DENSITY PERTURBATIONS IN A UNIVERSE

DOMINATED BY THE CHAPLYGIN GAS

J. C. Fabris1 , S.V.B. Goncalves2 and P.E. de Souza3

Departamento de Fsica, Universidade Federal do Esprito Santo, CEP29060-900,

Vitoria, Esprito Santo, Brazil

Abstract
We study the fate of density perturbations in a Universe dominate by the Chaplygin gas, which exhibit negative pressure. In opposition a other models of perfect
uid with negative pressure, there is no instability in the small wavelength limit,
due to the fact that the sound velocity for the Chaplygin gas is positive. We show
that it is possible to obtain the value for the density contrast observed in large scale
structure of the Universe by xing a free parameter in the equation of state of this
gas. The negative character of pressure must be signicant only very recently.
PACS number(s): 98.80.Bp, 98.65.Dx

1 Introduction
The nature of "missing mass" that apparently dominate the Universe today is one of
the most intriguing problem in modern physics. This problem appears at various levels, beginning with the rotation curve of spiral galaxies [1], and extending to the total
mass of the Universe as it is deduced through the rst acoustic peak of the spectrum of
the anisotropy of cosmic background radiation [2]. A fraction of this missing mass has
been called dark energy since it does not cluster, remaining a smooth component of the
Universe. This problem has acquired a most dramatic face through the results coming
from the observation of supernova type Ia, which indicate that the Universe today is in
an accelerated expansion [3, 4]. Hence, the in ationary paradigma, rst conceived for the
primordial Universe, may be applied to our actual Universe.
Observations today favor a cosmological scenario where
b  0:02,
m  0:3 and

  0:7, with these terms representing the baryonic, cold dark matter and cosmological
constant fraction of the total matter content of the Universe. Hence, the Universe today
must be nearly at
K  0. The acceleration of the Universe, as infered from the
supernova results, indicate an eective equation of state p = , with   0:67. All
these values are not precisely determined by observations. But, the comparison of the
dierent observational results indicates values which are near to those displayed above.
It is possible that a cosmological constant may be the dominant component of matter
in the Universe. In this way, the cosmological constant problem was revived. However,
1 e-mail:
2 e-mail:
3 e-mail:

fabris@cce.ufes.br
sergio@cce.ufes.br
patricia.ilus@bol.com.br

other types of matter with negative pressure have been considered as candidate of the
so-called dark energy of the Universe: uids of topological defects (domain walls, strings)
[5], quintessence (a self-interacting scalar eld minimally coupled to gravity) [6], etc. All
these possibilities have their advantages as well as their disavantages.
The cosmological constant, for example, may have its origin in the energy of the vacuum quantum state. But, in order to reconcile the observed value and the theoretical
value predicted by quantum eld theory, a ne tunning of 10120 orders of magnitude must
be made [7]. Topological defects faces dierent diculties: it leads to a non gaussian spectrum of perturbations, in apparent disagreement with observations [8]. Moreover, as the
supernova observations indicate, the most probable candidate from dierent topological
defects would be a gas of domain walls. But, it is very dicult to implement a cosmological model where the domain walls can eectivelly become the dominant component of the
matter content of the Universe without become relativistic, acquiring a positive equation
of state [5].
Quintessence seems to be, until now, the most robust candidate for dark energy. But,
in order to implement a consistent quintessence model, dierent possible potential terms
may be used, with in general a very poor theoretical justication. It must be stressed,
however, that supergravity theories predict self-interacting scalar eld terms which may
lead to a coherent cosmological scenario [9]. However, the existence of some many dierent
quintessence scenario pleads for a more fundamental approach.
Recently, a dierent matter component with negative pressure has been presented as
possible candidate for this dark energy: the Chaplygin gas [10].
The Chaplygin gas has an equation of state of the type
A
;


p=

(1)

