LEARNING

AREA

NATURAL

SCIENCES

FOCUS

NATURAL

SCIENCES
EN

GRADE

NATURAL GRADE

SCIENCES

TEACHERS GUIDE

Synopsis for Grades 8 and 9

The framework for the following components is derived from the policy in terms of which learning programmes for the Natural Sciences learning area have to be developed and implemented: Three learning outcomes with a set of assessment standards each Four content areas with an explanation of the core content of each that determines the learning outcome to be achieved. The policy framework can be represented as follows: Learning outcome to be achieved: LO 1: Scientific investigations Planning the investigation Undertaking the investigation Evaluating the outcome LO 2: Constructing scientific knowledge Recalling information Categorising information Interpretation Application Content through which the outcome is to be achieved: 1. Life and way of living Biodiversity Interactions in the environment 2. Life processes The earth and beyond Our place in space Atmosphere and weather The changing earth Characteristics and used

3. Energy and change Structure, reactions and changes 4. Matter and materials/substances Energy transfer and systems Energy and development in South Africa

LO 3: Science, society and the environment Science as a human concern Sustainable use of natural resources

The ICS modules are compiled in terms of this framework. You will notice that the modules place great emphasis on learner activity: the development of process skills and simultaneous mastering of knowledge and understanding. As educator, you will continually be required to see to it that the learners are establishing the appropriate framework of knowledge and understanding. To assist you in this task, we have supplied a summary of the relevant knowledge together with the discussion of each of the modules in this guide. We continually strive for inclusiveness, a healthy environment and human rights, as well as social justice (the themes prescribed by the policy). It so happens that particular modules or sections of modules are especially suited to elucidating a specific theme Biodiversity, for example, is particularly suited for establishing the desired attitude to a healthy environment. Time scheduling: A list of contents (mesoplan) at the beginning of each module also indicates the amount of time that should be allocated to each of the subsections of the relevant module.

Assessment:
The assessment scale provided for each activity indicates the number of the appropriate assessment standard and reflects the latest policy (National Curriculum Framework): 1. The learner does not meet the required standard (poor) 2. The learner meets the required standard partially (fair) 3. The learner meets the required standard (good) 4. The learner surpasses the required standard (excellent) You are required to decide who should do the assessment: the learner him- or herself, a partner, a group, or you yourself. The appropriate mark out of four is entered into the provided space. You could, of course, devise your own grids and use them as you please On completion of the module, all the assessment marks of each learning outcome are added together and used to determine the total mark for the learning outcome, and this is entered on the assessment grid.

HOW THE

NEW LEARNING OUTCOMES (NCV) COVER (CURRICULUM 2005)

THE

SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

Learning Area Natural Sciences

LEARNING OUTCOMES (NEW NCV) 2 1 3 SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (CURRICULUM 2005)
1 Using process skills to demonstrate phenomena relevant to the natural sciences 2 Exhibiting knowledge and understanding of the concepts and principles of the natural sciences 3 Applying scientific knowledge and skills in an innovative way for resolving problems 4 Exhibiting understanding of how scientific knowledge contributes to the management, development and use of natural and other resources 5 Using scientific knowledge and skills to promote responsible decision making 6 Exhibiting knowledge and understanding of the relationship between science and culture 7 Exhibiting understanding of the changing and contentious nature of the natural sciences 8 Exhibiting knowledge and understanding of the ethical questions, preconceptions and inequalities relevant to the natural sciences 9 Exhibiting knowledge and understanding of die interaction among the natural sciences, technological and socio-economic development

SCIENTIFIC

CONSTRUCTING
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

SCIENCE,

SOCIETY

INVESTIGATIONS

AND ENVIRONMENT

SYNOPSIS: LEARNING PROGRAMME NATURAL SCIENCES GRADE 8

The following subjects are included in the learning programme for Grade 8 (though there are many possible subjects, the time factor has necessitated the suggested selection):

SILLABUS THEME
Matter and Materials

MODULE
MATTER BIODIVERSITY

THEME
Classification Adaptation and survival Ecology Hydrosphere and rhythms Lithosphere Electricity

Life and Way of Living

INTERACTING WITH THE ENVIRONMENT OUR PLACE IN SPACE THE CHANGING EARTH ENERGY SYSTEMS

Earth and Beyond Energy and changes

Grade 8 Module 1
SYNOPSIS:
MESOPLAN MATTER & MATERIALS 8 TERM 1 MODULE 1 CLASSIFICATION: HEADINGS 1. What is everything made of? 2. Building blocks of matter 3. Phase changes 4. Crystals and solutions LO/AS Group discussion Experiment deductions Reading skill Research Demonstration Class assignment Problem solving Research Poster Model building Awareness-raising campaign Listening skills Quiz Research Recognition Experiment Sketches + methods Research Time Per. 1 1 1 2

5. Atoms and molecules

6. Elements & compounds

7. Metals and non-metals 8. Compounds and mixtures 9. Separation of mixtures PROJECT =17 lessons + research (2) + assessment (2) + class test (1) + management of portfolio (1) = 23

2 3 1

Suggestions to the educator

LEARNING UNIT 1:
.........CLASS ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION

Separate learners into groups of 4 Learners observe objects around them in the classroom and complete the following with the help of a class discussion:

LEARNING UNIT 2: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: EXPERIMENTS IN GROUPS

Separate learners into groups of 4 Supply each group with the following: A glass beaker and a test tube water sodium chloride (table salt) potassium permanganate crystal / food colouring

...........EXPERIMENT 3: Movement of particles in gases

Ask a learner for a spray deodorant and squirt some of the contents into one of the corners of the classroom. (Perfume or air freshener could be used as an alternative). Ask the learners to raise their hands as soon as they are able to smell it.

LEARNING UNIT 3: THE PHASE CHANGES OF MATTER

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: READING SKILL The learners have to read the following to answer the questions

The rest of this activity involves research and drawing.

LEARNING UNIT 4: CRYSTALS AND SOLUTIONS

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: MAKING SOLUTIONS

This may be presented as a demonstration or as group work: You need: A glass beaker salt / sugar warm and cold water watch-glasses

LEARNING UNIT 6: MOLECULES

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: BUILDING MOLECULES

Use the ball-and-stick models that are available at schools, or clay (Plasticine) in three different colours and toothpicks. Separate learners into groups of 4

LEARNING UNIT 7: ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: LISTENING SKILLS

Present a lesson on the elements of the periodic table with the poster illustrating the periodic table as a teaching aid. Be sure to deal with all the aspects that the learners are expected to know. Learners are required to complete a questionnaire without any assistance. ELEMENTS AS SYMBOLS

Examine the list of elements. Indicate examples of these, preferably those in the laboratory. The emphasis must be on introducing the symbols. The learners can complete the final column (on interesting facts) after the next assignment.

..............ASSIGNMENT

Learners must find information on elements and bring their information to the class. They could be divided into groups and asked to complete the following as a competition. When everyone has the correct answers, the learners must also complete the list of interesting facts.

LEARNING UNIT 9: COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION

Divide the class into groups. Provide each group with: some iron filings flowers of sulphur 3 test tubes a test tube stand a magnet a small amount carbon bisulphide (bear in mind that this is a dangerous substance and is carcinogenic!) watch-glasses

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: DEMONSTRATION

Heat sulphur and iron filings in a test tube. Make use of the magnet and the carbon bisulphide to exhibit the new qualities that emerge.

LEARNING UNIT 10: SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

Introduce the apparatus and methods used for separation. Provide guidance with regard to the project. ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK:

Transfer the values.

MINIMUM CONTENT What is everything made of?

Matter consists of particles. Particles in gasses and fluids move spontaneously from where there are many particles to where there are few until they are evenly distributed this is referred to as DIFFUSION! The smallest particles of which substances are comprised are known as ATOMS. A pure substance in which all atoms are the same is known as an ELEMENT. Two or more atoms that are joined together form a MOLECULE.

Building blocks of Matter

Particles diffuse in a solution because they spread from where the concentration is high to where it is low, as in the case of the potassium permanganate or colouring. Salts DISSOCIATE or break up in positive and negative ions when they dissolve in water. A cation is a positive ion, e.g. Na+, and Cl- is an anion, which is an example of a negative anion. These positive and negative poles are supported by the polarity of water. ( particle and - at O particle)
+

at H

Phase changes of Matter

The atoms and molecules of a substance do not change when phase changes occur. What changes is the way in which they move or are arranged in relation to one another. In gases, like water vapour, the particles are far apart and they move around more freely. We are able to compress them, e.g. with a bicycle pump. In liquids, e.g. water, the particles cannot be compressed easily. This is demonstrated by the fact that water flows. In a solid substance, e.g. ice, the particles are compressed in a CRYSTAL GRID. This normally cannot change form without application of a strong force. PHASE CHANGE Ice to water Water to water vapour Water vapour to water Water to ice PROCESS Melting Evaporating Condensation Freezing ENERGY REQUIRED / RELEASED Requiredheating Requiredheating Releasedcooling Releasedcooling

The water cycle: Water molecules EVAPORATE from water surfaces because of heating (radiation) caused by the sun. TRANSPIRATION or loss of water vapour from leaf surfaces also occurs remember that 90% of a plants uptake of water is given off into the atmosphere during transpiration. CONDENSATION of water molecules occurs at particular heights in the atmosphere this leads to the FORMATION OF CLOUDS. PRECIPITATION occurs in the form of rain, hail, snow or sleet, thereby returning the water to the earth. RUNOFF or INFILTRATION of water also occurs runoff into lakes, dams, rivers or the sea, and infiltration into the soil, sometimes deep enough to reach the WATER TABLE. ABSORPTION by the roots of plants occurs in the soil.

