Ye Gods! Piety on H.B.O.?: A Study of the Historical Validity of H.B.O.

Romes Portrayal of Religion By Amanda Weldy Abstract: The remarkable success of HBO Romes Season 1 is considered particularly impressive due to its attention to historical accuracies. In fact, some Roman civilizations courses have come to rely heavily on this series as a true reflection of Roman life. However, because the plot line is largely embellished for sake of drama, other aspects of the show have come under scrutiny. In this paper, I will show that HBO Romes portrayal of religion as a tool or as a creed to various parts of the Roman population does indeed mirror the culture as it existed some two thousand years ago. To arrive at my conclusion, I concentrated on the historical accuracy of the religious interactions and expressions of six principal characters ranging from emperor to the lowliest plebian. The implications of my study serve to support HBO Rome as an accurate way to portray Roman worship and ritual not as a substitute for, but as a supplement to, the usual pedagogical lectures and movies. {mospagebreak} In the special feature When in Rome, producer of the H.B.O. series Rome, Bruno Heller, explains his intent that things should be as historically accurate as possible. While certain characters and events were contrived, the background, from weaponry and costuming to oratorical gesturing and sacrificing was intended to be true to life. One of the key components of achieving the feel of Rome, mentions the commentator, is that the actors had to be aware of the immediate presence of the gods.[i] With its understanding that religion permeates all aspects of Roman life, the series HBO Rome accurately portrays the multifaceted aspects of Roman religion. Especially between the social classes, the contrast of religion as a tool or as a creed can be observed. As a generality, the upper classes used religion to gain support and reassure the masses of the patrician right to lead. The lower classes used religion to seek guidance and meaning from a higher being in sincere worship. The first season of Rome opens with the triumphant return of Caesar and his men from the Gallic Wars in 52 B.C. Focusing on a time of intense political upheaval, the show will trace the civil war between the traditionalist Republican faction headed by Gaius Pompey Magnus and those who supported Caesars more populist outlook. Caesar will come to power as absolute dictator, a position which he holds only briefly until his assassination in 44 B.C. at the hands of his fellow senators, most notably Brutus and Cassius. The murder of the dictator ends the first season. There is a complex web of characters to become acquainted with. Interestingly enough, the main characters, Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, hold only a fleeting notation in Roman history. Caesar lists the two offhandedly in De Bello Gallica as soldiers of equal ranking who got into a remarkable power struggle while at war.[ii] In the HBO series, however, Vorenus is Pullos superior, and they both serve in Caesars 13th legion. Vorenus is a dedicated leader, hard and cold; publicly, he is ever pragmatic. Privately, he possesses a deep love for his wife, Niobe, a peasant princess from a good background, who has been left to fend for herself for eight years while Vorenus was at war. Vorenus can only tell Pullo of how he cares; to everyone else he remains unflappable. Pullo, in many ways Vorenuss foil, is a courageous soldier with the morality of a pirate.[iii] He is always getting into trouble, but is an important ally to Vorenus. The two find themselves in outlandish situations, where they interact with other, more recognizably historical (though certainly sensationalized) contemporaries such as Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Julius Caesar, described as energetic, brilliant, methodical, he is a man drivenelectrified evenby a primordial need for dominance, is profoundly manipulative, as are most characters of the

aristocracy in the sitcom.[iv] He speaks often of politics and does whatever is necessary to stay on top, as does his niece, Atia. Mother to Octavian, the future emperor Augustus Caesar, Atia has no thoughts beyond advancing her children and maintaining social status. She is devious and underhanded, acquiring many lovers. One of her lovers is Mark Antony, ally to Julius Caesar during the war against Gaius Pompey Magnus. Like those he surrounds himself with, Antony is also ruthless, and holds a highly visible position. He is the commander of the 13th legion, to which Vorenus and Pullo belong. Caesars lover, Servilia, is the mother of Brutus, the man who will eventually lead the assassination against him. Servilia is also a member of the aristocracy and her bond with Caesar irritates Atia. With all this intrigue and interrelation, the line between patrician and plebian, politician and sincere believer, optimates and populares becomes all the more important. In such a time of upheaval and treachery, religion played an important role by creating stability for some, and for others, a way to manipulate the masses. The direct connection between patricians as manipulators of religion and of plebians as sincere believers can be seen by examining a few key characters, particularly their motives for and the ways they saw fit to worship. Religion was a part of everyday life in both the public and the personal spheres. A good deal of Roman worship was discreet, almost reflective, mechanical rituals enacted to garner the favor of a particular god or gods, since civic religious activity was rooted in a feeling of awe for the gods, and a sense that the sacrifice should be ritually correct.