___________________ Date _______________________ Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Description Internal dia. of core cutter in mm Internal height of core cutter in mm Volume of core cutter (V) in cc. Weight of core cutter (W1) in g Weight of core cutter+ Soil (W2) in g Weight of Soil (W2 - W1) in g Bulk density of soil = (W2 - W1) / V g /cc Moisture content (w) in % Dry density of Soil (d) in g /cc Average Value Determination No. I II III

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CHAPTER 15 PERCOLATION TEST

The percolation test is designed to determine the suitability of a site for a subsurface private sewage disposal system (i.e. septic system). More specifically, a percolation test measures the ability of the soil to absorb liquid. Septic system designers use the results of percolation tests to properly construct septic systems. The percolation tests are designed to simulate conditions in a septic system. The percolation test consists of a hole 6-12 inches in diameter dug in the area of the proposed septic system. The depth of this hole varies depending on the soils encountered but it is generally not greater than 24 inches. The hole is initially filled with water (presoak) in an attempt to saturate the soil, allowed to drain away and then refilled with approximately 12 inches of water. The rate at which the water drops in the hole is measured at intervals over a period of time ranging from 30-60 minutes. The uniform slowest rate of drop of the water level over a measured time interval is converted to minutes per inch and used as a basis of design in determining the septic system size. For example, if the water dropped uniformly 1\4 inch every five minutes the rate would be 20 minutes per inch. The Health Code provides a simple table that determines the size of the system based on the measured perk rate and the number of bedrooms in the home. The greater the number of bedrooms and the slower the percolation rate, the larger the system required. Commercial systems are sized using the perk rate and projected estimates of water usage in gallons per day. How to Run a Percolation Test Part 1 The following steps outline the procedure for performing a Percolation Test. 1. Dig at least six test holes. The holes should be:
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Evenly spaced, approximately 30-40 feet apart, but not less than 30 feet, in the area of the proposed septic field. At least six inches in diameter. Larger holes are acceptable, but will require more water. Dig to a depth of 24 inches. No closer than 3 feet to the 48-inch test hole. No closer than 75 feet to the nearest water well or proposed water well. No closer than 5 feet to any lot line or easement. No closer than 20 feet to any building. Not located in any easement or flood plain area. Not located in any area that has previously failed a percolation test.

o o o o o o o

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2. Dig a 48-inch test hole in the lowest part of the test area. 3. The bottom and sides of each 2-foot test hole may be roughened with a saw blade, knife, or other sharp instrument. It is advisable to roughen those surfaces, which may become smeared with mud during the digging process. Smearing of those surfaces will tend to reduce the seepage rate. Remove all loose soil from the bottom of the holes. 4. Fill each of the 2-foot test holes with water and refill as necessary to maintain a minimum depth of 12 inches for a period of at least four hours. This is the presoak. It must be conducted between 12 noon and 4 o'clock p.m. the day before the test. Health Department technicians may spot check the presoak to make sure it is being done properly. Note: DO NOT put any water in the 48-inch test hole. How to Run a Percolation Test Part 2 The following steps outline the procedure for performing a Percolation Test. 1. Prepare in advance of the test one wooden stake for each 2-foot test hole. Three nails should be pounded into each stake. The first nail should be three inches from the bottom of the stake, the second nail must be exactly six inches above the first nail, and the third nail must be exactly 20 inches above the second nail. 2. On the morning of the percolation test (the day following the presoak), the test holes should be cleaned out. Any loose soil or silt that accumulated at the bottom of the holes during the presoak should be removed. One of the stakes prepared per the instructions in #4 above should be driven into each hole so that the first nail rests on the bottom and the stake stands by itself. 3. At a time previously arranged between the percolation tester and the Health Department technician, each test hole is filled with water to the level of the second nail on the percolation test stake (which should be exactly six inches). NOTE: Do not wait for the technician to arrive to start the test. After one hour, the percolation tester shall measure how far the water has dropped in each test hole. The holes are then refilled with water to the level of the second nail. This process is repeated for at least three more hours. The Health Department technician will take the measurements for the second and all readings after that. 4. In very porous soils, the water in the test holes may seep away in less than an hour. When this happens, the Health Department technician may go to half-hour or even ten-minute readings. A test may also be extended to five or more hours if the last three readings are inconsistent.