CRYSTALS

AND

DISSOLVING

When a substance, e.g. table salt, is introduced to water, the particles divide to spread out among the water particles we say that the salt particles DISSOLVE. The water in which it dissolves is the SOLVENT. The substance that is dissolved is known as the SOLUTE. A SATURATED SOLUTION is a solution that is incapable of dissolving more of the substance. It is possible to add energy to the particles by heating the solution so that more particles can be dissolved.

SNOW CRYSTALS
Each snowflake is unique. Snowflakes are formed when water vapour in the air condenses as snow crystals. Snow crystals develop arms from a hexagonal prism. Each arm develops differently according to minute variations in temperature. Snow crystals combine to form snowflakes. Some of the worlds most valuable stones are formed from solid matter in the form of crystals. Diamonds, rubies, sapphires and many others are our precious stones. The atoms of these crystals fit together exactly. Crystals have flat sides known as facets these may be triangular, rectangular or may occur in many other forms. Minerals can be identified by their crystalline forms. The basic shapes of crystals vary table salt crystals are cube-shaped. Most crystal needs to be polished to have their beauty revealed.

Atoms and Molecules

BUT

HOW BIG ARE ATOMS AND WHAT DO THEY LOOK LIKE?

An atom is 0.000 000 001m in diameter this is a millionth of a millimetre! When you blow up a balloon, you may think that there is nothing inside it, but it will in fact contain about one billion gas atoms (100 000 000 000 000 000 000)! One cubic millimetre of table salt (enough to cover the tip of a pin) contains approximately 70 million atoms! If each of the atoms in grain of sand were as large as the tip of a pin, the diameter of the grain of sand would be two kilometres! Although atoms are the building blocks of matter, they are not the smallest known particles there are also subatomic particles known as PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS. An atom consists of a NUCLEUS in which there are PROTONS AND NEUTRONS. Protons have a positive charge and neutrons are neutral they are equal ii size. Electrons are smaller and are negatively charged. The occur outside the nucleus in an area known as the electron cloud. An atom usually has the same number of protons and electrons and is not charged the simplest substance, namely hydrogen, only has one of each. MOLECULES are combinations of atoms that have formed compounds. WATER is composed of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen. There are subatomic particles known as moons, gluons and gravitons! There are particles that are smaller than electrons. They are quarks and leptons. Quarks have odd names like on, on/off, queer and up and down. They are the smallest known particles.

Elements and Compounds

An element is a substance that cannot be divided into smaller units Compounds can be divided into smaller units. Elements can be seen as the building units of compounds. Elements are roughly divided into two main groups: metals and non-metals. Elements can also be divided into gases, liquids and solid substances on the basis of their phases at room temperature.

 Elements are introduced in the periodic table that was originally compiled by Mendeleev. Elements are named in Greek or Latin and are usually named after the place where or the person by whom they are discovered. The periodic table of elements is arranged vertically according to groups and horizontally according to periods. Metals are mostly to the left and in the transition table. Non-metals are mostly on the right. Noble gases that are inert are on the extreme right. The halogens are gases like Cl, Br, I and F that are diatomic, which means that they occur, for example, as N2 Most of the elements are in the solid-state phase at normal room temperature and pressure. The alkali metals like Li, Na and K are stored in paraffin because they react violently with water (as well as water vapour). Die alkaline earth metals are Ca and Mg. Noble metals are the valuable metals, e.g. Au, Ag and Pt. The non-metal iodine is able to sublimate (change directly to the gas phase from the solid substance) when it is heated. The non-metal phosphorus is stored in water as it reacts with oxygen. The only fluid elements are mercury (metal) and bromine (non-metal). The number on the periodic table represents the number of protons and neutrons in an atom of the element and is known as its atomic number.

Metals and Non-metals

Metals are shiny, hard elements that are malleable (it can be hammered to produce a sheet of metal) or pliable (it can be folded and stretched). Metals conduct heat and electricity. The study of metals is metallurgy. Metals, together with other elements are transformed to alloys that are stronger than the original elements. Metals can be recycled. Non-metals are dull and occur in a variety of colours. E.g. yellow sulphur. Non-metals cannot conduct heat or electricity. Non-metals are sometimes mixed with metals in alloys. Gold is a metal that is regarded as a symbol of wealth everywhere, but platinum and palladium are more costly because of their application in electronics and specialised engineering. Steel is known everywhere and millions of tons of steel are used annually in the production of washing machines, motorcars, ships and trains. Stainless steel is also used for cutlery. For this, it is mixed in an alloy with hard, shiny chrome.

 A variety of substances can be added to iron to provide different alloys, e.g. manganese, phosphorus, silicon and sulphur. Aluminium is used extensively in cold drink cans, ladders and other objects that must be light and rust proof. Aluminium is the third most common chemical element on earth, as it comprises a large portion of the earths crust. The metals that are usually added to it are copper and magnesium. Metals can readily be recycled because they are cheaper when recycled. This is particularly true for the gold and silver in electronic circuits and dentures! Bronze is one of the oldest alloys it is a mixture of copper and tin. Brass, again, is an alloy of copper and zinc. METALS Hard and shiny Malleable and pliable Conducts heat Conducts electricity NON-METALS Different colours; not hard Brittle, breaks Doesnt conduct heat Doesnt conduct electricity

WHICH ELEMENT?
Gives off a blinding white light (like the sparklers that are burnt in a particular restaurant for birthday celebrations) Mg The main metal used in spacecraft and satellites like the ISS Ti The element that forms rust when it is in contact with oxygen Fe The gas used to fill balloons to make them float He The metal used for most electricity conductors Cu The element with the fewest electrons in its atomic structure H Valuable metal used for jewellery, coins and photographic films Au

The yellow non-metal found in hot water springs and volcanoes and which contributes much to acid rain; it forms part of matches and fireworks and occurs in many medicines. S A halogen that is a liquid Br Inert gas in light bulbs Ar A magnetic metal used in heat-resistant alloys Co

Element that ensures healthy teeth Ca Which non-metal will ignite spontaneously if it is exposed to oxygen? (You occasionally see it out at sea at night.) P The element used most commonly in computers and transistors Si The germicidal element used in swimming pool purifiers Cl The element that occurs in all chemical compounds and in three forms C

The element that burns with a violet light in oxygen K The metal used as a finish on most bathroom taps Cr Gas used in fluorescent lights Ne

Poisonous substance in insecticides that has also been used in murders (Find out about Daisy de Melcher.) Cyanide Metal used for window frames, especially at the coast Al The most abundant gas in the atmosphere N The noble gas that provides a bright green flame Kr The metallic part of table salt Na Metal used for roof coverings and sinks Zn

Compounds and Mixtures

A Mixture is a combination of two or more different elements that do not react chemically. In a mixture, the different elements retain their qualities. The elements in a mixture can be separated physically. A mixture is an IMPURE substance because any amount of one substance can be added to the other. A Compound is formed when two or more elements react with each other to form a new substance. Energy is normally required to separate the elements in a compound. A compound has new qualities and cannot simply be converted to its original elements The particles of a compound are bound in fixed ratios. Elements and compounds are PURE substances because they consist of only one kind of particle. If it is at all possible to separate a compound into its elements, it will have to be done chemically, electrically, or with the application of heat. Separation by heating is possible, e.g., with powder of mercuric oxide that is heated and decomposes to drops of mercury and oxygen acid. Separation by electricity as in the case of ELECTROLYSIS is also possible, e.g. for copper (II) chloride that is separated into chlorine gas and a copper precipitate Water (a compound) can be broken up into its elements with the help of the Hoffmann voltammeter.

Separation of Mixtures
Different methods can be used for separation. What is used depends on the type of mixture. Methods: Manual sorting sort with regard to size, shape and colour, e.g. different buttons, sweets, diamonds.

 Magnetic separation by means of a magnet if one of the substances has magnetic qualities. Filtration one of the substances is soluble, e.g. sugar and sand. Water is added and filtration and evaporation is used for separation. Evaporation dissolve in water (or suitable solvent) and evaporate. Separating funnel two liquids of differing density, e.g. oil and water. Distillation use a condenser and a distilling flask; heat and evaporate and then condense. FRACTIONAL distillation when the boiling points are reached, e.g. of alcohol and water. Alcohol can be distilled out of wine by boiling the wine at 79 C and thereby ensuring that only alcohol evaporates and condenses in the LIEBIG CONDENSER.

MEMORANDUM
LEARNING UNIT 1: WHAT IS EVERYTHING MADE OF?
.........CLASS ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION 1. no 2. yes 3. a) b) c) d) e) no walls, roofs no asbestos, wood no sound-proof material no insulators, e.g. plastic, rubber no heating and forces transform, e.g. by melting

4. gas: air; liquid: water; solid substance, table

LEARNING UNIT 2: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MATTER

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: EXPERIMENTS IN-GROUPS EXPERIMENT 1: 1. crystals dissolve 2. yes 3. You would see more crystals lying at the bottom. DEDUCTION: water dissolved small particles

EXPERIMENT 2: DEDUCTIONS: much little spontaneously particles EXPERIMENT 3: DEDUCTIONS: much particles

LEARNING UNIT 3: PHASE CHANGES OF MATTER

1. snow; ice (solid substance) water; river water (liquid) steam (gas) 2. a) sun b) fire 3. a) steam (gas) b) snow/ice 4. spaces smaller in solid substances 5. 1 evaporation; 2 transpiration; 3 cloud formation / condensation 4 precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) 6. condenses; melts; freezes (crystallises); evaporates

LEARNING UNIT 4: CRYSTALS AND SOLUTIONS

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: MAKING SOLUTIONS Warm water contains more energy and crystals dissolve much faster in this Evaporation leads to crystallisation

.............ASSIGNMENT: CLASS PROJECT Method Materials Results Deduction PROBLEM SOLVING: The particles of warm water have more kinetic energy and are therefore further apart more salt particles can fit into the spaces The scientific report must include the following:

