Fault Location (Distance to fault) Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection Teed feeder protection Alternative setting groups CT supervision Check

synchroniser Auto-reclose CB state monitoring CB condition monitoring CB control Measurement of voltages, currents, etc. Event Recorder Disturbance Recorder CB failure detection/logic Directional/Non-directional phase fault overcurrent protection (backup to distance protection) Directional/Non-directional earth fault overcurrent protection (backup to distance protection) Negative sequence protection Under/Overvoltage protection Stub-bus protection Broken conductor detection User-programmable scheme logic Table 11.1: Additional features in a distance relay

Relay parameter ZL1 (mag) ZL1 (ang) ZLO (mag) ZLO (ang) KZO (mag) KZO (ang) Z1 (mag) Z1 (ang) Z2 (mag) Z2 (ang) Z3 (mag) Z3 (ang) R1ph R2ph R3ph TZ1 TZ2 TZ3 R1G R2G R3G

Parameter description Line positive sequence impedance (magnitude) Line positive sequence impedance (phase angle) Line zero sequence impedance (magnitude) Line zero sequence impedance (phase angle) Default residual compensation factor (magnitude) Default residual compensation factor (phase angle) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (magnitude) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (phase angle) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (magnitude) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (phase angle) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (magnitude) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (phase angle) Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 Time delay - Zone 1 Time delay - Zone 2 Time delay - Zone 3 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 3

Parameter value 48.42 79.41 163.26 74.87 0.79 -6.5 38.74 80 62.95 80 83.27 80 78 78 78 0 0.35 0.8 104 104 104

Units deg deg deg deg deg deg s s s

Table 11.2: Distance relay parameters for example

11.12 DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATION EXAMPLE The system diagram shown in Figure 11.22 shows a simple 230kV network. The following example shows the calculations necessary to apply three-zone distance protection to the line interconnecting substations ABC and XYZ. All relevant data for this exercise are given in the diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral characteristics is considered in this example. Relay parameters used in the example are listed in Table 11.2. Calculations are carried out in terms of primary system impedances in ohms, rather than the traditional practice of using secondary impedances. With numerical relays, where the CT and VT ratios may be entered as parameters, the scaling between primary and secondary ohms can be performed by the relay. This simplifies the example by allowing calculations to be carried out in
ABC 1000/1A XYZ 60km 230kV 230kV/110V 230kV PQR

primary quantities and eliminates considerations of VT/CT ratios. For simplicity, it is assumed that only a conventional 3zone distance protection is to be set and that there is no teleprotection scheme to be considered. In practice, a teleprotection scheme would normally be applied to a line at this voltage level.

11.12.1 Line Impedance The line impedance is: ZL = (0.089 + j0.476) x 100 = 8.9 + j47.6 = 48.42 79.41
0

Use values of 48.42 (magnitude) and 800 (angle) as nearest settable values.

230kV

11.12.2 Residual Compensation The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive sequence impedance of the protected line. Since the zero sequence impedance of the line between substations ABC and XYZ is different from the positive sequence impedance, the impedance seen by the relay in the case of an earth fault, involving the passage of zero sequence current, will be different to that seen for a phase fault.

Z< Source Impedance: 5000MVA max = + /km /km

Figure 11.22: Example network for distance relay setting calculation

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Distance P rotection 11

Hence, the earth fault reach of the relay requires zero sequence compensation (see Section 11.9.2). For the relay used, this adjustment is provided by the residual (or neutral) compensation factor KZ0, set equal to: K Z0 =

11.12.5 Zone 3 Phase Reach Zone 3 is set to cover 120% of the sum of the lines between substations ABC and PQR, provided this does not result in any transformers at substation XYZ being included. It is assumed that this constraint is met. Hence, Zone 3 reach: 48.42 79.41 o + = 1.2 60 0.484 79.41 o = 83.27 79.41 o Use a setting of 83.2780 0, nearest available setting. 11.12.6 Zone Time Delay Settings Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with those of other relays is required. Independent timers are available for the three zones to ensure this. For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal. A time delay is used only in cases where large d.c. offsets occur and old circuit breakers, incapable of breaking the instantaneous d.c. component, are involved. The Zone 2 element has to grade with the relays protecting the line between substations XYZ and PQR since the Zone 2 element covers part of these lines. Assuming that this line has distance, unit or instantaneous high-set overcurrent protection applied, the time delay required is that to cover the total clearance time of the downstream relays. To this must be added the reset time for the Zone 2 element following clearance of a fault on the adjacent line, and a suitable safety margin. A typical time delay is 350ms, and the normal range is 200-500ms. The considerations for the Zone 3 element are the same as for the Zone 2 element, except that the downstream fault clearance time is that for the Zone 2 element of a distance relay or IDMT overcurrent protection. Assuming distance relays are used, a typical time is 800ms. In summary: TZ1 = 0ms (instantaneous) TZ2 = 250ms TZ3 = 800ms 11.12.7 Phase Fault Resistive Reach Settings With the use of a quadrilateral characteristic, the resistive reach settings for each zone can be set independently of the impedance reach settings. The resistive reach setting represents the maximum amount of additional fault resistance (in excess of the line impedance) for which a zone will trip, regardless of the fault within the zone.