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How to Run a Percolation Test Part 3 The following steps outline the procedure for performing a Percolation Test. The following is a summary of when and how a percolation test may be failed during the presoak. 1. No 48-inch test hole dug. 2. Evidence of seasonal high water table within 24 inches of the surface. (The test may be continued, but only at the request of the tester.) 3. Improper presoaking - less than 12 inches of water in any test hole at any time. 4. Filled lots when the Health Department has not been previously notified. 5. Isolation distances or other location problems with the test area. 6. There is evidence of impropriety. The following is a summary of how and when a perc test may be failed during the test itself. 1. At least half of the test holes fail to drop one inch or more in any of the hourly readings. 2. There is evidence of impropriety. When the percolation test is completed, most testers are anxious to know the results. The Health Department technician who witnessed the test may be able to say if a test fails, but never if it passes. Percolation test results usually take a few days to process. Testers should advise the Health Department technician during the percolation test about how he or she would like the results of the percolation test reported. Percolation test results are calculated using one of the following methods. The method, which results in the slowest percolation rate, is used. Soil Test A soil test is the analysis of a soil sample to determine nutrient content, composition and other characteristics. Tests are usually performed with a soil test kit to measure fertility and indicate deficiencies that need to be remedied. Soil testing is often performed by commercial labs that offer an extensive array of specific tests. Less comprehensive do-it-yourself kits are also available, usually with tests for three important plant nutrients - nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) - and for soil acidity (pH). Lab tests are more accurate, though both types are useful. The quality of the original soil sample plays a key role in determining the practical value of test results. Soil characteristics can vary significantly from one spot to another, even in a small garden or field. Sample depth is also an important factor. And the presence of various nutrients and other soil components varies during the year, so sample timing may also be important. Mixing soil from several locations to create an "average" sample is a common procedure. All of these considerations affect the interpretation of test results.

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Soil Test Components Soils vary widely in composition and structure from place to place. The best way to determine soil components is to use a soil test kit or hire a professional percolation test service. Soils are formed through the weathering of rock and the breakdown of organic matter. Weathering is the action of wind, rain, ice, sunlight and biological processes on rocks, which breaks them down into small particles. The proportions of minerals and organic matter determine the structure and other characteristics of a particular soil. Soils can be divided into two general layers (strata): topsoil, the topmost layer, where most plant roots, microorganisms, and other animal life are located, and subsoil, which is deeper and often more dense and contains less organic matter. Water and air are also components of soils. Mineral and organic solids comprise about half of the soil by volume. Water occupies the spaces between soil particles and is held by surface tension on particle surfaces. Air occupies the remaining void space. Both water and air components of soils are important to plant growth and other life in the soil profile of a particular ecosystem. The rock and mineral content of soils is categorized according to particle size, from sand (coarsest), to silt and clay (finest). The ratio of these particles to a great degree determines the soil classification and characteristics. Soil Test Kits Are you having trouble with your lawn, garden plants or garden vegetables? If so, you probably need to consider having your soil tested. After a soil test, you will be able to know exactly what is causing your soil trouble. There are several ways in which you can have your soil tested. The key is to use a soil test kit. You can use a home do-it-yourself soil test kit. Soil Test Services are also available to come and perform an on-site soil test or percolation test for you. A good soil test is essential because it lets you know the specific nutrient needs of your garden (and soil) so you do not waste money on the wrong fertilizers or soil enhancers. The soil test, as well as percolation tests will also let you know whether you need to raise or lower the pH of your soil. Careful soil testing and correction of the soil to the specific needs of your garden assures that each component of your soil gets exactly what it needs to grow to its fullest potential! How to Gather a Soil Sample Gather a soil sample from two to three inches below the surface of the ground using a clean instrument such as a soil sampler, trowel or spoon. Test results are sensitive to external factors such as ashes. Therefore, never smoke while gathering or testing your soil and avoid touching the sample with your hands. Put samples in clean containers and label according to which part of the garden they were gathered from.

