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Article history: Fossil fuels are being heavily depleted due to increasing anthropogenic activities worldwide, and burning
Received 10 December 2010 them contributes to global climate warming and air pollution. Vegetable oils are one of the main
Accepted 23 October 2011 feedstocks for biodiesel: they are non-toxic and environmentally friendly. Rising global population,
Available online 10 November 2011
decreasing arable lands and a decline in crop yields from desertification and salinization demands that
biodiesel feedstock be grown on unproductive agricultural lands. To estimate whether five plants
Keywords:
growing on such land in China could be used as energy plants, we determined their seed oil content
Biodiesel
(SOC) and relative fatty acid content, and estimated the cetane number (CN) of the biodiesel produced
Energy plants
Unproductive agricultural lands
from these plant oils by a fitted regression between different C18 fatty acids and CN. Results showed that
Seed oil content four plants can be developed as energy plants, including Datura candida (SOC ¼ 22.9%, CN ¼ 50.8),
Cetane number Xanthium sibiricum (SOC ¼ 41.9%, CN ¼ 46.5), Kosteletzkya pentacarpos (SOC ¼ 18.6%, CN ¼ 45.9) and
C18 fatty acid Hibiscus trionum (SOC ¼ 17.5%, CN ¼ 46.9). The fifth plant, Rhus typhina, was not adapted as an energy
plant because of its low SOC, 9.7%. Our data provide a scientific basis for growing energy plants in
unproductive agricultural lands as biodiesel resources.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.10.022
192 C.-J. Ruan et al. / Renewable Energy 41 (2012) 191e199
limited agricultural lands, ultimately ways are needed to grow 2. Material and methods
biodiesel feedstock on unproductive agricultural lands such as
saline-alkaline lands, poor soil, deserted soils, and plough- 2.1. Plant materials
withdrawn lands that have not been forested or farmed or are
not adapted for food production because of too low yield. Seeds were collected from the five plants growing on ecologi-
The fuel properties of biodiesel, for example cetane number, cally disturbed or unproductive agricultural lands: (i) R. typhina
oxidative stability, cloud point, pour point, viscosity, density, and grew on the roadsides of Wafangdian county, Liaoning province,
heating value are directly related to the fatty acid profile of the China; (ii) K. pentacarpos, X. sibiricum, D. candida and H. trionum
original source material [4]. These relationships can be used for grew in fields located in the tideland of Dalian city, Liaoning
combustion modeling [17e19]. The cetane number, a widely used province, China. Only clean seeds, without any kind of infection or
diesel fuel quality parameter related to the ignition delay time (and animal damage, were collected.
combustion quality) of a fuel, has been applied to alternative diesel
fuels such as biodiesel and its components [20]. The higher the 2.2. SOC and relative contents of fatty acid
cetane number of a given compound, the shorter its ignition delay
time and vice versa [20]. Fatty acids of C18 chain length as well as Seed samples of each plant field were mixed (2 kg), packed into
their methyl, ethyl, n-propyl and n-butyl esters were injected into plastic containers (600e700 g/container), freeze-dried, and stored
a constant-volume combustion apparatus to form the precombus- at 20 C. Acid-washed containers were used for those samples
tion phase of an ignition event, in which compound structure plays meant for analysis of the oil and relative fatty acid contents. Before
a significant role in determining the cetane number of a given every analysis the contents of 1e3 containers were homogenized.
material: more highly saturated fatty compounds have a higher All the samples were analyzed in triplicate.
cetane number [21] while the more unsaturated C18 fatty Oil content was measured according to AOAC [28]. Fatty acids
compounds have a relatively low cetane number [20]. Higher were measured by the normalization method of GC-FID (Gas
cetane numbers are correlated with reduced nitrogen oxide (NOx) Chromatography - Flame Ionization Detector). A 0.2 g sample was
exhaust emissions [22]; the environmental significance of reducing added to a 20 ml test tube with a cork. Then, 0.5 mol/l NaOH (2 ml)
NOx exhaust emissions is that these exhaust emissions are was added to 2 ml methanol, and the resulting mixture was boiled
precursors of ozone (O3), which is a primary component of urban at 60 C for 25 min. After cooling, 35% BF3eCH3OH (2 ml) was added
smog. NOx emissions are regulated in tailpipe emissions, while O3 is and the mixture was boiled at 60 C for 20 min in closed containers.
regulated in ambient air [22]. Reducing exhaust emissions is an After cooling, 2-ml 99.9% hexane was added. After shaking, 2 ml
important problem facing biodiesel as both these gas species are saturated NaCl was added. After being shaken and centrifuged, the
slightly increased when using biodiesel in comparison to petro- supernatant was transferred into a clean test tube and 2e4 drops
diesel fuel [23]. Hence, the cetane number can be used as anhydrous sodium sulfate was added to eliminate minimum water.