[v] However, there were also prayers made in times of desperation, as was our first major encounter with religion in Episode 1, where Titus Pullo stands in a jail cell praying for freedom. In describing Roman orisons, Wardman, author of Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans, states, Prayer was mostly conditional and petitionary; it promised rewards to the gods, a temple, or an offering, if an enterprise were successful.[vi] Locked up and condemned to die, legionary Titus Pullo begins a desperate prayer, Forculus, if you be the right god, showing a preoccupation with correctness the Romans avoided the dangers of an over-precise declaration.[vii] Not certain of which of many gods to turn to, Pullo avoids excluding any potential candidates that could come to his assistance by adding the clause if you be the right god. He then says to the divine presence that, if his request is granted, he will sacrifice a fine white lamb, or, otherwise, six pigeonsif I cant get a good price on the lamb. Here, Pullo adds a dash of humor and underscores the fact that a cult demands correctness but might give some allowance for the fact that the sacrifice perhaps was not given with the best moral disposition.[viii] Initially, Pullos character appears to merely summon gods when he is in need. However, in Episode 6, we witness Pullos daily ritual of giving a bit of his meal to statues of the Penates, spirits of the pantry. It was customary for the paterfamilias, head of the household, to perform rituals to the household gods, in order to be looked upon favorably.[ix] (It is, perhaps, questionable when Niobe is also shown performing the same ritual to a Penates, as Vorenus, and not she, was the head of that particular household.) Actor Ray Stevenson, who plays Pullo, explains his characters approach to religion: He believes hes in the hands of the godshas an innate faith that hes where hes supposed to be and that the gods will see him right.[x] There is then, sincerity in Pullos worship that may not have been conveyed in his initial, fairly cheap, offering of pigeons, should lamb have proved too expensive. His other big sacrifice scene, in Episode 11, is similar because he petitions the gods for a favor that he desperately wants, and offers a substandard sacrifice (a lone cockroach that was scurrying past him in his pit of captivity). However, he appeals to the gods this time not for himself, but on behalf of Lucius Vorenus and Eirene. This sacrifice is used as a dramatic moment to point out the raw desperation and sincerity of Pullo, as opposed to emphasis on proper technique that is conveyed in other sacrifices. Certainly Pullo prays for petitions, but there are also examples of him praying merely to honor the gods: after defeating Octavians captors in a quick fight, he assumes a worshipful position and declares the victims as his sacrifice to Mars. Pullo seems to have a

relationship with a number of gods; in his last scene in Episode 12, Pullo and Eirene visit the shrine of Rusina, a goddess of fields, in the countryside. Such shrines were very common during the Roman republic. Indeed, Pullo is a religious man, and in Episode 5, gives to Eirene his most prized possession before embarking on his trip to Greece: a Penates god. An unlikely companion for Pullo, Lucius Vorenus is initially presented as a superior in all ways to the low-ranking Pullo. Having a Stoic outlook, where virtue is sufficient for happiness; nothing except virtue is good; emotions are always bad, Vorenus has three principal concerns: religion, duty, and the 13th Legion.[xi] He is offered up as the most pious character, concerned with the practicalities of religion but seemingly more sincere than a number of other characters, including Octavian and Mark Antony. He will struggle with his ethics later in the season when he begins to serve Mark Antony, which raises questions about how pious Vorenus can be if he basically sells his soul to a man whose actions are morally reprehensible. Yet it is worth remembering that to the Romans, religion and morality were not as strongly connected as they are today in American society. Nonetheless, Vorenus prays for worthy things: realizing that his wife is not happy to have him back after he returns unexpectedly from war after an eight-year absence, he prays to Venus that Niobe, his wife, should come to love him as he loves her.[xii] He partakes of the military custom of offering a bit of his own blood to the altar. Such a sacrifice indicated the seriousness of ones desire to communicate with the gods.[xiii] In Episode 4, Vorenus has quit the legion and is preparing to begin a new profession as a tradesman and hosts a party to celebrate the change. Prominently featured at the banquet table is a two-faced bust of Janus, who was commonly associated with new enterprises since Romans began important work or business by praying to Janus, god of new beginnings.[xiv] When the head of Janus is shattered in the fight between Lyde and her husband, Vorenus views this as an inescapable omen of failure. Dramatically, the shattering of a household god for such reasons can also foreshadow the fragmenting of Vorenuss household with the death of Niobe in Episode 12. She topples to her death and lands in the place where the Janus fell before her. But now, alive and well, Niobe offers to go to the priests of Janus tomorrow and have the day absolved, showing that she understands the need to correctly perform rituals and does not condemn her husbands respect for superstition and omen.