Purpose

LEARNING UNIT 5 ATOMS AND MOLECULES - PROJECT LEARNING UNIT 6 MOLECULES

1. Water and carbon dioxide 2. Bonds 3. O 4. O

LEARNING UNIT 7 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

The PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 1. periods 2. groups 3. below left and in the transition block 4. Li, Na, K reactive with water vapour 5. Alkali metals 6. Below right 7. P reactive with oxygen 8. On the extreme right 9. Gases on extreme right 10. Noble gases 11. H 12. Br and Hg 13. Iodine 14. Solid substance 15. Corresponding qualities ELEMENTS AS SYMBOLS The Elements and their Symbols No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Symbol H He Li Be B C N O Phase G G V V V V G G All organic substances In abundance in atmosphere Essential respiration M M Metal or non-metal Interesting fact Lightest gas Stable gas; balloons

No 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 26 29 30 35 47 82 80 28 92 24 53 27

Name Fluor Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Iron Copper Sink Bromine Silver Lead Mercury Nickel Uranium Chromium Iodine Cobalt Gold

Symbol F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Fe Cu Zn Br Ag Pb Hg Ni U Cr I Co Au

Phase G G V V V V V V G G V V V V V VL V V VL V V V V V V

Metal or non-metal

Interesting fact

Neon lights/fluorescent lights M M M Burns with white light Light metal Sand Ignites spontaneously Yellow powder Toxic gas

M M M M M Teeth Haemoglobin; rust

M M M M M M

Noble metal

Coins Nuclear reactors Taps Sublimate Weather ornaments

............GROUP WORK: QUIZZ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mg Titanium Fe He Cu H

7. Ag 8. S 9. Br 10. Ar 11. Co 12. Ca 13. P 14. Si 16. Cl 17. K 18. Cr 19. Ne 20. Cyanide 21. Al 22. N 23. Kr 24. Na 25. Zinc ........CLASS ACTIVITY: RECOGNITION OF METALS AND NON-METALS Metals: Non-metals: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. shiny, hard gold demand study of metals alloy METALS Hard and shiny Pliable and malleable Conducts heat Conducts electricity 7. Pliable long threads stretched out. Malleable hammered into thin plates/sheets. NON-METALS Different colours; not very hard Brittle, breaks No No

LEARNING UNIT 9: COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION INVESTIGATION INTO PHYSICAL QUALITIES OF ELEMENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. grey, hard yellow powder yes no Metals are magnetic. nothing sulphur dissolves Metals do not dissolve in carbon bisulphide. crystals sulphur

INVESTIGATION INTO PHYSICAL QUALITIES OF MIXTURES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. yellow-grey Only iron filings are attracted. Only metal is magnetic. Only sulphur dissolves. yes Dissolves S and evaporates again crystals back on magnet.

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: DEMONSTRATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Fused into a new substance. yes looks different; own qualities no no yes, with effort heat heat chemicals Complete the following comparative table. MIXTURES An impure substance Composition varies No energy involved in formation Qualities of individual substances are retained Can be separated by physical methods e.g. a magnet COMPOUNDS A pure substance Composition fixed Energy is required New qualities are created Can only be separated chemically and with effort

LEARNING UNIT 10: SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

...................ACTIVITY: Select methods for separation MIXTURE Sand and salt Beans and peanuts Squash syrup and water Oil and water Different coins Filter Manual sorting Distillation Separating funnel Manual sorting METHOD

Sketches the correct apparatus

1. distillation 2. cost 3. distillate fluid condenses after distillation 4. filtrate fluid that is filtered 4. filtering at different boiling points, e.g. at oil refineries and in the spirits (alcohol) industry ....................PROJECT: Alcohol boils at 79 C fractional distillation removes alcohol; water is left behind, Regulation of temperature, using a thermometer, is very important, Sketch of how the Liebig condenser is set up is important,

MEMORANDUM GRADE 8 MODULE 2:

BIODIVERSITY: ADAPTATION AND SURVIVAL
LEARNING UNIT 1: PREHISTORIC LIFE
.....................Activity: COMPREHENSION TEST AND RESEARCH Preparation read about carbon dating and find sources of information on evolution. As well as mass extinctions. Find appropriate video material.

LEARNING UNIT 2: FOSSILS

.............Class activity: SKETCHES of FOSSIL Find sources of information on fossils, palaeontologists and excavations. www.ru.ac/za/pssa/pssalaw.hrml - fossils and SA law

LEARNING UNIT 3: LIFE ON EARTH

.....................Activity: APPLICATION OF CLASSIFICATION Explain classification and the binominal system. Sources dealing with Carolus Linnaeus.

LEARNING UNIT 4: SURVIVAL - HABITAT

.....................Activity: DISCUSSION ON HABITAT Instruct learners to do this discussion in dialogue (two learners to a group).

.......................Poster: GROUP WORK 4-5 LEARNERS Give advance instruction to learners for forward planning and finding of materials. .....................Activity: STRATEGIES for SURVIVAL Cutting and pasting activity.

LEARNING UNIT 5: SURVIVAL - ADAPTATION AMONG ANIMALS

.....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION teeth and dentition Obtain examples of skulls for the lesson

....................Activity: IDENTIFY - COLOUR ADAPTATION Cutting and pasting activity.

LEARNING UNIT 6: ADAPTATION AMONG PLANTS

.....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION: PLANTS www.lithop.supanet.com

.....................Activity: EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING ADAPTATIONS ASSIGNMENT: Story Do some reading about the natural vegetation of the arid regions of our country. Write a story about the survival of an animal in the Kalahari Desert. Write this from the point of view of the animal and from its situation in the food chain. .............Class activity: XEROPHYTIC PLANTS ADAPTATIONS ASSIGNMENT: Research project Most xerophytes are used as medicines and in a variety of other applications, by various cultural groups. The aloe ( Aloe ferox), in particular, has a wide range of applications consult homeopaths, sangomas or an inyanga to find information in this regard. Do research through the internet, books and libraries. Write a research report with the following headings as a guideline:

Growing regions Special properties of the plant, especially the leaves Medicinal and economic value of the plant Include a list of all the sources and websites that you consult.

LEARNING UNIT 7: SUSTAINABILITY

.....................Activity: READING SKILL: Instruct the class to do silent reading.

.............Class activity: POSTER SPACECRAFT EARTH The earth is like a spacecraft all its supplies have been provided and it has to set out on its voyage completely self-supportively!! Create an A4 poster to depict your image of the earth as viewed as a spacecraft in the present time.

LEARNING UNIT 8: SUSTAINABLE ACTIVITIES

.....................Activity: CLASS DISCUSSION SUSTAINABLE ACTIVITIES RESOURCES Indicate whether the following activities are sustainable or not: ASPECT SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS FOSSIL FUELS MINING FORESTRY HYDROELECTRIC SCHEMES NUCLEAR REACTORS YES NO Lead class discussion be sure to address all points

LEARNING UNIT 9: WORLD POPULATION

Organise a visit to the computer centre or obtain sources from the internet for the use of the learners. Visit the www.census.gov: website Graph paper for the exercise.

ASSESSMENT GRID: Transfer values

MEMORANDUM
LEARNING UNIT 1 PREHISTORIC LIFE
..................Activity 1: 1. the manner in which the age of the earth is divided into periods/ages 2. own 3. asteroids; climatic changes 4. remains of animals that were petrified 5. the measurable decay of carbon 4 is used 6. own

..................Activity 2:

What is a palaeontologist? A person who studies fossils What does the law allow?

ASSIGNMENT: Draw a flow chart to provide a simple representation of the fossilisation process. Soft tissues decay pressure - transformation by water - mineralisation - displacement ..................Activity 3:

LEARNING UNIT 3: LIFE ON EARTH

..................Activity 4:

Skeleton; invertebrates; vertebrates CLASSES Fish THREE EXTERNAL FEATURES Scales (slimy) Fins Streamlined Gills/gill-slits Strong hind legs Swimming membranes Soft skin Scales (dry) Elongated bodies Tails Feathers Wings Scales/beaks Hair Eyes more or less directed forwards External auricle

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds

Mammals

.....................Activity: APPLICATION OF CLASSIFICATION 1. A person studying living organisms 2. A person studying plants 3. Homo sapiens 4. To facilitate the exchange of comparisons and information 5. Terra = earth 6. According to the table

LEARNING UNIT 4 SURVIVAL: HABITAT

.....................Activity: DISCUSSION ON HABITAT Own

.....................Activity: STRATEGIES FOR SURVIVAL According to the table Sugar-bird: beak; flying action; metabolism Fiscal shrike: beak Praying mantis: colour; mandibles; front legs

LEARNING UNIT 5: SURVIVAL ADAPTATIONS BY ANIMALS

Name two examples of herbivores from each of the following categories: 1. mammals: sheep; rabbit 2. birds: dove; sparrow 3. insects: aphid; locust

Name two examples of a carnivore from each of the following categories: 1. mammals: lion; cat 2. birds: fiscal shrike; eagle 3. insects: praying mantis; ladybird

Name two examples of an omnivore from each of the following categories: 1. mammals: baboon; rat 2. birds: duck 3. insects: cockroach, fly Incisors Cut food, bite off pieces Eye-teeth Tear meat Premolars Grind food Molars Grind food

.....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION teeth and dentition 1. A cusps (canines) for grinding action 2. Herbivore / omnivore 3. Incisor sharp, flat edge

.....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION - SKETCHES OF SKULLS A herbivore B carnivore C omnivore .....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION COLOUR ADAPTATION

LEARNING UNIT 6: ADAPTATION AMONG PLANTS

.....................Activity: IDENTIFICATION: PLANTS

.....................Activity: EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING ADAPTATIONS HYDROPHYTE Roots Leaves ADAPTATION Poorly developed, only for anchoring Large surface Floating Cuticle (waxy layer) on surface Air pockets in the leaf Stoma (small openings) on upper surface Stems Not much reinforcing tissue Slimy layer Rhizome (stores nutrients) XEROPHYTES Roots Leaves ADAPTATION Shallow root system Cork layer Few stoma, mainly on lower surface Small or transformed into thorns Stems Thick and fleshy Waxy layer Stores water Prevents loss of moisture EXPLANATION Absorbs dew Protects against drying out Prevents loss of moisture Protects against animals Supported by water Slimy layer protects EXPLANATION Float in water, do not absorb water Opp. For photosinthesis Gas exchange only takes place on upper surface