( Z0

Z1 )

3 Z1

K Z0 =

( Z0

Z1 )

3 Z1

For each of the transmission lines: Z L1 = 0.089 + j 0.476 0.484 79.41o Z L0

o

( ) = 0.426 + j1.576 (1.632 74.87 )

K Z 0 = 0.792 K Z 0 = 6.5 o

Hence,

11.12.3 Zone 1 Phase Reach

Distance P rotection

The required Zone 1 reach is 80% of the line impedance. Therefore, 0.8 48.42 79.41 o = 38.74 79.41 o Use 38.7480 nearest settable value. 11.12.4 Zone 2 Phase Reach Ideally, the requirements for setting Zone 2 reach are: 1. at least 120% of the protected line 2. less than the protected line + 50% of the next line

11

Sometimes, the two requirements are in conflict. In this case, both requirements can be met. A setting of the whole of the line between substations ABC and XYZ, plus 50% of the adjacent line section to substation PQR is used. Hence, Zone 2 reach: 48.42 79.41 o + = 0.5 60 0.089 + j 0.476 = 62.95 79.41 Use 62.9580 0 nearest available setting.
o

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Two constraints are imposed upon the settings, as follows: i. it must be greater than the maximum expected phase-phase fault resistance (principally that of the fault arc) ii. it must be less than the apparent resistance measured due to the heaviest load on the line The minimum fault current at Substation ABC is of the order of 1.8kA, leading to a typical arc resistance Rarc using the van Warrington formula (Equation 11.4) of 8. Using the current transformer ratio as a guide to the maximum expected load current, the minimum load impedance Zlmin will be 130. Typically, the resistive reaches will be set to avoid the minimum load impedance by a 40% margin for the phase elements, leading to a maximum resistive reach setting of 78. Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 8 and 78. Allowance should be made for the effects of any remote fault infeed, by using the maximum resistive reach possible. While each zone can have its own resistive reach setting, for this simple example they can all be set equal. This need not always be the case, it depends on the particular distance protection scheme used and the need to include Power Swing Blocking.

11.13 REFERENCES

11.1 Protective Relays their Theory and Practice. A.R. van C. Warrington. Chapman and Hall, 1962.

R3ph = 78 R2ph = 78 R1ph = 78 11.12.8 Earth Fault Impedance Reach Settings By default, the residual compensation factor as calculated in Section 11.12.2 is used to adjust the phase fault reach setting in the case of earth faults, and is applied to all zones.

11.12.9 Earth Fault Resistive Reach Settings The margin for avoiding the minimum load impedance need only be 20%. Hence the settings are: R3G = 104 R2G = 104 R1G = 104 This completes the setting of the relay. Table 11.2 also shows the settings calculated.

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Suitable settings are chosen to be 80% of the load resistance:

13.7 EXAMPLES In this section, an example calculation illustrating the solution to a problem mentioned in this Chapter is given.

13.7.1 Distance Relay applied to Parallel Circuits The system diagram shown in Figure 13.23 indicates a simple 110kV network supplied from a 220kV grid through two auto-transformers. The following example shows the calculations necessary to check the suitability of three zone distance protection to the two parallel feeders interconnecting substations A and B, Line 1 being selected for this purpose. All relevant data for this exercise are given in the diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral characteristics is used to provide the relay data for the example. Relay quantities used in the example are listed in Table 13.3, and calculations are carried out in terms of actual system impedances in ohms, rather than CT secondary quantities. This simplifies the calculations, and enables the example to be simplified by excluding considerations of CT ratios. Most modern distance relays permit settings to be specified in system quantities rather than CT secondary quantities, but older relays may require the system quantities to be converted to impedances as seen by the relay.

