1

Course Team: Prof. S.D. Evans, Dr A. Beige

Pre-requisites: Optics, Quantum mechanics, Solid State
Students: 3PX (Optional), 3AP (Optional), 3A (Optional)
2
A|ms of Modu|e
- 1o lnLroduce you Lo Lhe fundamenLal ldeas underlylng Lhe: producuon, manlpulauon, and
deLecuon of opucal slgnals conLalnlng many or slngle phoLons.
Cb[ecnves
hoton|cs
- 8y Lhe end of Lhe module sLudenLs should be able Lo:-
- descrlbe Lhe opucal properues of blrefrlngenL medla, lncludlng a maLhemaucal descrlpuon of Lhe
lndex elllpsold
- descrlbe Lhe operauon of varlous elecLro-opuc modulaLors and dlscuss Lhelr purpose.
- descrlbe and perform calculauons relaung Lo second order nonllnear opucal eecLs
- descrlbe some Lhlrd order nlo eecLs and Lhelr appllcauon
- descrlbe Lhe manlpulauon of maLerlals uslng opucal beams
uantum Cpncs
- descrlbe Lhe scauerlng of slngle phoLons Lhrough a llnear opucs neLwork
- have a baslc undersLandlng of Lhe concepL of phoLons
- model Lhe creauon of slngle phoLons by a Lwo-level aLom
- descrlbe Lhe ume evoluuon of a Lwo-level aLom ln Lhe presence of a laser eld
Iorm of 1each|ng
22 lecLures + self-assessed exerclses/readlng, lndependenL llbrary sLudy.
3
!"#$#%&'(
- Cpucal AnlsoLropy (8lrefrlngence, Cpucal lndlcaLrlx, Puygens consLrucL) 2L
- Modulauon of LlghL (elecLroopuc eecL, acousLoopuc eecL, magneLoopuc eecL) 2L
- nonllnear opucs (Second Parmonlc Cenerauon, Coherence lengLh, hase MaLchlng,
arameLrlc eecLs, 1hlrd Crder LecLs, MaLerlals) 4L
- Cpucal Manlpulauon of Mauer (radlauon forces, laser Lweezers) 2L
)%$*#+,'-#%.$#./,0%$,1.23-'(
- An lnLroducuon Lo slngle phoLon physlcs 2L
- 1he second quanusauon of Lhe free radlauon eld 2L
- CoherenL sLaLes, a laser drlven aLom and oLher blLs and pleces 2L
- SponLaneous emlsslon and LlnsLeln's raLe equauons 2L
- 1he quanLum [ump approach and Lhe masLer equauons 2L
4
kecommended kead|ng
Optoelectronics : An Introduction, J. Wilson and J. F. B. Hawkes, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall, 1989.
Optical Electronics, A. Yariv, 3rd edition, HRW international, 1985.
The Elements of Nonlinear Optics, P N. Butcher, D. Cotter, Cambridge, 1991. Introduction to
Nonlinear Optics in Molecules and Polymers, P N. Prasad, D. J. Williams, Wiley, 1991
Introductory Quantum Optics, C. C. Gerry and P. L. Knight, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge,
2005).
The Quantum Theory of Light, R. Loudon, Oxford University Press (Oxford, 2000).
Quantum Optics, M. O. Scully and M. S. Zubairy, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, 1997).
Modern Optics G.R. Fowles, Dover Publications 1989
5
hoton|cs ls Lhe !"#"$%&'#, ('#)#"*"#+, *%#,-./%&'# and 0"+"(&'# of phoLons - ln
parucular ln Lhe mlmlcry of Lhe funcuonal properues of conLemporary elecLronlcs.
4"5."635...1he eld of phoLonlcs has glven Lhe world exponenual growLh ln lLs ablllLy
Lo communlcaLe lnformauon. 1he dlsclpllne sLands aL Lhe Lhreshold of enabllng
anoLher revoluuon: provlslon of masslvely parallel, all-opucal compuung and hlgh-
speed all-opucal neLworklng." 1*"234%5'$%+'$6738'9%
hoton|cs goes beyond elecLronlcs!
hlghly parallel - a slngle opucal bre can slmulLaneously carry Lhe equlvalenL of
300,000,000 separaLe Lelephone calls quanLum naLure of llghL can be used - quanLum
crypLography + hlgh speed -- LsL. > 10001b/s
6
E
c
E
v