ASSIGNMENT:

STORY

Own .............Class activity: XEROPHYTIC PLANTS - ADAPTATIONS ALOE: dry leaves protect; thorns at leaf margins protect against insects and larvae that might eat it; bitter sap; fleshy leaves store moisture. CACTUS: thorns protect against herbivores; fleshy stems store water. LITHOPS: camouflaged by colour patterns; fleshiness for storing water. WELWITCHIA: two leaves only; grooves trap moisture; shallow root system. Column question: 1 2 D B, C 4 5 B, E B, C

3 B, C, F

LEARNING UNIT 7: SUSTAINABILITY

.............Class activity: SUSTAINABILITY: 1. Own 2. Own 3. coal, water, oil 4. Own 5. destruction of habitat and biodiversity disturbs the natural balance

LEARNING UNIT 8 SUSTAINABLE ACTIVITIES

.....................Activity: CLASS DISCUSSION SUSTAINABLE ACTIVITIES ASPECT SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS FOSSIL FUELS MINING FORESTRY HYDROELECTRICAL SCHEMES NUCLEAR REACTORS X X YES X X X X X X NO

Discussion: own

LEARNING UNIT 9: WORLD POPULATION

Visit to Census website: As indicated GRAPH: self-assessment

.....................Activity: IMPRESSIONS Own

MEMORANDUM GRADE 8 MODULE 3

ENVIRONMENT AND INTERACTIONS
LEARNING UNIT 1 THE ECOSYSTEM
...............Activity 1.1: Interpreting representations of different ecological environments Questions 1. 2. All although a flower garden does not really constitute a stable and balanced ecological environment because of human interference in the natural processes. Learners have to conduct a debate on the role of human beings in nature. Is it possible to describe an environment in which people are involved and pursue their own objectives as a natural ecological environment? A defined area with all the living and non-living factors in it (biotic and a biotic components). Light, air, water, soil, animals, plants. 5.1 a biotic: all non-living parts, e.g. air, water. 5.2 biotic: all living organisms, e.g. plants, animals. 5.3 factor: an element of cause that contributes to a result; the nature of something, e.g. an environment that has a determining effect. 6. a. An ecosystem is a particular area with all the living and non-living factors that determine the nature of the area, as well as the living organisms that occur in the area and interact with one another and with the non-living factors of the area. Complete the following table by listing the factors as given in the sketches: ABIOTIC FACTORS Polluted air City environment Sketch A Water from pipes and taps Built-up land, small plots of land Sun, air, soil, water Thorn trees, grass, lions, antelopes Farm animals, wild animals, ducks, horse, birds, antelopes, trees, grass, insects, earthworms Geckoes, snakes, mice, Beetles, sprigs of grass Snails, seaweed, small fish BIOTIC FACTORS People, small birds, rats/mice, insects, spiders, grass, trees

3. 4. 5.

7.

Lowveld environment Sketch B Farm environment Sketch C Desert environment Sketch D Sea environment Sketch E

River / dam / water Unpolluted country air, a particular kind of soil Sanddunes, wind, dew in the mornings Sun, sea, air, clouds

...............Activity 1.2: Examining a section of the garden as an ecological environment (ecosystem) The visit to the garden. Why must an uncultivated part of the garden be examined? The gardener should be persuaded to steer clear and not interfere.

Tables: learners compile their own lists: Importance of location, date and time: A biotic factors vary continually and the behaviour and presence of organisms therefore also vary. Column graph: Utilisation of both the X-axis and the Y-axis is important. The factor that affects the data or lends significance to it is entered on the x-axis. The effect of this factor is entered on the Y-axis. Ensure that the learners name the X- and Y-axes correctly and that they have a thorough grasp of the importance of it: X-axis: plant species; Y-axis: numbers representing each plant species. Complete the following column-related question: A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. B C D B A E G F

LEARNING UNIT 2: DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS

...............Activity 2.1: Discussing the value of a grassland ecosystem

ADVANTAGES OF BURNING Hard seedpods that cover seeds crack open Species are rediscovered, e.g., the mountain rose Plants that grow aggressively are restricted Younger plants provide better nutrition (green grass after a severe winter)

DISADVANTAGES OF BURNING Air pollution smoke Animals and plants are injured and damaged, or killed Organisms in the soil are destroyed humus is reduced Grasses are weakened if burning is practised or occurs at the wrong time

...............Activity 2.2: Discussing a forest / tree ecosystem Questions 1. Suppose the tree depicted in your poster were to topple over; a. Plants that grow in the shade and have no resistance against direct sunlight. b. Some creatures like birds and squirrels. c. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi. 2. 3. 4. Accept the answers offered by learners, but ensure that the following are listed: habitat, shelter, source of food, shade. Decomposition and the formation of humus are retarded: raw materials are not returned to the soil and the soil is impoverished. Overgrazing, introduction of exotic plants, pollution.

...............Activity 2.3: Discussing a rock pool ecosystems 1. Accept the descriptions offered by learners. The following must form part of the information provided: saltwater, shallow water, high tide and low tide, extreme variations in a biotic conditions. Wave action, wind, drying out, solar heating, pollution by people.

2.

ANIMALS IN ROCK POOLS Questions 1. Research: (a) Feeders that use filtering: mussels: minute food particles are filtered out of the water that flows through delicate structures. (b) Carrion eaters: eaters of dead animals, e.g. crabs. 2. 3. 4. Tentacles: These grab bits of food from all directions and stuff it into the mouth in the absence of the senses of sight and smell. Food-related aspects as touched on in earlier questions. Shelter: plants provide shelter against predators. Feeders that use filtering: mussel (C) Predator: coral, sea urchin, sea star, sea anemone, crab (A, B, D, F, G, H) Herbivores: mussel, snail (C and E) Carrion eaters: sea star and crab (F and H)

LEARNING UNIT 3 THE ROLE OF PLANTS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

...............Activity 3.1: Identifying the role of plants FUNCTION DESCRIPTION Plants store food that nourishes and keeps animals alive Leaves absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen Protection, Homes Bark and leaves enable insects to be unnoticeable because of the similarity of lines and spots that are developed Anchoring, enriching the soil Plant material returns to the earth SKETCH Baboon or maize plant Leaf with arrows indicating direction Branches of trees

Moth against background of a tree trunk

Roots of plants Leaves on the ground

A paragraph dealing with the role of plants

This should aim to provide practice in communicating through writing. The content of the previous table must be presented and expanded in a written paragraph.

...............Activity 3.2: Discussing the role that animals play in ecosystems FUNCTION DESCRIPTION Animals serve as food for other animals Insects pollinate flowers, for fruit to develop Dispersal of seed Fertiliser Mammals, birds, mice and insects disperse seeds The soil is enriched SKETCH Lion with a zebra Butterfly on a flower Mouse eating a fruit Antelope, rock rabbit or rabbit droppings

CLASS DISCUSSION

Can animals harm the environment? Yes overgrazing, in particular, leads to the eradication of plants and thereby to soil erosion. Exotic animals can be harmful because of the way in which their numbers could increase in the absence of their natural enemies. This would result in the displacement of indigenous animals and even cause the eradication of specific animal and plant species.

LEARNING UNIT 4

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

...............Activity 4.1: Reasons for ecological relationships

Reasons: food e.g. birds that pollinate flowers, animals that serve as prey for other animals, herbivores that eat grass, protection e.g. gnus, zebras and impalas that graze together (protections against predators), homes e.g. birds that nest in a tree, decomposition e.g. fungi and bacteria that depend on dead plants and animals for their food, but in turn are useful to other plants and animals because their action maintains the fertility of the soil. The most important reason: a class decision

...............Activity 4.2: Explaining, identifying and illustrating foodbased relationships / the food chain Tests your knowledge: 1. 2. 2.1 consumer: not able to produce own food, must eat / live off plants or something else that eats / lives off plants. 2.2 producer: produces its own food by utilising the sun, carbon dioxide and water, e.g. green plants. 2.3 Energy derived from the sun, by means of a range of organisms, usually ranging from a herbivore first, then through a range of consumers to decomposers. Some energy is lost at each link. 3. 3.1 Carrion eaters remove visible animal remains while decomposers see to fine breaking down to mineral level so that the residue can return to the soil. 3.2 Decomposers break down organic material (plant and animal remains) to basic nutrients (nutrients / building materials) that are made available to plants from the soil. 4. Fungi, bacteria (or examples of fungi and bacteria) 1.1 herbivores 1.2 carnivores 1.3 omnivores

The Food chain Accept the learner's answer if the following are correct: producer, 1st consumer, 2nd consumer and 3rd consumer, decomposer.

The food pyramid Green plants, herbivores, carnivores, carrion eaters. Incline: the steeper the incline, the smaller the amount of energy or biomass that is lost from one level to the next. Food chains related to a text for reading E.g. twigs / organic material - ants - antlion - gecko - snake Grass - locust - gecko - snake Twigs / organic material - field mouse - snake

LEARNING UNIT 5

SPECIAL FOOD RELATIONSHIPS

...............Activity 5.1: Special food relationships Mutualism: bird and flower: The bird obtains food (advantage), flower is pollinated (advantage). Parasitism: tick on horse: The tick obtains food (advantage), horse loses blood (disadvantage). Commensalism: Cattle and birds: Cattle dislodge and carry ticks that occur on the grass, providing food for the birds while the cattle remain unaffected. Sharks and small fish: The fish eat the remains of the food consumed by the sharks while the sharks remain unaffected. ...............Activity 5.2: Researching parasitism

Assess the learner's attempt in terms of the three assessment standards 1.1 (planning), 1.2 (collecting data), and 1.3 (interpretation and communication).