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Samples should be taken from various areas, especially when there is a change in the elevation of the land or where there might be a variation in the soil (a particularly sunny spot, an area beneath a tree, a part of your garden that has been under cultivation, or low-lying areas which collect water). It is best to take samples from each corner and the center of the plot in any case. The soil should not be too wet. If it is not dry enough to walk on, allow it to air dry naturally rather than over direct heat. Remove solids and debris such as stones and pieces of wood without touching the soil. Crumble soil as finely as possible. This is easily accomplished by putting the sample in a plastic bag and crumbling or going over it with a rolling pin. Your sample is now ready for soil testing and/or percolation testing. Step by step procedure Successful design of an on-site sewage treatment system depends on an adequate site evaluation. The percolation test is only a small part of a complete site evaluation. Refer to Locating On-Site Home Sewage Treatment Systems, FO-0797, for the complete site evaluation procedure. Image Suitable soil is the key to providing adequate on-site sewage treatment. Soil that is too coarse will not do a good job of moving nutrients and bacteria. Loam or clay loam soil will do an excellent job of nutrient and bacteria removal but will require a relatively large soil treatment area. Seasonal saturation of a soil will cause sewage to back up if the trenches are constructed too deep. 1. Use soil borings to locate a suitable area. Soil borings should be at least 3 inches in diameter and at least 3 feet deeper than the bottom of the proposed soil treatment system. A boring may stop as soon as there is evidence of seasonal soil saturation or bedrock. Number the soil boring holes and locate them on a scale map of the site. Evaluate the soil texture (sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, etc.) for every foot of depth or at least where a change in soil texture occurs (Figure 1). Record this data on a log sheet of the boring hole. If you encounter seasonally saturated soil or an impervious layer (rock or clay) at a depth of 3 feet or closer to the ground surface, the area is not suitable for a subsurface soil treatment unit. A sewage treatment mound, however, could be installed at such a location if other factors were suitable. Seasonal saturation of soil is indicated by a gray color together with red streaks or splotches and is called mottling. The bottom of the drain field trench should be located no closer than 3 feet from the mottled soil. Even though the hole may be dry when you make the soil boring, the soil will be saturated during wet conditions and during the operation of the sewage treatment system. The system will fail in clay soil or inadequately treat sewage in coarse soil.

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The lawn area required for the soil treatment unit depends on the percolation rate of the soil (soil texture) and the amount of sewage discharged by the proposed or existing residence. Refer to your local sanitary code for required setbacks from buildings, property lines, water supply wells, etc. Take at least four soil borings in each soil texture in order to locate lawn area of adequate size. 2. Make an adequate number of percolation test holes. If the soil texture is uniform over the selected site, use at least two and preferably three percolation test holes. If the soil texture changes within the site, make at least two percolation test holes in each soil texture. Space the percolation test holes uniformly over the area proposed for the soil treatment unit. 3. Dig test holes. The test holes should be round and at least 6 inches, but no larger than 8 inches, in diameter. Dig each test hole as deep as you intend to excavate the soil treatment trench. The bottom of the percolation test hole must be at least 3 feet above the level of seasonally saturated soil or bedrock. A clam shell-type posthole digger can be used (Figure 2). If you use a 6-inch auger, it's a good idea to drill a pilot hole with the 3-inch auger. Observe and record the soil texture as the percolation test hole is being dug. 4. Prepare the percolation test holes. The auger or posthole digger is likely to smear the soil along the sidewalls of the test hole. Therefore, the bottom 12 inches of the sidewalls and the bottom of the hole should be scratched or scarified with a sharp, pointed instrument such as a knife. Nails driven into a 1 x 2-inch board as shown in Figure 3 will do a good job of scarifying the hole to provide an open, natural soil into which water may percolate. Remove all loose soil material from the bottom of the test hole. Add 2 inches of one-fourth to three-fourths inch gravel to protect the bottom from scouring when water is added. The gravel can be contained in a nylon mesh bag as shown in Figure 4 in order to be removed after the test is performed and used for additional percolation tests. 5. Distinguish between soil saturation and soil swelling. Saturation means that the voids between soil particles are full of water. This can happen in a short time. Swelling is caused by intrusion of water into individual soil particles. This is a slow process, especially in clay soils, and is why a prolonged soaking period is necessary for some soils. Carefully fill the percolation test hole with clear water to a depth of at least 12 inches above the soil bottom of the test hole.