where A is a constant. This exotic uid has an interesting origin. It has been rst
considered in problems connected with uid dynamics. But, later connections with the
fundamental physics have appeared. Taking the Nambu-Goto action of string theory, the
Chaplygin uid appears after considering d-branes in a d + 2 dimensional space-time, in
the light cone gauge [11].
An interesting point concerning the Chaplygin gas is the fact that, even if it comes
from a brane model in string theory, it obeys the equations of a newtonian uid. The
equation of state (1) implies more symmetries than those typical of the galilean group,
which is a consequence of its relativistic origin. In particular, a hamiltonian description
of an irrotational uid with the equation of state (1) exhibits symmetries with the same
dimension as the Poincare group.
In this work, we will investigate a cosmological model where the Universe is dominated
by the Chaplygin gas, which in our four dimensional world can be a phenomenological
representation of a gas of membranes. We will mainly interested in the evolution of density
perturbations, trying to verify if the dominance of the Chaplygin gas is compatible with
the formation of structure. In order to do so, we will exploit the newtonian description
of the Chaplygin gas. But, it will veried that the results are consistent with what we
can expect from a full relativistic formulation of the problem. These results indicate that
2

structure can be formed in a phase where the Chaplygin gas dominates. Moreover, in spite
of the negative pressure typical of this gas, the model is stable even in its hydrodynamical
formulation.
In fact, it will be shown, using the newtonian approach, that the Chaplygin gas exhibit growing modes in the begining of the material phase. Later, it behaves most as
a cosmological constant. Hence, initially the Chaplygin gas clusters, becoming later a
smooth component of the Universe. In this sense, the accelerating Universe predicted by
the Chaplygin gas model has many dierent features compared with a cosmological constant or quintessence model. In order to t observations, cold dark matter, which remains
clustered during all the evolution of the material phase of the Universe, is yet necessary.
But the fact that the dark energy component has not remained smooth during all the
history of the Universe, may lead to dierent previsions for the dierent cosmological
parameter. The present study is a rst step in view of the construction of a realistic cosmological model based on the Chaplygin gas, and a two- uid model, taking into account
the contribution of cold dark matter, may be near to what we expect to be a realistic
scenario.
This paper is organized as follows. In next section we describe the Chaplygin gas and
some of its main features. In section 3 we sketch a relativistic treatment of a cosmological
model with the Chaplygin gas. In order to obtain analytical expression, we devellop a
newtonian analysis at the background and perturbative levels in section 4. In section 5
we present our conclusions.

2 The Chaplygin gas

The Chaplygin gas is generically characterised by the equation of state (1). This equation
of state was rst conceived in connection with the thermodynamics of adiabatic process.
More rececently, however, it has acquired an interesting connection with d-branes in a
d + 2 dimensional space-time.
The d-branes may be expressed through the aid of the Nambu-Goto action,
SNG =

d0 d1 :::dd

@X
;
( 1)d det @X

@ @


(2)

where X  are the d +2 target space-time variable, while i parametrizes the d-dimensional
brane. The action (2) can be rewritten under dierent forms using convenient parametrizations. If the light-cone parametrization is choosed, with
1
(3)
X  = p (X 0  X d+1 ) ;
2

and X + = A0, the Nambu action reduces to [12]

S=

dd+1 r


_

1 (r)2 + A  :
2

3

(4)

A very curious aspect of this action is that the variables  and  obey the newtonian
hydrodynamic equations for an irrotational uid with the pressure given by (1):
(r)2 1 A = 0 :
_ +
(5)
2
2 2
Since the Chaplygin gas satisfy the newtonian equations of motion, it is invariant
under the galilean transformations. However, due to the specic form of the equation
of state, it admits also some other symmetries. In particular, it is invariant under time
rescaling
t ! e! t ;
(6)
as well as the space-time mixing
1
t ! t + ~!:~r + ! 2 ;
(7)
2
~r ! ~r + ~! ;
(8)
where ! and !~ are the generators of the new symmetries. Summing up all the symmetries,
it is easy to verify that the total dimensionality of the symmetry group of the Chaplygin
gas is the same as of the Poincare group. It means that the relativistic character of the
Chaplygin gas is somehow hidden behind its newtonian expressions.
It is interesting to note that, if another parametrization were choosed, the cartesian
parametrization, the action (2) would take the form a Born-Infeld-like action. Moreover,
the Chaplygin gas admits a supersymmetric extension. A very comphreensive review of
all the features of Chaplygin gas is [13].