ln a semlconducLor Lhere exlsLs a 70%+803 beLween Lhe conducuon and
valence band ln whlch free elecLrons cannoL exlsL, l.e. Lhere ls no
soluuon of Lhe wave equauon for Lhe elecLron - e|ectron|c bandgap
1heory
predlcLs
1here ls a slmllar analogy ln
opucs - l.e. ln cerLaln maLerlals
phoLons, wlLhln a well dened
energy (frequency) range cannoL
propagaLe- photon band gap".
ulsperslon curves for a opucal bandgap maLerlal
7
Lssenna| propernes of a photon band gap (8G) mater|a|
lor a maLerlal Lo dlsplay 8C properues lL musL have a regular 3u sLrucLure whose
refracuve lndex varles wlLh a perlodlclLy comparable Lo Lhe wavelengLh of llghL.
1here are many ways of Lrylng Lo meeL such requlremenLs and Lhe race ls on" Lo geL
8C ln Lhe vlslble reglon.
8
Electrochemical etching of Si
high r. i.
low r. i.
Top-down Nanofabrication:-
Patterning and etching of oxides, silicon,etc using photolithography, electron
beam lithography, ion milling techniques,...
9
2D arrays with defect structures
note light will propagate in the defect
region but not in the pbg crystal
regions.
10
Two phase system
Titania+ polystyrene
spheres
R. Cherret, final year project
Bottom-Up
Use self-assembly theories of colloids and polymers to allow structures to
form spontaneously (with a little help).
Eg use silca, or latex spheres, ~500nm in diameter, place in liquid. Allow
liquid to vaporize to leave highly ordered 3D array.
11
Character|sncs of 8G 8ehav|our
Slnce llghL cannoL propogaLe wlLhln Lhe
maLerlal mosL lncldenL llghL ls reecLed.
Lhus measuremenL of Lhe opucal
reecLance reveals a peak a speclc
wavelengLhs - correspondlng Lhe Lhe
phoLonlc gap
eak posluon varles llnearly as a
funcuon of sLrucLure slze (sphere
dlameLer)
Variation of particle diameter
arucle slze
http://rqi.rice.edu/research/areas/bandgap/colloidal.jpg
12
Of course there are
some more
commonplace
examples of
photonics
(optoelectronics)
E.g. CD player
13
E
y
z
y
x
E
y
=E
oy
cos(kz-!t+")
E
x
z
y
x
E
x
=E
ox
cos(kz-!t)
1.1 o|ar|zanon State : ls dened by Lhe dlrecuon of Lhe elecLrlc eld vecLor
k
k
ln naLural" llghL Lhe dlrecuon of polarlzauon ucLuaLes randomly - a /,#"%$3
-'/%$,:"$ ls used Lo creaLe llnearly polarlsed llghL from unpolarlzed".
14
1he +$%#2*,22,'#3%;,2 of Lhe polarlzer denes Lhe dlrecuon of polarlzauon
LlghL whose elecLrlc vecLor ls parallel Lo Lhe
Lransmlsslon axls passes wlLh llule
auenuauon whllsL LhaL aL rlghL angles Lo
Lhe Lransmlsslon axls ls absorbed.
e.g. olarlod
1wo polarlsers orlenLed aL 90 degrees
1o each oLher glve exuncuon of llghL.
E
y E
y
E
x
15
L
y
L
x
L
1he elecLrlc eld, L, aL any lnsLanL can always
be resolved lnLo Lwo perpendlcular
componenLs, L
x
, and L
y
.
lf Lhe Lransmlsslon axls ls ln Lhe x-dlrecuon and
Lhe lncldenL polarlsauon L makes an angle # Lo lL
Lhen Lhe ampllLude, L
L
, of Lhe Lransmlued beam
would be glven by:
L
L
=L Cos #
And Lhe lnLenslLy (o L
2
) by
l
L
= l Cos
2
#
#
Conversely, Lwo llnearly polarlzed beams, of Lhe same frequency, propagaung
along Lhe same paLh may be consldered as a slngle beam of llghL polarlsed ln Lhe
dlrecuon glven by Lhe vecLorlal sum of Lhe Lwo componenLs.
Vectorial Nature of Light
16
Polarization
z
x E
x
E
y
E
x
E
y
%=0
E
If % ! 0 elliptically polarized light
Special cases:
%=0 - linear polarized light
%=&/2 - circular polarized light
%
If we consider two light beams E
x
and E
y
propagating in
the z-direction and with a phase shift % between them.
y
17
Let and %=&/2 - i.e. Resultant is circularly polarised, and
E is a vector of constant magnitude that rotates with angular frequency !.