[xv] Wardman explains, As long as the right ritual was observed, as long as flaws were put right and the procedure re-enacted correctly, the peace of the gods would not be disturbed.[xvi] Such re-enactments were apparently not uncommon in Rome, again indicating the desire for correctness in rituals. Vorenus takes his personal religion and his civic religion very seriously. A successful warrior, he is inducted into the Evocati, soldiers who have served their time in the military and voluntarily returned at the invitation of a superior. He participates in the ceremony with reverence, unmoving as he becomes anointed as a servant of Mars, and seems to truly believe in the rituals being enacted around him. He is commended by the pontiffs for his exhaustive vigil to Mars Strider and declared to be one of the Evocati in a solemn, grand moment. The directors splice in footage of Pullo and Octavian torturing and murdering Evander, Niobes lover, which makes the proudest moment of Vorenuss life a bit sour, and dramatically works to create sympathy for this pious, hardworking, ignorant man whose world is destined to be shattered. While the plebians approach religion with sincerity, the upper classes seem to exploit religion as a tool to control their inferiors. Prior to Vorenuss acceptance of the position of prefect, another military honor bestowed upon a soldier from a superior, Mark Antony calls him foolish like a priest for showing such regard for rules.[xvii] Antony shows his contempt for religion when he is made a consul, rolling his eyes during the ceremony and abruptly leaving as quickly as possible after the rites had been concluded.[xviii] Mark Antony appears to feel that, Having nothing to fear at the hands of men or gods... [he has] reached a state that is very difficult to attain: [he does] not need to

pray for anything.[xix] Antony undergoes the conventions of religion merely because he needs the masses to see his consulship as legitimate in the eyes of the gods. In order to retain the peoples trust, Roman leaders went to great lengths to prove that the gods approved of them and their actions.[xx] In fact, the historian Polybius treats religion as principally an elite device for manipulating the superstitious masses, which shows that the religious piety of politicians was questionable even to their contemporaries.[xxi] It is Caesar, however, and not Mark Antony, who seems to have mastered the ability to use religion to his advantage. Ciaran Hinds Caesar appears to take public religious ceremonies seriously, acting appropriately austere as he receives his coronation at the hands of the pontifex (Octavian) in Episode 10. However, removed from public scrutiny, Caesar bribes the head auger of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter the Best and Greatest) to give contrived auguries to the people of Rome indicating that the gods approved of Caesars actions. Politicians were generally unwilling to take any action without the approval of the augers, who, upon receiving positive auspices, would inform the people that the gods acknowledged the politicians actions as proper.[xxii] The willingness of the auger to accept the bribe hints of the corruption of those who had religious authority and thus some political power. Says Wardman, Religion functioned as the public servant of a benevolent political master, and this is exactly how Julius Caesar treats it.[xxiii] In a later episode, Caesar offhandedly proposes to build a temple to Venus the Birthgiver, an idea which Cicero shoots down as an obvious attempt to please the people and thus not borne of a sincere desire to honor the goddess. Yet we are reminded that the realities of the Roman world allowed that manipulation of religion can occur within a wide range of attitudes, not confined to faithlessness.[xxiv] Although Caesar certainly uses religion to his political advantage, he is the same Caesar who piously prays and offers sacrifices before confronting Pompey in their initial battle. One should keep in mind that Pompey, on the other hand, is shown putting on his armor. This contrast between praying and putting on armor purposely sets Pompey up for defeat: according to Wardman, When the Romans felt guilty, as they did after civil wars, they tended to blame their failures on their wickedness, their indifference to the gods.[xxv] Here, Caesar does the correct thing and is rewarded for his actions, an idea implicitly stated by the script. Plutarch, too, describes the actions of the Pompeiians (supporters of Pompey) as such: The consuls fled without even performing the sacrifices customary before leaving the city.[xxvi] Caesar, however, is documented as remembering the gods: after praying to the gods for success he drew his troops to the battle-lines.[xxvii] Thus, HBO Rome directly mirrors Plutarch and shows Caesar as entering battle presumably with the gods on his side. Interestingly, Plutarch mentions that, according to Livy, Caesar was also told that victory would be his by a famous diviner who was taking an augury that very day: Livy, at any rate, insists on the truth of the story.