TZ3 R1G R2G R3G

Time delay - Zone 3 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 3

0.45 84.8 84.8 84.8

Table 13.3: Distance relay settings

13.7.1.1 Residual compensation The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive sequence impedance of the protected line. Since the earth fault impedance of Line 1 is different from the positive sequence impedance, the impedance seen by the relay in the case of a fault involving earth will be different to that seen for a phase fault. Hence, the reach of the earth fault elements of the relay needs to be different. For the relay used, this adjustment is provided by the residual (or neutral) compensation factor Kzo, set equal to: K ZO =

(Z o Z1 )
3Z1

K ZO = For Lines 1 and 2,

(Zo Z1 )
3Z1

ZL1 =0.177 + j0.402

(0.43966.236 o )
Z LO =0.354 + j1.022

(1.08270.895 o )
Hence,
Figure 13.23: Example network for distance relay setting calculation

K ZO =0.490 K ZO =7.8 o
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P rotection of Complex Transmission Circuits 13

Relay Parameter ZL1 (mag) ZL1 (ang) ZL0 (mag) ZL0 (ang) KZ0 (mag) KZ0 (ang) Z1 (mag) Z1 (ang) Z2 (mag) Z2 (ang) Z3 (mag) Z3 (ang) R1ph R2ph R3ph KZ1 (mag) KZ1 (ang) KZ2 (mag) KZ2 (ang) TZ1 TZ2

Parameter Parameter Description Value Line positive sequence impedance (magnitude) 21.95 Line positive sequence impedance (phase angle) 66.236 Line zero sequence impedance (magnitude) 54.1 Line zero sequence impedance (phase angle) 70.895 Default residual compensation factor (magnitude) 0.49 Default residual compensation factor (phase angle) 7.8 Zone 1 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 17.56 Zone 1 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 Zone 2 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 30.73 Zone 2 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 Zone 3 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 131.8 Zone 3 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 84.8 Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 84.8 Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 84.8 Zone 1 residual compensation factor (magnitude) 0.426 Zone 1 residual compensation factor (phase angle) 9.2 Zone 2 residual compensation factor (magnitude) not used Zone 2 residual compensation factor (phase angle) not used 0 Time delay - Zone 1 0.25 Time delay - Zone 2

Units deg deg deg deg deg deg deg deg s s

13.7.1.2 Zone impedance reach settings phase faults Firstly, the impedance reaches for the three relay zones are calculated. 13.7.1.3 Zone 1 reach Zone 1 impedance is set to 80% of the impedance of the protected line. Hence, Z1 =0.8 50 (0.43966.236 o ) = 0.8 21.95 66.236 o =17.5666.236 o Use a value of 17.56 66.3 o 13.7.1.4 Zone 2 reach Zone 2 impedance reach is set to cover the maximum of: (i) 120% of Line 1 length (ii) Line 1 + 50% of shortest line from Substation B i.e. 50% of Line 4 From the line impedances given, (i) 1.221.95 66.236 o = 26.3466.236 o
o (ii) 21.95 66.236 +

13.7.1.6 Zone Time Delay Settings Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with those of other relays is required. Independent timers are available for the three zones to ensure this. For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal. A time delay is used only in cases where large d.c. offsets occur and old circuit breakers, incapable of breaking the instantaneous d.c. component, are involved. The Zone 2 element has to grade with the relays protecting Lines 3 and 4 since the Zone 2 element covers part of these lines. Assuming that Lines 3/4 have distance, unit or instantaneous high-set overcurrent protection applied, the time delay required is that to cover the total clearance time of the downstream relays. To this must be added the reset time for the Zone 2 elements following clearance of a fault on an adjacent line, and a suitable safety margin. A typical time delay is 250ms, and the normal range is 200-300ms. The considerations for the Zone 3 element are the same as for the Zone 2 element, except that the downstream fault clearance time is that for the Zone 2 element of a distance relay or IDMT overcurrent protection. Assuming distance relays are used, a typical time is 450ms. In summary: TZ1 = 0ms (instantaneous) TZ2 = 250ms TZ3 = 450ms 13.7.1.7 Phase Fault Resistive Reach Settings With the use of a quadrilateral characteristic, the resistive reach settings for each zone can be set independently of the impedance reach settings. The resistive reach setting represents the maximum amount of additional fault resistance (in excess of the line impedance) for which a zone will trip, regardless of the fault within the zone. Two constraints are imposed upon the settings, as follows: (i) it must be greater than the maximum expected phase-phase fault resistance (principally that of the fault arc) (ii) it must be less than the apparent resistance measured due to the heaviest load on the line The minimum fault current at Substation B is of the order of 1.5kA, leading to a typical arc resistance Rarc using the van Warrington formula (equation 11.6) of 9. Using the current transformer ratio on Line 1 as a guide to the maximum expected load current, the minimum load impedance Zlmin will be 106. Typically, the resistive reaches will be set to avoid the minimum load impedance by a 20% margin for the phase elements, leading to a maximum resistive reach setting of 84.8..