LEARNING UNIT 6 ECOTOURISM

..............Activity 6.1: Brochure or video

Learners are required to design a colourful brochure that could be given to a tourist from abroad to introduce the natural beauty of South Africa as well as the country's ecological treasures. The learner may choose one or two subjects. Assess this in conjunction with the paragraph on the value of ecotourism. Note the following: Problem statement (planning) Sources used for information Quality of information (did the learner make a selection or simply accept what was found first?) Layout / presentation / reasoning (communicating).

LEARNING UNIT 7 THE ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND AS RESOURCE

...............Activity 7.1: The value of water and the water cycle Own representation of the water cycle:

Check to ensure that the learner has included all the relevant terms in the table in his / her sketch.

El Nio, droughts and floods 1. 2. Help the class to select and record the best information from the learners' feedback / presentations. As in 1.

Graph

Rainfall in the Western Cape and Gauteng

Januarie

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Maart

Mei

Julie

September

months of the year

Questions related to the graphs: 1. 2. 3. 4. Western Cape: December; Gauteng: July Western Cape: July; Gauteng: January Western Cape January 110 mm and 10 mm

November

S1

mm of rain per month

Series1 Series2

Assess in terms of the criteria given below the graph.

...............Activity 7.2: Water in and around the home Learners collect information about water consumption. Encourage them to give their own opinions on the level of their personal consumption of water. Questions on the analysis of water consumption
Water consumption during domestic activities per day
140 120

litres of water

100 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

activities

Question 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 = = = = = = = = = drinking water = 18 washing hands = 19 brushing teeth = 4 bathing = 120 showering = 40 flushing the toilet = 60 washing machine = 130 dishwasher = 80 irrigation - sprinkling at 9 per minute cooking = 17

10 = Question 2

488 litres Question 3 2h15 = 135 minutes x 9 litres = 1 215 litres or 1,215 kilolitres per day

Question 4 Learners should attempt the comparison but must come to realise that a comparison is difficult to effect because the information about the family that is provided is inadequate (regarding the size of the family, etc.) (AS 1.3: evaluating data/information).

WATER CONSERVATION

AT HOME

How might your family be able to contribute towards water conservation? Draw up a list of the best suggestions.

Let the class decide on the best suggestions in the list. Praise the learner whose list resembles this list most closely. ...............Activity 7.3: Adaptations to water shortage that occur among plants and animals

Three groups, with examples: mesophytes (any example), xerophytes (e.g. the aloe, other succulents, prickly pears, etc.), hydrophytes (water lily, etc.) Design: Note fleshy leaves, frequently small and sessile, arranged in such a way that they lead water towards the stem of the plant. Leaves may also be extremely small and thorn-like. May be covered with a waxy layer. Shallow roots, excessively branched.

Assignment: Examples (accept whatever is significant): Plants Hairy leaves Few openings (stomata) Openings occurring on lower sides of leaves only Fleshy stems and roots Enlarged underground parts in which water can be stored Animals Small body surface Little or no excretion of urine Dry excrement Few blood vessels near the skin in large areas of the body (Because of this, the body cannot be cooled properly and other mechanisms are developed for cooling specific areas, e.g. the brain. In the case of the Cape oryx, for instance, blood that goes to the brain is circulated through the nostrils where it can be cooled down.) Eating food with a high moisture content Acquaint the learners with the following concepts: Panting: fast breathing with high loss of moisture from the mucous membranes of the throat and mouth, as in the case of dogs and some bird species

Estivation: passing the summer in a dormant condition. It is cooler below the surface of the soil this is why some animals use tunnels. Migration: Birds, in particular, as well as some antelope species, migrate to areas that offer better sources of food, even seasonally, e.g. swallows. Rete mirabilis: A miraculous network of blood vessels in the nostrils of the Cape oryx for cooling the blood. Survival strategies of animals Oryx: shade of trees, and keeping the brain cool by circulating blood through the nostrils. Mongoose: shelters underground. Migrating to where there is water, no respiration through the skin no moisture is lost, but cooling down by flying. Perspiring through the tongue only.

LEARNING UNIT 8 ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

...............Activity 8.1: Ecological problems and solutions PROJECT: WATER AUDIT at THE SCHOOL Form groups of 4. Plan the following: 1. How to determine water consumption at the school. 2. Determining how to represent the findings in a report. 3. The recommendations to be made. Hand the completed report and findings to the teacher on the predetermined date. Report-back by Groups. Final findings may be passed on to the school's management body.

Own memorandum

Assignment 1: WATER WASTAGE AT TAPS Own memorandum

Assignment 2: CLASS DISCUSSION ON RECOMMENDATIONS Which recommendations dealing with water wastage at taps would you hand in together with the water audit that you submit to the school's governing body? List of recommendations: Own memorandum

Assignment: DISEASES LINKED TO WATER ASPECTS CHOLERA Contageous infection of the small intestine due to Vibrio cholerae bacteria ingested through contaminated water Acute diarrhea, headache, fever, vomiting, dehydration Tetracycline and other antibiotics Treatment Rehydration BILHARZIA Schistosoma flatworm In contaminated water - enters the body through skin lesions Itchy skin, fever, blood in urine DIARRHEA Salmonella virus group or botulism (food poisoning) or other conditions, e.g. cholera, spastic colon, etc. Repeated and runny stools

Causes

Symptoms

Medication

According to cause Stop taking in milk products Rehydration

Preventing the condition from spreading

Avoid areas where it occurs, boil water injection

Treat water sources, control freshwater snails that act as intermediate hosts

Avoid food that is off, stay clear of contaminated areas According to cause

POLLUTION occurs in various forms. Compile a list: Oil, chemicals dumped by industry; plastic, car tyres, paper and rubbish littering; water and toxic substances; spraying of insecticides, Assignment 4: IDENTIFYING INSTANCES OF POLLUTION in an illustration: Memorandum for the illustration

Assignment 5: POSTER ON POLLUTION Own memorandum

Assignment 6: SUGGESTIONS FOR RECYCLING Own memorandum

MEMORANDUM GRADE 8 MODULE 4

ENERGY types
LEARNING UNIT 1

Energy is the capacity for doing work. We measure energy n joule (J). Human beings use energy: to propel themselves for all movement and activity for warmth and comfort to drive all inventions and machinery that facilitate work-related tasks

There are two main types of energy: The energy for action and movement is known as KINETIC energy The energy of position is known as POTENTIAL energy

Energy also occurs in different forms such as: Chemical energy, which is derived from chemical substances like petroleum, oil, gas, batteries and food. Electrical energy which is derived from electricity. Sound energy, from loudspeakers. Radiant energy, from light and heat. The sun is the main source in this respect. Nuclear energy is stored in the nucleus of an atom.

Energy can also be converted from one form to another, as you will discover in Grade 9 in the unit on energy, forces and machines. Conversions usually occur from one form into another according to the law of the CONSERVATION OF ENERGY - Herman Helmholtz (1821 - 1894) was the person who developed the law of the conservation of energy. This law states that energy can not be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.

In the learners' example in Assignment 1 of Activity 1.1, this will have to be explained as follows.

..............ACTIVITY 1.1 Assignment 1: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Car battery CHEMICAL to ELECTRICAL Paraffin stove - CHEMICAL TO HEAT Wind-up toy car POTENTIAL TO KINETIC Hair dryer ELECTRICAL TO HEAT Elastic band (being shot) - POTENTIAL TO KINETIC Radio ELECTRICAL TO SOUND Food CHEMICAL TO KINETIC A growing plant RADIANT TO KINETIC Burning candle CHEMICAL TO LIGHT AND HEAT

10. Nuclear power station KINETIC TO ELECTRICAL

Explain this to grade 8 with the help of a simple example. It is generally known that the common light bulb provides us with light, but also becomes so hot that it can hardly be touched after a few moments. Approximately 100J of electric energy are converted to light energy AND heat energy within one second. The light energy has the value of about 5J, while the heat equals about 95J. The conversion therefore is as follows: ELECTRIC ENERGY TO LIGHT ENERGY AND HEAT ENERGY A light bulb therefore is altogether uneconomical!

If you consider this, you will realise that the food provides the SOURCE OF ENERGY of human beings, but electricity and fuels provide all other aspects of energy. This brings us to the next learning unit.

LEARNING UNIT 2 PRESENT ENERGY SOURCES

In South Africa the main sources of energy used to generate electricity are: Burning of coal Hydroelectricity Nuclear power

COAL-BURNING AND POWER STATIONS ..............ACTIVITY 2.1 Assignment 1

At present, this is the most generally used source of energy, and therefore of electricity, as South Africa is blessed with vast coal reserves. The ESKOM coal power stations produce roughly 90% of the country's electricity. We have 18 of these large power stations.

ESKOM ELECTRICITY SUPPLY COMMISSION This organisation provides 95% of South Africa and more than half of Africa with electricity. In brief, a coal-firing power station operates as follows: Assignment 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Coal is mined and transported Coal is ground Coal is burned Water in pipes is heated to provide steam Steam drives the turbines Turbines turn the rotor of the generator The rotor is an electromagnet that generates electricity Electricity is carried away by means of copper wires

Assignment 3: The steam that turns the turbines has to escape somewhere - It has to be condensed through cooling, and this requires water! Each power station requires approximately 150 million litres of water per day. Most of this is lost through evaporation! Typical cooling towers can be seen along the N2 just outside Cape Town and elsewhere in South Africa. Waste that is formed during the process comprises harmful gases like sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide these can bind with moisture in the air and cause acid rain.

 Burning coal to generate electricity cannot be seen as a "clean" method and is harmful to nature because of the resultant air pollution, acid rain and particles of ash pumped into the air.