[xxviii] The writers of HBO Rome fail to include this little detail, possibly because of a desire to conform to only the most stable sources, since our friend Livy is occasionally criticized for being a bit creative with his recounting of events.[xxix] Plutarch describes an illness that Caesar ostensibly has as epileptic fits.[xxx] However, the people of the times, including Caesars slave Posca, referred to the sickness as morbus, Latin for disease. Posca says that it is brought on by the curse of Apollo; such an affliction was evidence that the gods had deserted a person.[xxxi] Because the illness had such important religious significance, Caesar took pains to hide it from the masses. There was an array of difficulties for anyone whom the people believed that the gods had forsaken. Caesar says, Vow to Orcus never to speak of this, to Octavian, who has witnessed a bout of epilepsy in Episode 4. Servilia, Caesars long-standing mistress and love of his life, recognizes the potential ramifications of Caesar having an affliction, and goes out of her way to try to find out the details from Octavia (Octavians sister and Servilias non-historically accurate lover), saying, With the gods help, I can destroy him.

Although there is no historical basis for Servilia trying to expose Caesars illness, in the series, it proves the importance of appearing to be in the gods favor, and also sets the stage for Servilias plot to destroy Caesar. Servilia provides us with a fascinating chance to observe an Egyptian/Roman curse in Episode 5. Director commentary enlightens us that the curse uttered by Servilia is based on an Egyptian one which uses similar curse tablets[xxxii], and according to Roman historian Beard, The lead tablets were placed in the house of the target.[xxxiii] In HBO Rome, we see Servilias servant plant one of Servilias curses in a crack in Atias homes outer wall. During the intricate process of cursing her victims, Servilia calls upon the gods of the inferno to accept a long and complex curse against both Caesar and Atia. She promises that if the curse works, I will rejoice and sacrifice to you.[xxxiv] Beard explains, Curses tried to mobilize supernatural powerand were composed.to gain vengeance or justice, lending authenticity to Servilias curse.[xxxv] Actress Lindsay Duncan, who plays Servilia, explains that the ritual was incredibly precise in both its written and physical demands.[xxxvi] Atia, one of the subjects of Servilias curse, introduces a well-documented Roman ritual: the slaughtering of a bull to the Cult of Cybele (known in Latin as Magna Mater, the Great Mother). Explains Beard of this ancient practice, In the taroboluim, the sacrificant was drenched with the blood of the bull as it was slain.[xxxvii] Dionysis of Halicarnassus, a Greek critic and historian during the reign of Augustus (Octavian), remarks upon the clear attempt to mark a separation between oriental rights [such as those of the Magna Mater] and proper Roman traditions.[xxxviii] This view of distrust and distaste over the cult of Magna Mater appears overstated, since Atia participates in a taroboluim with no negative outcome and even receives a soothing prophecy from one of the priests that her son will not be harmed. However, in Episode 10, that son, Octavian, supports Dionysiss view when he goes to reclaim Octavia from her refuge in the cult of Magna Mater. Eyes wild, cutting herself, Octavia insists quietly, the priests will protect me.[xxxix] Octavian sneers and tells her that hes already paid them off. This supports the historical view of men eschewing the priests of the Magna Mater. These priests were eunuchs who underwent self-castration as a ritual and were parodied by Juvenal for their practice of begging [for] cast-off womens clothes in bright colours.[xl] Octavian buys off the priests of the Magna Mater, much in the fashion of Julius Caesar buying off the auger. In the series, he expresses a belief in the Prime Mover and says that he doesnt really believe that there are deities in the usual sense. Yet for political reasons, Octavian is made Pontiff by Caesar. Evidence indicates that some men whose patrician birth called them to these duties participated out of political necessity, not belief in the rites. Octavian becomes pontifex maximus because Caesar did so before him, and Octavian was trying to nurture the connection between himself and his uncle.[xli] Octavians motives for accepting the position reaffirm the notion that exact performance of rituals mattered in Roman religion, and that morals were unrelated to ones religious views. Octavian takes his duties seriously, if a bit begrudgingly, reading a guide about interpreting prodigies correctly, and applying the red coloring to Caesars face with a sense of ease during Caesars coronation. (The red coloring, it should be noted, has a historical basis: red was associated with Jupiter, and the flamens of Jupiter painted their faces and arms red to signify their connection to the god.)[xlii] Thus Octavian takes part in the public religion, even though he privately expresses his view that the religion he publicly practices is wrong. It seems that the social classes differ in their relative appreciation of religion as a tool or as a creed. The upper class, including Octavian, Antony, and sometimes Caesar, seem to use religion as a means of garnering support and corralling the masses. The lower class plebeians, such as Vorenus and Pullo, are presented as sincere believers, who pray both out of belief and necessity.