P rotection of Complex Transmission Circuits

0.5 40 0.439 66.236 o It is clear that condition (ii) governs the setting, and therefore the initial Zone 2 reach setting is: Z2 =30.7366.3 o The effect of parallel Line 2 is to make relay 1 underreach for faults on adjacent line sections, as discussed in Section 11.9.3. This is not a problem for the phase fault elements because Line 1 will always be protected. 13.7.1.5 Zone 3 reach The function of Zone 3 is to provide backup protection for uncleared faults in adjacent line sections. The criterion used is that the relay should be set to cover 120% of the impedance between the relay location and the end of the longest adjacent line, taking account of any possible fault infeed from other circuits or parallel paths. In this case, faults in Line 3 will result in the relay under-reaching due to the parallel Lines 1 and 2, so the impedance of Line 3 should be doubled to take this effect into account. Therefore, 21.9566.3 o Z3 =1.2 +100 2 0.43966.3 o =131.8 66.3 o

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Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 9 and 84.8. While each zone can have its own resistive reach setting, for this simple example, all of the resistive reach settings can be set equal (depending on the particular distance protection scheme used and the need to include Power Swing Blocking, this need not always be the case). Suitable settings are chosen to be 80% of the load resistance: R3 ph =84.8 R2 ph =84.8 R1ph =84.8 13.7.1.8 Earth Fault Reach Settings By default, the residual compensation factor as calculated in section 13.7.1.1 is used to adjust the phase fault reach setting in the case of earth faults, and is applied to all zones. However, it is also possible to apply this compensation to zones individually. Two cases in particular require consideration, and are covered in this example. 13.7.1.9 Zone 1 earth fault reach Where distance protection is applied to parallel lines (as in this example), the Zone 1 earth fault elements may sometimes over-reach and therefore operate when one line is out of service and earthed at both ends The solution is to reduce the earth fault reach of the Zone 1 element to typically 80% of the default setting. Hence: K Z1 =0.8 K ZO =0.8 0.532 =0.426 In practice, the setting is selected by using an alternative setting group, selected when the parallel line is out of service and earthed. 13.7.1.10 Zone 2 earth fault reach With parallel circuits, the Zone 2 element will tend to under-reach due to the zero sequence mutual coupling between the lines. Maloperation may occur, particularly for earth faults occurring on the remote busbar. The effect can be countered by increasing the Zone 2 earth fault reach setting, but first it is necessary to calculate the amount of under-reach that occurs. Underreach = Zadj I fltp I flt

where: Zadj = impedance of adjacent line covered by Zone 2 I fltp = fault current in parallel line I flt = total fault current since the two parallel lines are identical, and hence, for Lines 1 and 2, Under - reach = 8.78 66.3 o 0.5 = 4.39 66.3 o % Under-reach = and hence % Under-reach = 14.3% This amount of under-reach is not significant and no adjustment need be made. If adjustment is required, this can be achieved by using the KZ2 relay setting, increasing it over the KZ0 setting by the percentage under-reach. When this is done, care must also be taken that the percentage over-reach during single circuit operation is not excessive if it is then use can be made of the alternative setting groups provided in most modern distance relays to change the relay settings according to the number of circuits in operation. 13.7.1 11 Ground fault resistive reach settings The same settings can be used as for the phase fault resistive reaches. Hence, R3G = 84.8 R2G = 84.8 R1G = 84.8 This completes the setting of the relay. Table 13.3 also shows the settings calculated. 13.8 REFERENCES 13.1 Some factors affecting the accuracy of distance type protective equipment under earth fault conditions. Davison, E.B. and Wright, A. Proc. IEE Vol. 110, No. 9, Sept. 1963, pp. 1678-1688. 13.2 Distance protection performance under conditions of single-circuit working in doublecircuit transmission lines. Humpage, W.D. and Kandil, M.S. Proc. IEE. Vol. 117. No. 4, April 1970, pp. 766-770. 13.3 Distance protection of tee'd circuits. Humpage, W.A. and Lewis, D.W. Proc. IEE, Vol. 114, No. 10, Oct. 1967, pp. 1483-1498.

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Under-reach Reach of protected zone

Section 7.3 Distance Protection of Lines

265

close to a region representing normal load conditions. If this is the case, the illustrated relay characteristic may have to be supervised by blinders.