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Use a hose to prevent the water from washing down the sides of the hole or add the water directly into the percometer as shown in Figure 6. A 6-inch diameter hole requires about 1.5 gallons per foot of depth. Sandy soil containing no clay does not swell. The percolation test may proceed immediately if the 12 inches of water seeps away in 10 minutes or less. The percolation test procedure for sandy soils is described under step 6C. For prolonged soil soaking, keep the 12-inch depth of water in the hole for at least four hours, and preferably overnight. Add water as necessary. You may use an automatic siphon or valve to maintain the 12-inch water depth (Figure 5). A valve made from the carburetor of a small engine is shown in Figure 7. 6. Measure percolation rate. Except for sandy soils, make the percolation rate measurements the day after completing step 5. 1. If there is more than 6 inches of water in the hole after the overnight swelling period, bail out enough water so that 6 inches of water remains above the gravel (8 inches if measured from the bottom of the hole). Measure the drop in the water level to the nearest 1/16 inch approximately every 30 minutes (Figure 8). If possible, use a percometer to determine the change in water level (Figure 9). A batter board can also be used as a reference point together with a hook gauge to accurately locate the water surface. The hook can be made from stiff wire or an 8d nail. After each measurement, refill the water in the hole so that the liquid depth is 6 inches above the gravel. Continue taking measurements until three consecutive percolation rates vary by a range of no more than 10 percent . 2. If no water remains in the hole after the overnight swelling period, add 6 inches of clear water above the gravel. Measure the drop in the liquid level to the nearest 1/16 inch approximately every 30 minutes. After each measurement, refill the water to a depth of 6 inches above the gravel. Continue the water level drop measurements until three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent. 3. In sandy soils, or other soils in which the first 6 inches of water seep away in less than 30 minutes after the overnight swelling period, allow about 10 minutes between measurements. On some very sandy soils, use a stop watch and measure the time in seconds for the water level to drop from 6 to 5 inches.

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4. Refill the percolation test hole after each measurement to bring water to 6 inches above the gravel. Continue taking readings until three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent 7. Calculate percolation rate. Divide the time interval by the drop in water level to determine the percolation rate in minutes per inch (MPI). Examples: 1. If the drop in water level is 5/8 inch in 30 minutes, the percolation rate is

2. If the drop is 2 1/2 inches in 10 minutes, then the percolation rate is

8. Calculate the percolation rate for each reading (see sample field notes). When three consecutive percolation rates vary by no more than 10 percent, use the average value of these readings to determine the percolation rate for the test hole. Percolation rates determined for each test hole should be averaged in order to determine the design percolation rate. For reporting the percolation rate, worksheets showing all measurements and calculations should be submitted with the site evaluation report. You can reproduce the blank form on the back page of this folder for use in recording percolation test data. 9. Note that a percolation test should not be run where frost exists in the soil below the depth of the proposed sewage treatment system. 10. Determine the trench bottom area. Table 1 shows sewage flows and soil treatment areas. The amount of trench bottom area required depends on the texture of the soil as measured by the percolation rate, the daily sewage flow, and the depth of rock placed below the distribution pipe. The daily amount of sewage wastes must be estimated in order to size the soil treatment unit. For residences, the daily amount of sewage flow is based on the number of bedrooms and the type of residence. A luxury, three-bedroom house likely will generate more sewage than a more modest house. Sewage flows for different types of houses can be estimated from Table 1. Using a large sewage flow provides a factor of safety in sizing the soil treatment unit. Also consider future house expansion.

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To illustrate how to use Table 1, determine the amount of trench bottom area required for a threebedroom, type I dwelling. The soil percolation rate, as measured by the percolation data presented on page 7, is 22.3 MPI. From Table 1, a three-bedroom, type I dwelling is estimated to generate 450 gallons of sewage per day. The trench bottom area required for a percolation rate in the range of 16 to 30 is 1.67 square feet per gallon of waste per day.Thus, the total required bottom area is 1.67 X 450 = 750 square feet for trenches with 6 inches of rock below the distribution pipe. If 12 inches of rock is used as recommended, the trench bottom area can be reduced by 20 percent (see footnote a, Table 2). The required trench bottom area is then 0.80 X 750 = 600 square feet. The trench bottom area can be reduced by 34 percent for 18 inches of rock below the distribution pipe and by 40 percent for the maximum rock depth of 24 inches. As rock depth increases the required trench bottom area decreases, because more soil is exposed along the trench sidewall and a greater liquid depth increases the flow through the trench bottom. The minimum trench width is 18 inches; the maximum width is 36 inches. Using 36-inch wide trenches in the above example, total trench length with 12 inches of rock below the distribution pipe is 200 lineal feet (600 3). It is recommended that the 200 lineal feet should be divided into two or more trenches. The sewage effluent should be distributed between the trenches by means of drop boxes.

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