Niobe, Vorenuss wife, also prays out of necessity, and perhaps gives us the best sampling of private religion. Prominently displayed in the home of she shares with Vorenus is a shrine with candles and statues, which is culturally appropriate since every Roman home had a Lararium shrine upon which offerings to the lars familiaris were made.[xliii] Niobe, out of guilt for her betrayal of Vorenus, is constantly making religious gestures. She also goes to a haruspex in Episode 5 to see if her secret is safe from Vorenus. If the entrails were mottled or deformed, then the gods did not advise a particular action. This haruspex cannot read the entrails well enough to give a conclusive answer, excusable because Niobe refuses to tell her what the question is! However, the woman tells Niobe that Vorenus will become as rich as Croesus, and that indeed is fulfilled. The decision of the HBO Rome writers to fulfill the haruspexs prediction seems to offer some authority to the practice, a practice which was indeed taken seriously by the Romans. Niobe conveniently wont tell the whole situation to the diviner, we are left without an answer about whether or not Niobes secret will be exposed. This is another example of the HBO writers knack for combining history and drama so that we have to wait until Episode 12 for a resolution; otherwise the haruspex would have given the answer away and ruined a good deal of the dramatic tension. This tension leads Niobe to lay huddled by the feat of an impressively fat, red woman who has a dish for donations. The red-painted woman receiving offerings represents the Bona Deathe Good Goddess, whom is associated with fidelity and forgiveness and therefore an appropriate goddess to select when praying to be relieved of guilt from adultery. [xliv] Says a later commentator, Niobe is asking, as people often did to the Bona Dea, where am I going, and can I be forgiven?[xlv] She turns to the gods to handle a problem that she herself cannot cope with. Servilia, like Niobe, also prays to get strength from the gods. However, she is focused on revenge, not forgiveness. Like most Roman women, from the poorest plebian to the richest patrician, she prays in her lararium, which, for wealthy people might also include commemorations of the familys ancestors and is otherwise a simple shrine within the house.[xlvi] All around her, death masks of prominent Junii (her family name) flicker in the candlelight, her proud ancestors staring, eyeless, at Brutus, who stands by his mothers side as she prays for their ancestors to give him a heart filled with sacred rage.[xlvii] In addition to ritual, it seems that references to the gods in daily speech were fairly common in Rome. For negative purposes, Servilia vows by the Furies to have revenge on Caesar for his rejection of her, and Octavia in a rare but beautiful moment of rage swears by the harpies that shell tear her mothers throat out with her teeth if Atia had anything to do with the death of Glabius. Atia often mutters Bona Dea as an expression of exasperation. A number of characters threaten one another with the expression By Dis, signifying the god of the underworld. However, the gods names were also evoked in loving scenarios, namely departures of lovers and friends. Upon parting in Episode 5, Niobe says Bellona protect you, to which Vorenus replies tenderly, Juno keep you. Similarly, Vorenus leaves one of his friends, saying, Mars and Bellona keep you. Indeed, the names of the gods, references to the gods, their altars, statues, shrines, and temples permeated the Roman world. HBO Rome incorporates these essential aspects of life inconspicuously, almost as a perfunctory requirement in portraying the city, and at other times purposely illuminates religious ceremonies, rituals, and incidences with flourishes, designed to show the ubiquitous nature of religion, but also illustrates its importance in choice scenes. {mospagebreak} Footnotes