7.3 . 3 Effect of Fault Resistance

The impedance of a typical transmission line is highly inductive. Typical impedance phase angles will be in the range of 65-85 degrees, depending on the conductor size, spacing, and bundling. This means that the line impedance characteristic in the complex Z plane, which is inclined at the impedance angle, will usually be oriented as shown in the previous figures. This impedance, however, does not include the impedance of the fault itself, which is typically an arcing resistance. Warrington [3] gives the following formula for the resistance of an arcing fault.
Rare

==

8750(s

11.4

+ ut)

(7.8)

where

s == conductor spacing (ft) u == wind velocity (milhr) t == time (s) I == rms fault current (A) Rare == fault arc resistance (Q)

The effect of the arc resistance on distance relaying is to move the end-of-reach impedance to the right in the Z plane, due to the addition of the arc resistance. This effect is shown in Figure 7.19. Note that the arc resistance is usually more pronounced at the far end of the reach because the current is smaller at the greater distance and current appears in the denominator of (7.8). An example illustrates the point.

+x

-R - -........~--------~~ + R
Figure 7.19 Effect of arc resistance on impedance seen by the relay.

-x

EXAMPLE 7.3 Consider a radial 69 kV line 30 miles long with an equivalent spacing of 10ft. Let the total impedance of this line and the source be
ZL

== 11 + j22 Q Z s == () + j 25 Q

Ztotal

== 11 + j47 Q == 48.27 [76.83

266 1. End ofline fault

Chapter 7 Introduction to Transmission Protection

= 825.3 A 48.3J3 8750(10) Rare = (825.3)1.4 = 7.2 Q

I

69,000

2. Close-in fault

= 1593.5 A 25.0J3 8750(10) Rare = (1593.5)1.4 = 2.9 Q

I

69,000

In this case the arc resistance is about 2.5 times greater at the far end of the line due to the difference in fault current. For very long lines the difference can be great, especially if the source impedance is small. Clearly, the reach of the distance relay is reduced because of the arc resistance. One might be willing to accept a small reduction in the reach of zone 1, the instantaneous zone. However, it would not be good practice to have zone 2 fail to reach beyond the far end of the protected line, because this would mean that line tripping would be delayed for time T3 , which is considered unacceptable. This should be checked for any given relay application. Warrington suggests the following method of checking this reduction in reach [4]. Figure 7.20 shows a typical mho unit protecting a transmission line of impedance Z with the circle illustrated being that of zone 2. The reach of zone 2 is set as follows. Reach of zone 2 = ZL

+ Kz

= d

(7.9)

This reach corresponds to the diameter, d, of the circle. We may also compute, from Figure 7.20(a), (7.10) where, from the law of cosines and, from Figure 7.20 (7.12)
+X

a 2 = R;rc + K~ - 2RarcKzcoslf>

(7.11)

~-~-~-~+R

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.20 Loss of reach due to arc resistance with a mho relay characteristic. (a) Normal orientation. (b) Circle rotated.

Backup Fault Protection

109

When relay current is taken from the generator terminals. The offset characteristic must be used if the relay is to provide backup protection for the system and stator winding because the stator fault impedance appears in the third quadrant. There are no hard rules for the amount of offset required for this application, but if the relay is intended to provide backup fault protection for the generator, 00 the offset should include X d. This application will not provide stator protection when the generator is off line since the terminal CTs would see no current for this condition. The probability of the 21 function being required to operate for a zero voltage three-phase fault is very low. A three-phase fault is itself a very improbable event. Equally improbable is the occurrence of this fault without arcing in any phase; arcing would result in fault voltage. The nal requirement is that these sets of circumstances occur in conjunction with the failure of the primary relaying. In the end, a decision to use a mho relay and not cover the zero voltage condition could be justied. However, when an option exists between using a mho or offset mho characteristic, the latter would be the right choice.

4.3.1.3 System Impedance vs. Relay Characteristic For the purpose of discussion, assume that the sample system generator supplies a radial system as shown in Figure 4.26. The transformer is connected delta-delta and has impedance of 6.5% on the transformers MVA base. Phase distance relays are connected to 6000/5 CTs at the neutral end of the generator. The relays receive potential from 13,800 120 V PTs at the generator terminals. The 21 function is intended to provide backup tripping for faults on the radial lines extending from the stations 69 kV bus. The longest line has a positive sequence of 35% /708. The line impedance is given on the generator base, 104.4 MVA. The reach, offset and maximum torque angle of the relay must be chosen. The relay reach must be set such that the impedance seen by the relay for a fault at the end of the longest line will be within the relays characteristic circle. The relay PTs are located at the 13.8 kV terminals of the generator; therefore, the impedance measured by the relay will include the stepup transformer and the line. The per unit impedances of the line and transformer must be converted to ohms as viewed from the 13.8 kV system, where the relay PTs and CTs are located. Ohms are found by multiplying the per unit impedance by the base ohms: kVAbase Ibase p 3 kVbase Zbase kVbase 1000 kVbase 2 p V or Zbase MVAbase 3Ibase (4:48)

97 MVA 13.8-69 Kv Z = 6.5% Xd" 104.4 MVA ZL1 = 35% 70

FIGURE 4.26 Distribution system.