E = E
o

i cos(kz !"t) +

j sin(kz !"t)
[ ]
E
In complex notation
e
i &/2
= i
E
x
= E
y
= E
o
18
1.2 Matrix Notation for Polaization (Jones Notation)
Jones vector
The complex amplitude of a plane
wave can be expressed as the sum of
the amplitudes in the x- and y-
directions, E
ox
and E
oy
where %
represents the phase shift between
them.
A convenient notation for these is the
so called Jones vector
The normalised form is found by
dividing by:
It is also commonly given in a
normalised form to factor out any
common factors
(1)
(2)
(3)

E
ox
2
+ E
oy
2
( )
1
2
Represents a linear wave
Polarised in the x-direction
19 19
Examples of Jones Notation
20
1.3 Using Jones Notation
1. Can be used to calculate the addition of two or more waves (of equal amplitude)
r.c.p + l.c.p. = linear polarized in x-direction and amplitude 2x
2. It can also be used to calc. effect of optical elements
Each element in an optical train is represented by a 2x2 matrix the Jones Matrix
For a linear polarizer we have:
21
If the vector of the incident light is given by:
and that of the emergent beam by:
then
Where is the Jones matrix of the optical element
Similarly other optical elements can be easily represented:
22
If the light is sent through a train of elements the net effect is given by matrix
multiplication
Jones matrix for the
n
th
element
Example:
A quarter wave plate is inserted into a linearly polarized beam (shown below)
what is the state of the emergent beam.
QWP
fast axis
slow axis
LP at 45
?
unpolarized
Emergent
beam
Incident
beam
23
Quarter Wave Plate (QWP)
fast axis
slow axis
Linear Polariser (LP )at 45
?
unpolarized
Incident beam =
linear polarised at
45deg
Emergent beam
= ?
Example
= LCP
24
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?
v
=ZudziPffS9E&feature=playe
r_embedded
25
+ +
-
An electromagnetic field, E, of frequency, !,
impinging on a material will causes the valence
electrons to oscillate with the same frequency.
The result is the formation of a dipole moment which oscillates and radiates e.m.
waves
2.1 Propagation of Light in a Dielectric Medium :
(Dipole Approximation)
E
Primary
wave
secondary
wave front
Constructive interference
only occurs in forward
direction
the refractive index tells us the ability of the material to respond to the electric
26
2.1.1 Isotropic Media
E
x

E
y

E
y

E
x

E
y
E
z

In isotropic media the refractive indices are the same in all directions; n
x
= n
y
= n
z
LlghL enLerlng Lhe medlum from any angle
(dlrecuon) wlll "see" Lhe same refracuve
lndex - and hence Lravel wlLh Lhe same
speed, v.
v = c
o
/n
Nb. Propagation is independent
of polarisation or direction
- Same optical properties in all directions
Med|um kefracnve |ndex
Alr 1.0008
WaLer 1.330
ulamond 2.417 Strictly n(!) normal dispersion
k
z
k
z
k
x
x
z
y
27
8efracuon, 8eecuon and Absorpuon
n
2
n
1
#
1
#
2
Snell's Law - n
1
sin #
1
= n
2
sin #
2
8eal ApparenL
N(!) = n(!)-ik(w)
n =real part of refractive index
k = absorption coefficient
28
2.1.2 Anisotropic Media
In anisotropic materials it is easier to polarise electrons in one direction relative
to another.
The refractive indices display directional dependence. n
x
! n
y
! n
z