a parameter to evaluate the potential of plant oils as biodiesel. The experiment was performed with a Shimadzu GC-14B gas
Five plants (Table 1), which normally grow on unproductive chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID),
agricultural lands (e.g. coastal tideland, roadsides, desert and dry with an acidified polyethylene glycol capillary column OV-17
regions), are potential resources as biodiesel feedstocks, including (30 m 0.32 mm 1.0 mm film thickness). The initial isotherm
Rhus typhina (Fig. 1A) [24,25], Kosteletzkya pentacarpos [26] (Fig. 1B of 150 C (1 min) was raised to 230 C at a rate of 5 C/min, and the
and C), Xanthium sibiricum (Fig. 1D) [27], Datura candida (Fig. 1E) final isotherm was 230 C (10 min); carrier gas was nitrogen; split
and Hibiscus trionum (Fig. 1F). ratio was 30:1. The relative contents of the different fatty acids were
In this study, we have (i) measured seed oil content (SOC) and its determined by using the area normalization method.
relative fatty acid content for each of the five plants, (ii) fit
a regression between the relative contents of different C18 fatty 2.3. Estimation of the cetane numbers of the biodiesel produced
acids and the cetane numbers of the biodiesel produced from from the five plant oils
different plant oils by the published data, (iii) estimated the cetane
numbers of the biodiesel produced from the five plant oils in this Relative contents of the main components of fatty acid can be
study by the above regression, and (iv) evaluated the potential of used to directly determine the cetane number [20,29]. We surveyed
the five plants as biodiesel resources, according to the seed oil 70 samples of relative contents of C18:0, C18:1, C18:2 and C18:3 and
content (SOC) and the estimated cetane number. the cetane number of biodiesel from our studies and published data
Table 1
Five plants used in this study.
Fig. 1. Five plants growing on unproductive agricultural lands: A: R. typhina [25]; B: K. pentacarpos; C: Seeds of K. pentacarpos and seed oil obtained by the method of expelling; D:
X. sibiricum [27]; E: D. candida; F: H. trionum.
Table 2
Oil content and relative contents of fatty acids in the seeds of five plants.
Fig. 2. Gas chromatogram of fatty acid methyl esters in the seeds of the five plants: R. typhina (A), K. pentacarpos (B), X. sibiricum (C), H. trionum (D) and D. candida (E). In (A): 14,
myristic acid; 16, nonadecenoic acid; 17, palmitic acid; 19, linoleic acid; 20 and 21, oleic acid; 22, steartic acid; 25, arachidonic acid; 26, arachidic acid; (B): 14, lauric acid; 16,
ginkgolic acid; 17, pentadecanoic acid; 19, hexadecadienoic acid; 20, palmitoleic acid; 22, cis-10-heptadecenoic acid; 23, linoleic acid; 24 and 25, oleic acid; 26, steartic acid; 27, cis-
11,14-eicosadienoic acid; 28, arachidonic acid; 29, arachidic acid; (C): 6, palmitic acid; 7, linoleic acid; 8 and 9, oleic acid; 10, steartic acid; (D): 17, myristic acid; 19, palmitoleic acid;
20, palmitic acid; 22 and 23, linoleic acid; 24 and 25, oleic acid; 26, steartic acid; 28, arachidonic acid; 30, arachidic acid; and (E): 9, myristic acid; 10, palmitoleic acid; 11, palmitic
acid; 12, linoleic acid; 13 and 14, oleic acid; 15, steartic acid. The un-annotated numbers in (A)e(E) were peaks that relative contents were too low or from impurity.
C.-J. Ruan et al. / Renewable Energy 41 (2012) 191e199 195
Table 5
Linear regression between the cetane numbers (expressed as Y) and relative contents of four main components C18:0 (X1), C18:1 (X2), C18:2 (X3) and C18:3 (X4) in fatty acid,
using data from Table 3.
Fig. 3. Regression relationships between the cetane numbers and relative contents of four main components C18:0 (A), C18:1 (B), C18:2 (C) and C18:3 (D) in fatty acid.
lands, will help to develop saline - and drought-tolerant vegetable cold flow, viscosity and oxidative stability, which is directly related
plants for fuel, food and fiber in the face of our ever-increasing with the relative components of fatty acids. Cold flow properties
drought and salinized world [9,14] and to solve the heavily are useful as biodiesel quality during the cold climate, which are
depleted fossil-fuel energy crisis. dependent on the feedstock (specific type of oil, fat or grease) from
In addition, when we assess the suitability of one plant used to which they are made and are a strong function of the level of
biodiesel by the seed oil content and the cetane number, it is saturated fat [69]. Presently, the methods for improving cold flow of
necessary to consider other essential properties besides CN, such as biodiesel is to mix biodiesel and diesel fuel, and the improved cloud
Fig. 4. The cetane number of the biodiesel produced from the five plants (A: R. typhina; B: K. pentacarpos; C: X. sibiricum; D: H. trionum; E: D. candida) estimated by the regression
equation 1, 2, 3 and 5 in Table 5.
198 C.-J. Ruan et al. / Renewable Energy 41 (2012) 191e199
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