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The transformer impedance is 6.5% or 0.065 pu on a 97 MVA base and is assumed to be a pure reactance. The transformers ohmic impedance as seen from the 13.8 kV system is Ztr 13:82 j0:065 j0:128 V 97

The line impedance is 35% at 708 on a 104.4 MVA base, or ZL 13:82 0:35/708 104:4

0:638/708 V 0:218 j 0:600 V The transformer reactance and line impedance are plotted on Figure 4.27. The total impedance for the line and transformer is 0.218 j 0.728 V 0.76 V /73.38. The maximum torque angle is set close to, but less than the total impedance angle. A MTA of 708 is chosen here. The reduced angle allows the relay to see some additional resistance, which can result from arcing at the point of fault. The minimum relay reach is chosen to be 125% of the impedance of the line and transformer or 1.25 0.76 0.95 primary ohms at 73.38. The relay reach at 708 MTA to include the required reach at the line angle (uL) is given by ReachMTA ReachuL cosMTA uL

for a line angle of 73.38 the conversion has little effect Reach70
W

0:95V W 0:951 ohm@70 cosMTA uL

Because neutral end CTs are used, an offset is not necessary to detect faults in the stator winding. A small offset will be incorporated to ensure relay operation for a three-phase bolted fault at the generator terminals. An offset of about 10% of the reach or 0.1 primary ohm will be used.
X MTA = 70 Reach = 0.95 Prim

0.5 ZLine Xtr R 0.5

FIGURE 4.27 Circuit impedance and mho setting.

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The PT and CT ratios are 115:1 and 1200:1, respectively; therefore, the actual reach setting applied to the relay in secondary ohms is Zsec Zprim RCT 1200 9:91 sec V/708 0:95 115 RPT

The offset in secondary ohms would be Zsec 0:10 1200 1:04 sec V/708 115

4.3.2 SETTING CONSIDERATIONS

4.3.2.1 Load Limits The load at the generator terminals can be represented as an equivalent impedance. If this load impedance falls within the phase distance relays characteristic, the relay will operate. The sample system generator is rated at 104.4 MVA, 13.8 kV, 0.85 PF. Full load current is 4368 A. At rated load and voltage the distance relay will measure system impedance as Zfull where
load

13, 800 1:82 prim V/u8 p 3 4368

u arccos(0:85) 31:88

This point is well outside the 0.95 ohm reach chosen for the relay but this does not imply that a setting that excludes the load point will be immune from misoperation under load. Network transients such as faults and line switching require generators connected to the power system to adjust to the new system conguration. In a stable system, each machine will settle to a new operating point after a damped oscillation. During these transients, generator Watt/Var output can substantially exceed the generator rating. These power system swings will appear as a point on the R X diagram with a circular or spiral trajectory. If the impedance swing enters and remains within the relay characteristic for a period of time exceeding the relays trip delay, the relay will operate. This is a worst-case scenario for a misoperation of a generator protective relay. The resulting loss of generation will tend to amplify the system transient, with the potential to initiate tie line trips and cascading loss of generation and system collapse. To avoid misoperation on power system swings, the distance relay reach should not be less then two times the generator rating. Primary ohmic reach and load are related as follows: Zprim kV2 V MVA (4:49)

Limiting the phase distance relay to 2 104.4MVA, the maximum reach would be Zprim (13:8 kV)2 0:91 prim V 2 (104:4 MVA)

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Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

The previously calculated relay reach was 0.95 prim V. This exceeds the suggested maximum setting, but the 0.95 V setting was applicable to a radial system, which would not be exposed to swings.