Light travelling in different directions, or with different polarisation states, will
travel at different speeds.
E
y

E
x

E
y

E
x

e.g. if n
y
> n
x
E
y
travels slower than E
x

e-
x
z
y k
z
k
z
29
1he dlrecuonal dependence of refracuve lndex glves rlse Lo 8|refr|ngence -
Lhe spllmng of a llghL beam lnLo Lwo beams as lL passes Lhrough a maLerlal.
e.g. CalclLe
- CaCC
3
[from Lhe Laun bl- (Lwlce) plus refrlngere (Lo break up). 1hus, Lhe llghL rays are
"broken ln Lwo"by a blrefrlngenL maLerlal. }
ulerenL polarlsauon sLaLes see
dlerenL ref. lndlces - Lhough
each obeys Snell's law
30
2.2 Light Propagation in Anisotropic Media
Before we consider the propagation of light through anisotropic media it is instructive
to see how such materials respond to the application of an applied electric potential.
2.2.1 Response of a dielectric to an applied E-field
Let V be applied across a dielectric, of thickness, d, to produce an electric field
E = 2V/d
The induced polarization, P, (dipole moment per unit volume), is proportional to
the size of the applied field with the constant of proportionality being equal to e
o
c.
P = '
o
( E (1)
dielectric
electrode
" is known as the dielectric susceptibility and is a measure of how easy it is to
polarise the material.
-V +V
d
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
31
If the material is isotropic then ( is the same in all directions and the induced
polarization, P, is in the same direction as the applied field, E.
E
P
However, if the material is anisotropic it can have different ( values in different
directions. In this case P and E will not necessarily be co-linear.
To see this let E
1
be a field in applied the -direction
which produces a polarisation P
1
in the same direction.
let us simultaneously apply a field E
2
in the #- direction
(with the same magnitude as E
1
)
if (
2
< (
1
then E
2
produces a smaller
polarisation, P
2
, in the # -direction.$
-V +V
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
E
1
E
2
E
P
1
P
2
P

i
j
E = E
1
+ E
2

P = P
1
+ P
2
32
y
x
N.B. the resultant P and E are not in the same direction (although the magnitude of P is
still proportional to the magnitude of E).
-V +V
E
P
If we define the x-axis to be in the direction of the resultant E field then the application of
a single field in this direction would induce a polarisation, P, with components in both the
x- and the y- directions.
where P
x
= '
o
(
x
E
x
and P
y
= '
o
(
y
E
x

33
Generalisation.
If a material has different c values in each direction, x, y, and z. then the application of an
E-field in the x-direction will induce polarizations in the x, y, and z- directions.
P
x
= '
o
(
xx
E
x

P
y
= '
o
(
yx
E
x

P
z
= '
o
(
zx
E
x

2
nd
subscript - direction of the applied E-field
1
st
subscript - direction of the induced polarization
Similarly if E was in the y-direction we would have
P
x
= '
o
(
xy
E
y

P
y
= '
o
(
yy
E
y

P
z
= '
o
(
zy
E
y

(4)
34
If the E-field has components in each direction (E
x
,E
y
,E
z
) then we have to include the
polarization terms due to fields in the y and z directions.
P
x
= '
o
((
xx
E
x
+ (
xy
E
y
+ (
xz
E
z
)
P
y
= '
o
((
yx
E
x
+ (
yy
E
y
+ (
yz
E
z
) or
P
z
= '
o
((
zx
E
x
+ (
zy
E
y
+ (
zz
E
z
)
susceptibility tensor
c is related to the dielectric permittivity and hence refractive index via;
c =('
r
-1) {where '
r
= '/'
o
= n
2
}
n = (1+()
1/2