[i] When in Rome Bonus Feature. Historical Accuracy: Roman Worship. 2006 [ii] Gurval, Robert Alan. Lecture. Discovering the Romans Honors Seminar. UCLA, 26 October 2006. [iii] HBO ROME, HBO. 2007. Accessed Jan. 2007 http://www.hbo.com/rome/ [iv] HBO ROME, HBO. 2007. Accessed Jan. 2007 http://www.hbo.com/rome/ [v] Wardman, Alan, Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans. (London: Granada, 1982) p. 7. [vi] Wardman, p. 7. [vii] Wardman, p. 7. [viii] Wardman, p. 9. [ix] Ando, Clifford (Ed.) Roman Religion. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.) p. 368 [x] When in Rome Bonus Feature. [xi] Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth (Eds.) Stoicism. Oxford Classical Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). p. 1146. [xii] HBO Rome. Episode 3: An Owl in a Thornbush. [xiii] HBO Rome. Episode 3: An Owl in a Thornbush. [xiv] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. All Roads Lead to Rome(Onscreen Text) 2006 [xv] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. [xvi] Wardman, p. 9. [xvii] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. [xviii] Rome. Episode 2: How Titus Pullo Brought Down the Republic. [xix] I couldnt resist adding this phrase from Tacituss Germany, originally describing the Fenni, a Germanic tribe. Tacitus. Germany; Translation: A.R. Birley (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) p. 62 [xx] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. [xxi] Beard, Mary, Religions of Rome: Volume 2, A Sourcebook. (Cambridge: University Press, 1998) p. 350. [xxii] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. [xxiii] Wardman,, p. 13. [xxiv] Wardman, p. 23. [xxv] Wardman, p. 8. [xxvi] Plutarch, Roman Lives: Life of Caesar, Translation: Robin Waterfield. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) ch. 34, p. 330. [xxvii] Plutarch, ch. 43, pp. 337-8. [xxviii] Plutarch, ch. 47, p. 340. [xxix] Plutarch, p. 340 [xxx] Plutarch. p. 62 [xxxi] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn. [xxxii] When in Rome Bonus Feature. [xxxiii] Beard, p. 266 [xxxiv] HBO Rome. Episode 5: The Ram Has Touched the Wall. [xxxv] Beard, p. 266. [xxxvi] When in Rome Bonus Feature. [xxxvii]Beard, p. 160. [xxxviii] Beard, p. 209. [xxxix] HBO Rome. Episode 10: Triumph. [xl] Beard, p. 210. [xli] Clifford, p. 161 [xlii] HBO Rome. Episode 4: Stealing from Saturn.

[xliii] HBO Rome. Episode 3: An Owl in a Thornbush. [xliv] Gurval, Robert Alan. Lecture, Discovering the Romans Honors Seminar. UCLA, 9 November 2006. [xlv] When in Rome Bonus Feature. [xlvi] Beard, p. 102. xlvi HBO Rome. Episode 12: Kalends of February. Works Cited Ando, Clifford (Ed.) Roman Religion. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. 1988. An Owl in a Thornbush. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 11 Sept. 2005. All Roads Lead to Rome(Onscreen Text). 2006. Beard, Mary. Religions of Rome: Volume 2, A Sourcebook. Cambridge: University Press, 1998. Gurval, Robert Alan. Lecture. Discovering the Romans Honors Seminar. UCLA, 26 October 2006; 9 November 2006. HBO ROME, HBO. 2007. Accessed Jan. 2007 http://www.hbo.com/rome/ Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth (Eds.) Stoicism. Oxford Classical Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). p. 1146. How Titus Pullo Brought Down the Republic. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 4 Sept. 2005. Kalends of February. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 20 Nov. 2005. Plutarch. Roman Lives. Life of Caesar. Translation: Robin Waterfield. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. The Ram Has Touched The Wall. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 25 Sept. 2005; Audio Commentary by Ray Stevenson, 2006. Stealing From Saturn. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 18 Sept. 2005. All Roads Lead to Rome(Onscreen Text). 2006. Tacitus. Germany. Translation: A.R. Birley. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Triumph. HBO: Rome. HBO, BBC, RAI; Rome. 6 Nov. 2005. Wardman, Alan. Religion and Statecraft Among the Romans. London: Granada, 1982