4.3.2.2

Apparent Impedance

When a distance relay is required to provide backup protection for network line faults, the effect of infeed currents must be considered. The infeeds increase the impedance of the faulted line seen by the distance relay. This increase occurs because relay current and the faulted line current are not the same. Referring to Figure 4.28, with infeeds, the voltage at the relay is V Xtr Ir ZL If The impedance seen by the relay is Z V Xtr Ir ZL If If Xtr ZL Ir Ir Ir (4:50)

The apparent impedance of the line is determined by the ratio of fault current to relay current. The sample system generator is connected to a network bus. This conguration apparent impedance would necessitate a much larger reach to detect a line end fault than that calculated for the radial system of Figure 4.26. An additional complication arises because the apparent impedance increases with time as the generator current decays. The initial impedance seen by the 21 function is determined by the current distribution with the generator impedance equal to 00 X d as shown in Figure 4.9. The current angles are not shown in the gure but are included in the calculation. The resulting impedance seen initially by the relay is Z Ztr ZL If Ir 2100/718 V 650/818

j 0:128 0:638/708 2:19/808 V

The 21 function must have a time delay and will not clear the fault immediately. If the fault persists until the generator impedance reaches Xd, the generator current will decay from its

I PT 21 Ztr IR V If I

ZL

FIGURE 4.28 Apparent impedance.

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initial value of 650 A to a sustained value of 110 A, as shown in Figure 4.10. The apparent impedance increases to Z j 0:128 0:638/708 11:6/838 V Neither of the settings required to see line end faults under network conditions can be applied, because either would limit load signicantly. Equation (4.49) can be used to relate relay reach to load. The 2.19 primary ohm setting is equivalent to 86 MVA and the 11.6 V setting equals a 16.4 MVA limit. These load limits do not include the 200% setting margin recommended to prevent misoperation for system transients. This example demonstrates why remote backup relaying cannot be applied effectively in the majority of cases. It also shows why local breaker failure schemes are required to clear network line faults when the primary protect system failures. 4.3.2.3 Inuence of an Interposing Wye-Delta Transformer When the 21 function is required to detect faults through a wye-delta transformer the phase shift may alter the impedance measured by the relay elements. This is dependent on the relay design. Distance relays whose response is dened by Equation (4.35) to Equation (4.37) will not measure the true positive sequence impedance for phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground faults. There are distance relays that measure circuit impedance using sequence quantities generated within the relay. A phase-to-phase and a three-phase sensing unit instead of A B, B C, and C A units distinguish this type of relay. These relays are not affected by the transformer phase shift and accurately measure three-phase and phase-to-phase fault impedance through the delta-wye transformer. The impedance measured by distance elements that sense V/I as dened by Equation (4.35) to Equation (4.37) can be determined from the input equations that include the 308 shift imposed by the wye-delta transformer. General equations are derived by substituting the shifted phase-tophase voltages and delta currents, Equation (4.17) to Equation (4.19), into impedance Equation (4.35) to Equation (4.37). ZAB ZBC ZCA V1 /608 V2 /608 I1 /608 I2 /608 V1 /608 V2 /608 I1 /608 I2 /608 V 1 V2 I1 I2 (4:51) (4:52) (4:53) 1980/718 110/848

Again, the specic impedances measured for a given fault condition are found by substituting the sequence quantities for that fault conditions into the general equations. Three-Phase Fault For a three-phase fault there is no effect. Only positive sequence quantities are generated by the fault. Since both positive sequence current and voltage are shifted by 308, the impedance seen is Zs1 . ZAB ZBC ZCA Zs1

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Phase-to-Phase The impedances seen by the delta-side relays for a wye-side B C phase fault are found by substituting Equation (4.25) to Equation (4.29) into Equation (4.51) to Equation (4.53). The resulting impedances are ZAB ZBC p 3 Xg2 /908 1:15Zs1 /308 3 p 3 Xg2 /908 1:15Zs1 /308 3 (4:54) (4:55) (4:56)

ZCA 1

If the transformer for the radial distribution system shown in Figure 4.26 were delta-wye, the impedances measured for a phase-to-phase fault at the end of the longest line would have been ZAB 1:15(0:76/738)/308 0:93/408 V ZBC p 3 (0:129/908)/908 1:15(0:76/738)/308 3 0:89/1078 V Not only is the magnitude of the measured impedance increased, but the angle is shifted. A much larger reach setting will be required. The setting must encompass the impedance seen for a threephase fault and at least one of the phase-to-phase fault impedances as shown in Figure 4.29. p 3 (0:129/908)/908 3

Phase-to-Ground Fault Generally the 21 function would not be required to detect ground faults on the wye side of the stepup transformer. A ground relay in the transformer neutral is usually provided for this purpose.
Reach = 1.18 Prim 125% MTA = 45 125% ZBC Z3 0.5 125%

ZAB

R 0.5

FIGURE 4.29 Distance relay setting with delta-wye transformer.