3 A relativistic analysis
In order to investigate the cosmological consequences of the Chaplygin gas, let us rst
consider its coupling to the Einstein's equations:
1 g R = 8GT ;
R
(9)

2 
T = ( + p)u u pg  ;
(10)
A
p =
:
(11)


Considering the at Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric,

ds2 = dt2 a2 (t)(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) ;
the equations of motion read
 a_ 2
= 8G ;
3
a

a_
_ + 3 ( + p) = 0 ;
a
A
p =
:


(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)

In [10], some consequences for the evolution of the Universe of such exotic uid have
been investigate. It was found that, in the relativistic context, the density is connected
to the scale factor as
s
B
= A+ 6 :
(16)
a

Hence, initially the Universe behaves as it was dominated by a dust uid, and then
the density becomes asymptotically constant, revealing that the cosmological constant
becomes the dominant component of the Universe. There is an intermediate phase, which
can be described by a cosmological constant mixed with a sti matter uid. In this
sense, this exotic uid may be a candidate for describing the Universe as the supernova
observational results indicate it must be.
If we want to analyze the evolution of density perturbations for the cosmological model
described above, we must perturbed the Einstein's equation. Hence, we introduce in the
Einstein's equations the quantities
g~ = g + h ; ~ =  +  ; u~ = u + u ; p~ = p + p ;

(17)

where the rst term in the right-hand-side of each expression means the background
solution described before, and the second one is a small perturbation around it. In
order to compute the evolution of the perturbations, we may employ the so-called gauge
invariant formalism [14] or x a coordinate condition, taking care of verifying in the end if
the nal solutions are not artifact of coordinates. We choose to work in the synchronous
coordinate condition h0 = 0; the residual coordinate freedom is easily identied in this
case, and we can x the real physical solutions. The perturbed equations are
a_
(18)
h + 2 h_ = 8G( + 3p) ;
a

_ + ( + p) + 3( + p) 1 ( + p)h_ = 0 ;


2
2
( + p)_ + (_ + p_) + 5 aa_ ( + p) = na2 p ;

(19)
(20)

where n is the wavelength of the perturbations, which appears in the last expression due
to the fact that we performed a plane wave expansion to describe the spatial behaviour
of the perturbations, and  = ui;i. From the pressure expression, we have
p =

A
 :
2

(21)

The background expressions are complicated enough to have explicit expression for
the perturbed quantities. Closed expression can be found only in the asymptotic region.
Initially, the Universe behaves as it was dominated by a pressurelless uid. The solutions
for the perturbed equations in this case are well known [15], reading, for the density
contrast ,

= / t2=3 :
(22)

5

In the other asymptotic, the Universe behaves as it was dominated by a cosmological

constant. It is well-known that density perturbation in a Universe dominated by a cosmological term is zero. There is an intermediate region, where the Chaplygin gas exhibit
a behaviour typical of a mix of sti matter uid and a cosmological term. However, this
case exhibits background solutions which do not allow simple expressions for the perturbed quantities, even if we consider the perturbations on the cosmological term as zero,
as we must expect.

4 A newtonian approach
As we have seen, the relativistic study of this problem leads to some technical diculties.
Considering that we can approximate the evolution of the Universe lled by such uid
by the three phases described before, the behaviour of density perturbation in the initial
and nal phases are already known (dust / t2=3 and cc = 0 respectively). Hence in order
to obtain non-trivial eects we must consider the intermediate phase. However, as stated
before, such phase admits analytical solutions for the background, but it seems that no
analytical solutions can be obtained for the perturbed equations.
Since our intention is to have explicit expressions for density perturbations, in order
at least to evaluate what happens for the evolution of structure in a Universe dominate by
the Chaplygin gas, we will exploit the fact that the action (4) leads to the hydrodynamic
newtonian equations. Of course, the true nature of the problem is relativistic, since
we regard the Chaplygin gas as a phenomenological representation of a gas of d-branes.
However, we are interested in the material phase of the evolution of the Universe, where
galaxies begin to be formed, for which the newtonian approximation is quite realistic.
Moreover, in the limit of small wavelength of the perturbations, the relativistic problem
reduces to the newtonian problem. Since, in general, perfect uid models with negative
pressure leads to instabilities at this regime, the newtonian approximation to be employed
here can test very well the consistency of the Chaplygin gas model.
Coupling to (4) a term representing the gravitational potential  we have the following
equations [16]:
@
+ r:(~v) = 0 ;
@t
rp r ;
~v_ + ~v :r~v =