HYDROELECTRICITY
..............ACTIVITY 2.2 Assignment 1:

We actually live in a very dry country. But we do have two large permanent rivers and ESKOM has erected two large hydroelectric power stations. One is situated close to the Gariep Dam in the Free State and the other is in the Van der Kloof Dam near Petrusville.

THE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

GENERATION OF HYDROELECTRICITY CAN BE EXPLAINED BY MEANS OF THE FOLLOWING STEPS:

Movement of water, the downward flow especially, occurs due to gravitational pull. The effect of the fall is to charge the water molecules with energy. The falling water drives a water turbine. This converts the kinetic energy to electrical energy. Water is usually pumped back for the process to be repeated. This method is "clean" and renewable as it can be used repeatedly where there is an adequate supply of water. Its effectiveness, however, is dependent on the amount of water that is available and on the speed at which or the distance over which the water falls! A hydroelectric power station is usually built below a dam wall or a waterfall. This method of energy transfer to a turning mechanism has been in use for as long as 2000 years.

Assignment 2: Visit the Internet and use a search engine, making use of search words such as: aqueduct and water wheel The water wheel Aqueducts

..............ACTIVITY 2.3 Assignment 1: Complete the following table dealing with coal-burning power stations as opposed to hydroelectric schemes with regard to the following headings: Decide whether you are dealing with an advantage or disadvantage in each instance and mark the corresponding column accordingly.

ASPECT

COAL POWER
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

HYDROELECTRICITY
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Pollution Costs

Ash and gasses Mining, transport Burning involves high running costs Manpower is costly

None Little maintenance after initial cost of establishment Little -

Job creation Reserves

Sufficient -

Will run out

We unfortunately live in a country that has too little water Depends on the climate

Speed of the process Reliability of the source

Reliable for the time being

Slow process Cannot be relied on for centuries

Quick and immediate -

CONCLUSION:

Hydroelectricity generally provides a good source of energy it is a pity that we do not have large supplies of water.

NUCLEAR POWER
..............ACTIVITY 2.4 Assignment 1:

Do a project on Nuclear power in South Africa The learners have to be divided into groups for collecting information on nuclear power. Each group is to address the questions that follow: Where is South Africa's nuclear power station? AT DUINEFONTEIN NEAR MELKBOS How much electricity is provided by this power station? 6% + TO OTHER COUNTRIES Which dangerous metal is used for the power-generating process? ENRICHED URANIUM Why is cooling an important component of this power-generating process? BECAUSE OF THE IMMENSE HEAT THAT IS GENERATED Is it true that you can burn 25 railway truckloads of coal to obtain a quantity of energy equal to that which is provided by an amount of uranium that is equal to the size of one golf ball? YES

Visit: www.eskom.co.za/nuclear.overview

Many people become quite concerned when they think of nuclear power because of the horror of the Second World War and Hiroshima, etc. The South African nuclear reactor is located north of Cape Town at Koeberg. It supplies roughly 6,5% of the country's electricity. The Koeberg power station is the only nuclear power station on the African continent. It has a pressure water reactor with two units, each of which develops 960 MW of power. This represents approximately six percent of the power of that is developed in South Africa. Koeberg supplies electricity to the whole of the Western Cape and exports surplus capacity to other parts of South Africa and to Namibia, our neighbour, during the summer. Although is the only nuclear power station in Africa, there are 438 nuclear power installations right across the world. Most of these, namely 118, are in Northern America and supply approximately twenty percent of America's electricity. In France, 76 percent of the total power development capacity come from nuclear power stations. More than seventeen countries depend on nuclear facilities to provide at least a quarter of their total electricity requirement. In spite of the perception that the use of nuclear power is being reduced, there are definite plans to extend the use of nuclear power in China, India, the Korean Republic and

Japan. Six nuclear power installations were linked to electricity networks in 2000, and building was commenced on three new nuclear reactors one in China and two in Japan. This has brought the number of nuclear reactors that are being built to 31.

TYPICAL REACTOR COMPRISES:

Fuel Uranium (U). A moderator which slows down processes almost like a system of brakes. Control rods to stop a reaction. Cooling agent which is able to cool down enormous heat. Protective covering to protect people from radioactive radiation much concrete is frequently required in this regard.

THE

PROCESS IS AS FOLLOWS:

Enriched uranium is split (fission) under controlled conditions. Splitting of one atom of uranium provides 10 million times the amount of energy that is obtained from burning one atom of carbon! The nuclear reaction releases an enormous amount of heat. The heat converts to seam. The steam drives a turbine, which, in turn, drives a generator. The steam is condensed and pumped back to cool down for reuse.

MORE DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THE PROCESS:

The enriched uranium has the form of small particles coated with layers of carbon and silicon carbide. These layers create an inhibitor. The fuel comes in the form of balls, each containing 15 000 of these enclosed uranium particles. The reactor contains 440 000 balls, 310 000 of which are fuel balls. The heat that is generated during the nuclear reaction is borne away by means of helium gas, which enters the reactor at about 500C, moves across the reactor fuel and leaves the reactor at about 900C. This hot gas is directed through the closed-circuit gas turbine that drives a generator. From the turbine, the gas returns to the reactor and the cycle starts all over again.

LEARNING UNIT 3 FUTURE ENERGY SOURCES

................Activity 3.1 Assignment 1:

Open memo

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

...............Activity 3.2: Assignment 1:

Potential new sources of energy include biomass, geothermal energy, hydroelectricity, thermal oceanic energy, wind energy and the direct conversion of sunlight to energy by means of photovoltaic cells (SOLAR CELLS).

BIOMASS

Electricity can be generated by burning organic waste to heat water to form steam. Biomass includes wood, leaves, harvest residue and even animal waste products. These materials are converted into liquid fuels like ethanol, which is added to petrol, or methane gas, which can be applied in the same way as natural gas. The most popular use of biomass is simply burning it as a fuel, for instance as wood in a fireplace. This is a good option in South Africa. Hydroelectricity and wind are as attractive as options as the direct conversion of sunlight, as neither causes pollution and have no resultant chemical or radioactive waste either. It is a pity that our country has such a short supply of water.
OCEANIC ENERGY

THERMAL

Thermal oceanic energy converters are machines that are designed to generate energy in warm tropical seas. They utilise arm water at the surface for the evaporation of a liquid, like ammonia, which boils at very low temperatures. The steam that is produced through evaporation is forced through turbines to generate electricity. Then this gas is stored in tanks where it is converted into a liquid again by being cooled with cold water brought from the ocean. This process is repeated in a closed circuit. Our problem is that South Africa is not situated in the tropics.
POWER

SOLAR

The direct conversion of sunlight is the most promising of the renewable systems. Solar panels are only used on a small scale at present, but further development of this technology will probably lead to solar energy becoming one of the most important alternative energy technologies. This holds much promise for our country.

LEARNING UNIT 4 ELECTRICITY

...............Activity 4.1: Assignment 1:

One of the listed forms of energy is ELECTRICITY. Electricity is an invisible form of energy that is based on the movement of very small particles. To understand this, one needs to understand the structure of an atom. An atom represents the smallest particle that any substance consists of. It comprises a small nucleus of particles known as protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral), as well as a surrounding cloud of small negative particles electrons. It is the electrons that move in the electric circuit. In a neutral atom, the positive and negative particles are usually in balance. When an imbalance is created, the negative electrons come into motion. PARTICLE LOAD LETTER SYMBOL

electron proton neutron

negative positive neutral

p+ n

Electricity is the movement of energy along long lengths of copper wire and this energy can be converted to other forms of energy such as light, warmth and movement by means of any appliance connected to it.

 The electrons cannot move by themselves; they are actually pushed forwards in the electric condition. This pressure is known as the POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (Pd).

The potential difference is usually produced by a power station or a battery. In the wiring, electrons will literally bounce from one atom to another like the wagons of a freight train that bump against one another when force is applied at one end it causes an impact that is transferred all along the wiring.

Do you know?
There is a mild but similar electric current in the human body, which moves along the nerves and muscles in the form of nerve and muscle pulses. The machine that is able to pick up and record this is an EEG, an electroencephalograph. During such an investigation, electrodes with sensors that take readings are attached to the body. Another application involves a pacemaker, which maintains the electrical impulses of the muscle tissue of the heart and supplements any inadequacy.

ELECTRICITY AT HOME
History

At the heart of the story and distribution of electricity in South Africa (and of Africa, in fact) we have the Electricity Supply Commission known as Eskom. This utility comprises a head office (the impressive Megawatt Park complex in Johannesburg), various large power stations and a national distribution network. Five gigantic coal-driven power stations were commissioned to be erected in the Eastern Transvaal of the time in the 1960s. Although some of these power stations were only completed in the 1970s, they enhanced Eskom's capacity for generating power considerably. The Southern African Development Community Summit, which was held in South Africa in 1995, agreed on an exchange of electricity between the SADC countries. The majority then signed an agreement that established an electricity power pool

Generation

Eskom is an agency that finances itself through the generation and selling of approximately 98 % of South African electricity and supplying approximately 60 % of the electricity requirements of Africa. It takes a position among the top seven utilities in the world in terms of size and sales. Eskom is also one of the world's lowest cost producers of electricity using fossil fuels (coal) as the main source of electricity. Like most other power/electricity companies, Eskom maintains a number of plants: two gas turbines, two hydroelectric plants, two pump storage plants, one nuclear plant and 17 coal-driven plants - 24 units in total. Eskom's coal-driven power stations (ranking among the largest in the world) generate approximately 80 % of all the electricity produced by the utility company. The hydroelectric stations, pump storage schemes and gas turbine stations generate 14 % of production and nuclear power is last with 6 %.