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The impedance measured by the delta-side relay for an A-phase-to-ground on the wye winding is found by substituting Equation (4.30) through Equation (4.34) into Equation (4.51) through Equation (4.53); the resulting equations are ZAB (2Zs1 Zs0 )/608 ZBC p 3Xg2 /908 p (2Zs1 Zs0 )/608 3Xg2 /908 Zs0 2 (4:57) (4:58) (4:59)

ZCA Zs1

Substituting values for the radial system in Figure 4.26 into these equations and assuming Zs0/Zs1 3.8, the resulting impedances are ZAB 4.55 V at 1358, ZBC 4.61 V at 128, and ZCA 2.20 V at 738. A setting to detect the 69 kV ground fault could not be applied because it would be load limiting. This emphasizes the reason an overcurrent ground relay is applied at the transformer neutral. The above analysis is applicable to a radial system without infeeds. If infeeds are involved, the measured impedances will be increased. To evaluate this condition the sequence currents at the relay and the sequence voltages at the generator must be derived from a reduction of the individual sequence networks. An example of this calculation is found in the literature.3

4.3.2.4 Auxiliary PTs to Correct for Wye-Delta Phase Shift The installation of wye-delta auxiliary PTs is advocated by many texts including standards.3 These PTs, when phased properly, will negate the voltage phase shift caused by the power transformer. The resulting voltages seen by the distance relays are equivalent to those seen for a fault through a wye-wye or delta-delta transformer. The impedance measured by distance relaying connected in this fashion is proportional to the line impedance. An exact replica of the line impedance would only be achieved if the auxiliary CTs were added to eliminate the phase shift in the relay current. With auxiliary PTs installed, the impedance measured by the distance relays would be derived from Equation (4.11) to Equation (4.13) and Equation (4.17) to Equation (4.19) as follows: ZAB ZBC ZCA V1 /308 V2 /308 I1 /608 I2 /608 V1 /2708 V2 /908 I1 /608 I2 /608 V1 /1508 V2 /1508 (I1 I2 ) (4:60) (4:61) (4:62)

Three-Phase Fault The magnitude of the measured impedance for a three-phase fault is again unaffected. But the resulting 2308 would affect the reach setting necessary to encompass the measured impedance within the relay characteristic. ZAB ZBC ZCA V1 Zs1 /308 I1 /308 (4:63)

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Phase-to-Phase Fault Substituting phase-to-phase constraints into Equation (4.60) to Equation (4.62) above results in: ZAB ZBC p  3 j Zs1 jXg2 3 2 p 3Zs1 3 (4:64) (4:65) (4:66)

ZCA 1

Although the voltage phase correction does not result in an ideal measurement of the B C impedance, it is a vast improvement over the uncorrected value. The resultant impedance is solely dependent on Xs1 and easily related to the relay characteristic. Phase-to-Ground Fault Substituting ground fault constraints from Equation (4.30) to Equation (4.34) as modied for the b zero sequence connection in Figure 4.21 into relay Equation (4.60) through Equation (4.62) above yields ZAB (2Zs1 Zs0 )/308 Xg2 /908 ZBC (2Zs1 Zs0 2Xg2 )/908 ZCA 1 (2Zs1 Zs0 )/308 Xg2 /908 2 (4:67) (4:68) (4:69)

The phase correcting PTs do not improve the response for ground faults.

4.3.3

OTHER DISTANCE RELAY APPLICATIONS

Other applications of the 21 function are also possible. Phase distance relaying can be connected to CTs at the generator terminals with the 21 function connected to look into the generator instead of the system. This relay can be applied without a time delay to provide fast backup clearing for generator faults when connected to the system. Many generator protection microprocessor packages include two phase distance relay functions. One zone can be implemented with a short reach and a short time delay sufcient to coordinate with high-speed bus and line relaying plus breaker failure time if applicable. The second zone is then set to see into the transmission system with a delay sufcient to coordinate with zone 2 line relaying and applicable breaker failure time. This scheme can provides 0.3 sec clearing for high current faults in the vicinity of the generator as opposed to the single zone scheme that would require a delay of about a second to coordinate with zone 2 and breaker failure relaying.

REFERENCES
1. IEEE Std C37.112-1996, IEEE Standard Inverse-Time Characteristic Equations for Overcurrent Relays, IEEE, New York, 1997. 2. IEEE Std C37.102-1995, IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection, IEEE, New York, 1996. 3. ABB Power T&D Company Inc, Protective Relaying Theory and Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994, pp. 28 33.

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