2
r  = 4G :

(23)
(24)
(25)

If these equations describe an expanding homogeneous and isotropic Universe their solution is

a_
4G :
 = 30 ; ~v = ~r ; r = ~r
(26)
a
a
3
The "scale factor" a(t) obeys a Friedmann-like equation, even in the newtonian approximation [16], and its solution, for the marginal " at" case, is a(t) / t2=3 . Notice that
these solutions are independent of the pressure. Indeed, since in a homogeneous Universe
6

p = p(t), there is no pressure gradient, and the presence of pressure does not in uence

the evolution of the Universe.

We turn now to the perturbative level. Introducing in equations (23,24,25) the quantities  = 0 + , ~v = ~v0 + ~v, p = p0 + p and  = 0 + , where each quantity has been
expressed as a sum of the background solution plus a small perturbation, we can combine
the resulting perturbed equation in order to obtain a unique dierential equation for the
density contrast =  [16]:
 2 2

 + 2 a_ _ + vs n2 + 3 a = 0 :
a
a
a

(27)

@p is the the sound velocity and n is the wavenumber of the

In this expression vs2 = @
perturbation, which appears due to the fact that we expanded the spatial dependence
of the perturbed quantities in plane waves. Since all the problem is being treated in a
newtonian framework, no gauge problem, connected with the coordinate transformation
freedom typical of the corresponding relativistic problem, appears in this case, and all
solutions of equation (27) have a physical meaning [15]. An important property of the
Chaplygin gas is that, in spite of exhibiting negative pressure, its sound velocity is positive.
This does not happen in general: uids with negative pressure quite frequently exhibit
instabilities, at least in their hydrodynamical representation, due to an imaginary sound
velocity [17, 18]. The Chaplygin gas is an important exception to this general feature of
perfect uids with negative pressure.
Inserting the background solutions and the expression for the sound velocity in (27),
we determine the behaviour of density perturbations. The solution reads

=t

1=6



C1 J (2 nt7=3 ) + C2 J  (2 nt7=3 ) ;

(28)

where  = 5=14 and 2 = 4954 AG

a20 . In principle C1 and C2 are constants that depend on n.
Notice that the expression for density contrast for perfect uids with negative pressure
exhibit, in general, modied Bessel functions, which re ects their instability in the small
wavelength limit [17, 18].
The solution (28) has two asymptotic regime. For t ! 0, there is a growing mode
given by + / t2=3 . This coincides with the evolution of density perturbations in a dust
uid in General Relativity. On the other hand, for t ! 1, the density contrast oscillates
with decreasing amplitude,  / t 4=3 cos(2 nt7=3 +  ), where  is a phase, approaching
a zero value asymptotically. Hence, for large values of time, the solution approaches
the result for density perturbation in General Relativity with a cosmological constant,
cc = 0. The transition from a "dust" phase to a "cosmological constant" phase is smooth
and the moment it happens is essentially dictated by the value of the constant A in (4).
This behaviour inverts what happens in the traditional case of density perturbations in
newtonian gravity with positive pressure[16]. In this case, taking the equation of state
p /  , > 4=3, the density contrast initially oscillates, and after it grows with + / t2=3 .
These features have some interesting consequences. In fact, let us suppose that at
the moment of decoupling of radiation and matter, ti  1011s, the amplitude of density
7

perturbations is xed by the amplitude of the anisotropy of cosmic microwave background

radiation, i.e., i  10 5. Later, deep in the material phase, the newtonian approximation is reasonable. Supposing that the Universe from that moment on is dominated by a
Chaplygin gas uid (in more sophisticated words, a gas of d-branes), then density perturbations grow initially, decreasing later. Observations indicate that the large structure are
such today that f < 1, where the subscript indicates an instant near our now. Supposing
the rst asymptotic regime for the density contrast found before is valid, than
f  tf 2=3
= t
:
i
i

(29)