Supply

Eskom annually distributes more than 155 000 million kWh of electricity right across South Africa by means of a national grid of about 312 000 km of airborne wires and 6 000 km of underground cables. The Eskom supply of electricity is taken directly to rural areas, large industries and to most of the mines. Eskom also distributes electricity to the urban areas (communities, small businesses and households) through local authorities and municipalities. The supply of electricity to homes occurs in the form of the National grid, ESKOM's way of facilitating distribution. In brief, this works as follows: Mine transport power station pylons main substations factories regional substations - tower pylons residential substations domestic supply Electricity is very expensive and the local municipality supplies it from ESKOM. They also determine the unit price that the consumer will pay. After use, according to an account system Prepaid by means of a code

In South Africa this can be paid for in one of two manners:

PREPAID ADVANTAGES You are in control You know exactly what you get DISADVANTAGES You have to plan You have to cope with the inconvenience of buying tickets You cannot reverse it

ACCOUNT ADVANTAGES Convenient method of paying DISADVANTAGES Could be wrong You may be paying an average price You cannot control it yourself

LEARNING UNIT 5 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

................Activity 5.1 Assignment 1:

An electric circuit comprises:

1. 2. A Electrical point and closed circuits. A source cell or battery conductors wires a switch controlling point other components like light bulbs, resistors and measuring instruments. cell Positive cell battery

A Battery is a collection of cells.

Drawing a number of components may be a nuisance and time-consuming. You need symbols that could provide shortcuts. Scientists have fortunately devised these already and they are used internationally!

A length of copper wire is represented by means of a line A light bulb is represented by means of: A cell (the long thin line is the +) An ammeter (to measure the strength of the current) A switch

................Activity 5.2 Assignment 1: as: A circuit diagram always contains these components (or parts) of the current. To begin, we arrange the components in line this is known as "in series". The diagram is always drawn in the form of a square. A typical diagram is shown

A circuit diagram of three cells in series, an open switch, two light bulbs in series and an ammeter.

The concept of connection/linking in parallel may be difficult to understand. In the case of cells it can be shown as:

In the case of light bulbs, parallel linkage is as follows: three light bulbs linked in parallel use symbols

Domestic light bulbs are therefore in PARALLEL

ELECTRICITY AND ITS USES IN THE HOME

THE LIGHT BULB: We'll begin with the light bulb. We have said that the light bulb represents ineffective utilisation of electric power. This is because 95 of the 100J are lost to heat and only 5J go towards light energy. We therefore need to think of a more economical means for lighting. But before we can investigate the issue further, we need to know what a typical light bulb consists of. The light bulb comprises a glass bulb filled with a particular gas, which isn't oxygen. The light bulb comprises a glass bulb filled with a particular gas, which isn't oxygen.

Why not? Wait and see. The wires inside a light bulb are wound up in small spirals. They are actually made of a particular metal filament (tungsten) that has resistance. This means that it tries to block the current and therefore becomes extremely hot. The heat is so intense that it begins to glow and becomes white hot! If the glass bulb were to be filled with oxygen, the intensity of the heat would melt everything. But the hollow is filled with a stable gas Argon.

ECO-LAMPS

AND

FLUORESCENT LIGHTS:

Fluorescent lights (neon lights) are used in many offices and schools, as well as in some homes. They are filled with a particular gas and are lined with a chemical substance that emits light when an electric current passes through the tube. Fluorescent lights do not build up much heat, which reveals something of their effectiveness.EKO-LAMPE: It is important for consumers to have electrical appliances that utilise electricity effectively. Fluorescent lights do cost more, but they last much longer.

Cost

Maintenance

Effectiveness with regard to the utilisation of power

Acceptable Good Excellent

Saving

Light bulbs Fluorescent lights Eco lamps

Average More expensive Most expensive

Regular replacement Very little Even less

Not really Good Excellent

LEARNING UNIT 6 VOCABULARY FOR ELECTRICITY

................Activity 6.1 Assignment 1: There is a list of words and terms that one needs to know before further studies in electricity can be undertaken

Term
Ampere Coulomb Direct current Alternating current Alternating current Volt Watt Assignment 2:

Symbol
A C DC AC AC V W

Explanation
The amount of current that is used The amount of electric charge that can be stored A continuous electric current that flows in one direction only A continuous electric current that periodically reverses direction A continuous electric current that periodically reverses direction Standard unit of measurement of electromotive force Standard unit of electrical power

The contributions made by scientists through the centuries have contributed greatly to our concept of and to the design of machines that enhance our lives.

Among the important scientists that learners have to investigate, we have: Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) 1752 - While flying a kite with a metal key during a thunderstorm, he observed sparks that indicated that lightning was charged with electricity. He initially thought that electricity was some magical liquid. Nicola Tesla: (1856-1943) He made the idea of alternating current acceptable and designed the Tesla coil, a transformer with an air core, used for producing high frequencies. It is used in radio technology. Alessandro Volta: (1745-1827) He discovered a method for separating two metals by means of electricity directed through chemical fluids in 1800. This produced the first electrical cells. He combined cells to produce the first battery. Georg Simon Ohm: He showed that all conductors offer resistance to an electric current. Andr Marie Ampre: (1775-1830) He discovered the electromagnetic effect, and developed the idea of the solenoid. Charles Coulomb: (1736-1806) He discovered the charges and forces that attract and repel in magnets.

LEARNING UNIT 7
................Activity 7.1 Assignment 1

UNITS

OF

ELECTRICITY

The amount of electricity that is used by an appliance depends on the type of appliance and the length of time for which it is used. Appliances used for generating heat, like stoves (ovens), kettles, irons and hot water cylinders general use much more electricity and are more costly. Very powerful halogen light bulbs (spotlights) also consume much electricity, while appliances fitted with microchips or small motors, like electric toothbrushes and razors, will use less. Each appliance bears an indication of its value - the watt value. This is the appliance's power rating. It is usually indicated on the outer cover of the appliance, like in the case of a light bulb. A 100-Watt light bulb will burn more brightly than a 60-Watt light bulb. Watt actually indicates the amount of electricity per second that the appliance will use. As the watt unit is relatively small, we usually speak in terms of kilowatt (kW) 1 kW = 1000 W

A unit of electricity is read in terms of the amount of electricity that a 1 kW appliance will use in one hour or a 100 W appliance will use in 10 hours. This is the unit in which electricity is sold to consumers. Your 100-W light bulb will therefore burn for 10 hours on 1 kW of electricity. Your father will be able to operate his electric drill (500W) for two hours only.

OTHER

APPLIANCE RATINGS:

APPLIANCE Radio TV Iron Pocket calculator Computer Drill Stove Microwave oven Kettle Toaster

INDICATED RATING 26/32 W 80 W 1200 W 0.0006 W 280 W 500 W 1000 W 750 W ? ?

HIGH OR LOW? L L H Very L H H H H H

We know that electricity is sold units of kilowatt per hour kW/hour 1 kWh is the amount of electrical energy that an appliance with a rating of 1 kW uses in one hour. To determine the Wh rating of an appliance, we use the following formula: kWh = power rating x time

If you, for instance, want to know how much energy your hairdryer (1500W) uses in 20 minutes, you work it out like this: kWh = power rating x time 1 500w /1000w x 0.3 = 0.45 kWh

The cost of using an electrical appliance can be determined by means of the following formula: Cost = electrical energy in kWh x cost of 1 kWh

Supposing that 1 kWh costs 50c, the use of your hairdryer (above) will cost: Cost = 0.45 kWh x 50c = R 2,25

LEARNING UNIT 8
................Activity 8.1 Assignment 1:

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat is a type of energy the energy of the movement of particles. Temperature is the measure of how fast molecules move. How is temperature measured? A thermometer is used. It is a glass tube that contains a fluid, e.g. mercury, which expands when it is warmed. What is absolute zero? The lowest temperature possible, at which it becomes impossible for molecules or atoms to move. This occurs at 273.15 C or at 0 on the Kelvin scale. This was measured in a Finnish laboratory. You probably know that temperature can be measured on a Celsius scale or on a Fahrenheit scale. Some appliances measure in Fahrenheit, while others measure in Celsius.

Celsius scale
ON this scale, the lowest established point is freezing point, at 0 C The highest established point is that of boiling water, i.e. steam, at 100 C

Kelvin scale:
For the Kelvin scale, zero is at absolute zero. 0 K = -273C Add 273 to change from Kelvin to Celsius, Boiling water 100 C is 373 K

How is Fahrenheit converted to Celsius?

Subtract 32+, divide by 9 and multiply by 5 F to C therefore is (-329x5)

Converting Celsius to Fahrenheit is done by:

F = C 5 x 9 + 32

TRANSFER OF HEAT
................Activity 8.2 Assignment 1: CONVECTION: Movement of heat through air, e.g. air currents, e.g. fan heaters, warm winds. CONDUCTION: Distribution of heat through solid objects, e.g. warm rocks. RADIATION: Distribution of heat from heat-producing objects, e.g. the sun, a heater.

HEAT AND WATER

Water has exceptional heat retention qualities. Much energy is required for the temperature of a mass of water to be increased or decreased by 1 C. The relevant factors involve the following: Water is a liquid; Water is transparent and light beams can penetrate up to 20 m into water; Any mass of water has waves and currents and vertical motion that can distribute heat. If you compare the heat retention capacity of the land and the ocean, you will realise that there is a considerable difference. THERMAL CAPACITY (HEAT CAPACITY) Assignment 2: We have mentioned that heat causes a change in the temperature and that the unit for measuring this heat is Joule, because it is a type of energy that is involved.

Specific thermal capacity is the amount of heat that is transferred (needed/released) when the temperature of a substance changes by 1 C or 1 K. Water is the most expensive substance to heat because large amounts of heat are required to increase the temperature by a few degrees only. Water, on the other hand, yields large amounts of heat when it is cooled down. The effect of this is most evident over the oceans, which are large water masses. Water is heated very slowly, but retains heat for a long time. Interesting applications of thermal principles result in the following phenomena around us: Discuss the following: Insulating houses against heat: houses lose 25 % of their heat through roofs and 25 % through the floor Solar ovens: a polystyrene cooker lined with foil provides a wonderful alternative for areas where there is no electricity Why the disk of a plough cooks food quickly

Fore the Learner

Make your own solar cooking dish by shaping a sheet of cardboard to look like the disk of a plough and covering it with foil. Position it at an angle that will ensure maximum sunlight, spear a sausage with a stick and hold it in position to see whether you can warm it with the use of solar power only!