i.e. the refractive index is a measure of how easy it is to polarise the material
(5)
(6)
(7)
or P= '
o
(E
35
Since c is a tensor then e
r
must also be a tensor (as must the refractive index, n).
i.e.
Simplification.
It is always possible to define a suitable set of axes (x,y,z) such that the off-diagonal
elements vanish.
P
x
= '
o
(
xx
E
x
P
y
= '
o
(
yy
E
y
P
z
= '
o
(
zz
E
z
(and similarly for the permittivity and refractive index tensors)
In this case the directions xx, yy, zz are known as the principal axes of the medium.
An electric field applied parallel to a principal axis only produces a parallel component of
polarization.
(8)
36
2.2.2 Propagation of e.m. waves in anisotropic media
If x, y,and z are chosen to be principal axes
then a wave propagating in the z-direction
with its electric vector parallel to the x-axis
will experience a permittivity '
xx
, and hence a
refractive index n
xx
,
where

and similarly for a wave polarized in the y direction.
thus these two waves will travel with different speeds and become progressively out-of
phase. (v
x
= c
o
/n
xx
; v
y
= c
o
/n
yy
)
(9)
(10)
z
x y
k
z
37
2.3 Types of Anisotropy
Uniaxial Materials
n
y

n
x

n
z

y
x
z
E
x

y
x
z
E
y

In a uniaxial material
n
x
= n
y
= n
o

n
z
! (n
x
, n
y
) = n
e

A wave propagating in the z direction will show no birefringence- since n
x
= n
y
= n
o

- the z- axis is known as the optic axis
A measure of the birefringence is given by n = n
e
- n
o

n > 0 +ve crystal (Quartz)
n <0 -ve crystal (Calcite)
(11)
k
z
k
z
38
isotropic
nematic
Application of an applied external
field - causes alignment
Molecules randomly oriented ref. index same in all directions
Molecules have a preferred
alignment - r.i. different in z
direction from x,y direction
z
x y
Liquid crystals are good examples of uniaxial materials
no light
reduce
temperature
39
2.4 Index Ellipsoid -Optical Indicatrix
The Index Ellipsoid or Optical Indicatrix is a 3D construction used to plot the
directional dependence of the refractive index
It allows us to describe how light with different polarisation states traverse a material
and its directional dependence.
2.4.1 Isotropic Medium
z
x
y
n
x

n
z
n
y

z
x
#
s
E
xz
E
y

cross-section in z-x plane
n -is the same in all directions (n
x
= n
y
= n
z
= n)
Wave travelling in s direction
E
xz
and E
y
will see same refractive indices and travel with same speed.
3-D
2-D
40
2.4.2 Uniaxial Anisotropic Media
n now has different components in the x,y and z directions
(n
x
= n
y
= n
o
, n
z
= n
e
)
n
e

n
o n
o
ellipsoid
Top-view looking down z-axis circular cross-section
(12)
41
Consider a beam propagating in the s direction.
Its electric field vector(s) will lie in a plane
normal to s.
The intersection of the plane normal to s with
the ellipsoid gives the refractive indices
experienced by the light beam.
n
e
(#)
n
o
s
z
y
n
e

n
o

n
e
(#)
#
y'
z'
Because of the circular symmetry in the
x,y plane we can reduce this to a 2D plot
of the projection of s in the z-y plane.
The different polarisation states will
encounter refractive indices of n
e
(#) and
n
o
respectively
#
z
y
x
s
42
s
z
y
n
e

n
o
n
e
(#)
#
y'
z'
#
43
s
z
y
n
e

n
o
n
e
(#)=
y' s
z
y
n
e

n
o
n
e
(#)=
#
z'
Example
Light propagates along z
Polarisations see n
x
and n
y
But n
x
=n
y

Therefore no birefringence
or
#=0 , n
e
(0)= n
o

Exercise
If the light travels in the y direction
will there be birefringence if so what
find and expression for )n
44
2.5 Huygen's Construction
Huygens's construction shows the wave front at some point in
time - as a function of direction.
Case A (ne>no) +ve X'al
Principal Section - the plane containing the optic axis and the direction of propagation
1629 - 1695
Optic Axes
( )
Figure in
the z-y plane
45
Case B (ne<no) -ve X'al
Example
Lines show the optic axis parallel to
surface for a positive crystal
What happens o- and e- rays for a
negative crystal (no>ne)?
OA
46
Exercise
What happens in the following cases?
a) no>ne
OA perpendicular to the surface and
parallel to plane of incidence
b) no>ne
OA parallel to the surface and
perpendicular to plane of incidence