The condition f < 1, leads to tf  1017s, that is tf  t0 , where t0 is the age of

the Universe. Hence the approximation that the pressure is negligible must be valid
until very recently in order to explain observations 4. This fact limits the value of A
as A < 0 , where 0 is the density of the Universe today. Only very recently pressure
should become important, and the perturbations have stopped growing. This fact may
have some consequences for the anisotropy of cosmic microwave background, at least for
large multipoles values, that is, small angles.
One important consequence of the results found before is that in the begining of the
material phase the Chaplygin gas agglomerates in the same way as baryonic matter (or
even cold dark matter). Later, it becomes a smooth component of the Universe. Hence,
this model needs cold dark matter in order to explain the dynamics of the clusters of
galaxies, since a fraction of the total dark matter must remain clustered until today.
Consequently, a more realistic model is a two- uid model where, besides the Chaplygin
gas, normal uid must be present. In the newtonian model developped here, this means
that the extra symmetries, which allows the connection with the full relativistic problem,
are broken, and perhaps a relativistic treatment of the problem becomes unavoidable.
Moreover, we must expect that due to this specic initial behaviour of the Chaplygin gas,
the previsions for the CMB anysotropy, statistics of cluster of galaxies and other relevant
cosmological parameters must be revised.

5 Conclusions
In this work, we have outlined the behaviour of density perturbations in a specic type
of uid with negative pressure, the Chaplygin gas, which can be viewed also as a gas of
d-branes. This gas may interpolate a regime of a dust dominated Universe to a vacuum
energy dominated Universe, given an explanation for the possible accelerated phase today.
First, we considered the Einstein's equations in presence of the Chaplygin gas. However,
the complexity of the background and perturbed equations did not allow us to obtain
closed expressions. In order to obtain a more clear scenario on the evolution of density
4 In

order to specify what we mean by "recently", more input parameters are needed. However, if we
take the cosmological constant case, coupled with pressurelless matter, with
  0 7 and
m  0 3, the
cosmological constant term begins to dominate the matter content at  0 3, which implies 2-3 billions
years ago, according to estimate age of the Universe, of order of 10 billions years.
:

perturbations in a Universe dominated by the Chaplygin gas, we performed a newtonian

analysis since the Chaplygin gas obeys formally the equations of newtonian hydrodynamic.
However, the newtonian treatement is also justied by the fact that it approximates the
general features of the full relativistic problem in the phase where galaxies form, which is
the phase we are most interested on.
One of the main conclusions of this work is that a Universe dominated by the Chaplygin
gas admits an initial phase of growing perturbations, with the the same rate as in dust
case of the cosmological standard model, from which it follows decreasing oscillations,
which asymptotically go to zero. Hence, even if the newtonian analysis is limited for
the study of the Universe in large scales, in this case the newtonian solution interpolates
conveniently an initial dust phase (d / t2=3 ) with a cosmological constant phase (cc = 0).
Even if the newtonian background model is very dierent from the relativistic one, since
it gives a dust-like solution for any value of time, the perturbative newtonian analysis is
consistent with the dierent phases predicted by expressions (1,16), which comes from
relativistic considerations.
There is an initial phase where the Chaplygin gas agglomerates. Later, it tends to
become a smooth component of the total matter existing in the Universe. This fact has
two main consequences: rst, since clusters of galaxies which are near us need clustered
dark matter, the model presented here must be complemented by some kind of cold dark
matter component; second, the evaluation of cosmological parameters must be revised,
since this dark energy has an initial behaviour more near cold dark matter, approaching
later a genuine cosmological constant behaviour. This demands, at least, a two- uid
model in order to try to construct a realistic scenario, and perharps a full relativistic
treatment of the evolution of density perturbations.
Another important feature to be emphasized is that the Chaplygin gas, in spite of
presenting negative pressure, is stable at small scale, in opposition to what happens in
general with perfect uids with negative pressure. This is due to the fact that the sound
velocity in the Chaplygin gas is positive, while in many other perfect uid models with
negative pressure the sound velocity becomes imaginary.
Acknowledgements: The remarks made by the anonimous referees were very important in order to improve the present version of this paper. We thank CNPq (Brazil) for
partial nancial support.

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