LEARNING UNIT 9
................Activity 9.2 Assignment 1:

LIGHT

LIGHT is another common type of energy. You parents or teachers would like to have "eyes at the back of their heads" or would like you to believe that they see everything. We know that this is impossible, though, and for a simple reason

Light travels along a straight line. Light can change direction, though. This can be achieved in two ways:

REFLECTION:

We see this happening in the case of mirrors.

When a beam of light arrives at a certain angle, it will be reflected at the same angle.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE = ANGLE OF REFLECTION

CURVED MIRRORS
Curved mirrors have many applications. They enlarge and distort images. A mirror could be CONCAVE

It will CONVERGE light beams towards a fixed point, the FOCUS. Other mirrors may be CONVEX. They will cause light beams to DIVERGE (spread apart) This scales down the image.

 An application of this is evident in the rear view mirror of a motor car or in winged mirrors.

Try the following: Polish the surface of a large serving spoon to get it to shine. Look at your own image in the concave and in the convex side of the spoon and compare the effect of the shape on the reflections.

Draw the differences in the spaces that are provided:

REFRACTION:

During refraction light beams are broken or made to change direction (to deviate) when they pass from one medium to another, e.g. through a glass windowpane. Light travels at its fastest at the speed of light when it passes through a vacuum.

It travels slightly slower (approximately 25% slower) through ordinary air, and considerably slower through glass. Refraction is utilised in hundreds of appliances and applications, e.g. spectacles, microscopes, telescopes and many more. One of the most interesting phenomena, however, occurs in nature when the refraction due to hundreds of water drops creates a rainbow. Willabond Snell (1580-1626) was the first scientist to investigate refraction. Find out about his work for yourself.

SPLITTING UP OF WHITE LIGHT:

..............Activity 9.3: Assignment 1:

This phenomenon can be demonstrated in the classroom by directing a beam of light through a PRISM. A prism is a triangular bar of glass or perspex.

When this is done, you will see that white light is a combination of all the colours of the rainbow this range of colours is known as the SPECTRUM. The different colours that are combined to form white light do not move at the same speed. Red, having the longest wavelength, will experience the least amount of refraction. Blue light, on the opposite side of the SPECTRUM, having the shortest wavelength, will show the greatest degree of refraction.

Complete the sketch that follows by using coloured pencils to indicate the spectrum.

Spectrum colours: Violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, red

Spectacles relieve the problems of people who suffer from shortsightedness of farsightedness. NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS: People with this condition can see close objects well, but objects in the distance are unclear. LONG-SIGHTEDNESS: People with this condition can see distant objects clearly but find it difficult to focus on nearby objects and find reading difficult, for instance. Older people, in particular, develop this problem. The lenses of spectacles can be shaped, like the reflective surfaces about which you have learnt earlier, to be convex or concave. These lenses are shaped on both sides and are therefore biconvex or biconcave.

This illustrates a biconcave lens

Further possibilities: Lens refraction Pinhole camera and binoculars

SYNOPSIS: LEARNING PROGRAMME NATURAL SCIENCES GRADE 9

The learning programme for Grade 9 consists of 6 modules that are arranged as follows:

SILLABUS THEMES

MODULES
BIODIVERSITY

THEME
Reproduction, variation and genetics Mining, Agriculture and Water Healthy life The galaxy, the earth as habitat and space programmes Forces and machines Sound and Light Particle model

Life and Way of living

INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT LIFE PROCESSES

The Earth and Beyond

OUR PLACE IN SPACE

Energy and changes Matter and Materials

ENERGY TRANSFER MATTER

The module on Life Processes is particularly suitable for the elucidation of the prescribed themes of inclusiveness and social justice.

SYNOPSIS: GRADE 9 MODULE 1

MESOPLAN LIFE PROCESSES: HEALTHY LIFE GR 9 TERM 2 MODULE 2 LIFE PROCESSES: HEADINGS 1. Nutrition: energy requirements LO/AS Energy graph Tables Analysis Food tests Sketches Questions Case Study Deductions Poster Research Class discussion Diet Demonstration Dissection Sketches Research Class discussion Poster: Awareness raising Sketch Dissection Class discussion Class discussion Class discussion Sketches Tables Questions Sketches Time Per 2 1 2 2 2 2 2

2. Digestion: Digestive System

3. Nutrition and Health: malnourishment

4. Respiratory system

5. Respiration and health: Smoking and pulmonary diseases 6. Excretion and Secretion 7. Human reproduction 8. Family planning, venereal disease and contraception 9. Growth, development and adolescence: peer pressure 10. Nerves and sensitivity drugs 11. Propulsion and transportation cardiac disease, injuries =24 lessons

2 2 2 1 1 1

MEMORANDUM GRADE 9 MODULE 1

Suggestions to the educator LEARNING UNIT 1: NUTRITION
..................ACTIVITY: Energy per day:

Energy table of: A twelve year old boy A male educator A miner A twelve year old girl A female office worker A pregnant woman

...................ACTIVITY: ANALYSIS YOUR FOOD INTAKE

Provide an explanation of portions and food groups.

.............Class activity: Food test demonstration

Prepare for the test for starches. Use bread or a starch solution or a potato. Use brown paper and cooking oil for the grease-spot test. Complete the following on completion of the demonstration:

NUTRIENT STARCH

REAGENT IODINE SOLUTION (Yellowish-brown solution) GREASE-SPOT TEST

POSITIVE TEST

FATS & OILS

LEARNING UNIT 2: DIGESTION

A lessons on the digestive tract, with an illustration, as well as symbiosis of bacteria in the alimentary canal www.everybody.co.nz/research/infect_diarrh.htm

LEARNING UNIT 3: NUTRITION AND HEALTH

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: POSTER

try: yahoo.com/health AND www.rcpsych.ac.uk/info/eatdis.htm

LEARNING UNIT 4: THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: STUDY OF THE LUNGS OF A SHEEP OR A PIG Dissection If possible, the educator should show these organs to the learners, using the lungs of a sheep or of a pig obtained in advance. . .CLASS ASSIGNMENT: DRAWING

Prepare to offer guidance with regard to the drawing. Make a drawing to show the alveoli and a blood capillary to illustrate the movement of gases.

LEARNING UNIT 5: RESPIRATION AND HEALTH

Prepare to discuss pulmonary diseases, As well as choking and the Heimlich manoeuvre.

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: POSTER ON SMOKING

Prepare this and announce assignment in advance.

LEARNING UNIT 6: THE HUMAN EXCRETORY AND SECRETORY SYSTEMS PREPARE

TO PROVIDE AN EXPLANATION OF THE PICTURES AND THE SYSTEMS.

Try to obtain kidneys for dissection. Prepare for discussion of the functioning of the kidneys, urine tests and incontinence.

LEARNING UNIT 7: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION - REPRODUCTION

Prepare to discuss the process, structures and their functions, as well as the menstrual cycle and related subjects such as twins, ectopic pregnancies and sexing.

LEARNING UNIT 8: FAMILY PLANNING AND VENEREAL DISEASE

Prepare for a discussion on sensitive subjects like AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as Nevirapine. Explain different means of contraception, as well as subjects such as vasectomy, hysterectomy and abortion. www.hivandhepatitus.com www.afrol.com/news2002/sa010_nevirapine_case.htm www.earthtimes.org/aug/aidssouthafrica

LEARNING UNIT 9: GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND ADOLESCENCE

............. QUESTIONS ABOUT AND ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENSE: GROUP DISCUSSION

Prepare for a discussion on sensitive subjects like initiation and circumcision.

LEARNING UNIT 10: NERVS AND SENSITIVITY

Describe the brain, neurones and sense organs and the effects of drugs and alcohol on the brain.

LEARNING UNIT 11: PROPULSION AND TRANSPORTATION

Provide a brief explanatory description of the skeleton, as well as muscles, ligaments, injuries, fractures, the heart, blood and blood vessels. Also prepare to discuss coronary heart disease, heart attacks and strokes and thrombosis.

Memorandum
LEARNING UNIT 1 NUTRITION
...................ACTIVITY: Energy values and graph: 1. Men are more active. 2. A womans body has to process extra nutrients and operate more processes. 3. Very active. 4. kilojoules A joule is the unit of work or energy. 5. They have a slower metabolism are less active. ...................ACTIVITY: ANALYSING YOUR FOOD INTAKE Own observations .........CLASS ACTIVITY: Food test demonstration Test for starch: brown iodine solution. Becomes purplish-black. Grease-spot test: translucent greasy spot on paper.

LEARNING UNIT 2: DIGESTION

1. contractions of the involuntary muscles in the walls of the digestive tract 2. smooth muscles in the walls of the alimentary canal 3. biological catalysts that accelerate reactions 4. produced in ribosome in cells 5. transported to every cell by the circulatory system ............. THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Label no

Label Mucus glands Oesophagus Liver Stomach Gall bladder Pyloric sphincter pancreas duodenum colon Secrete mucus

Function

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Connects mouth and stomach; peristalsis Detoxifies; stores blood, vitamins, etc. Digestion Stores bile Allows food to leave the stomach Enzymes and hormones Digestive juices added Reabsorbtion of water and minerals

Label no

Label Small intestine appendix rectum anus Absorption of nutrients None Storing food wastes

Function

10 11 12 13

Opening for excretion of waste matter

. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: ALIMENTARY CANAL 1. The liver detoxifies by removing/absorbing preservatives, colourants, coffee and alcohol. 2. Enzyme that breaks down/catabolises starch. 3. Smallest units into which nutrients can be broken down. 4. Hydrochloric acid oxyntic cells of the stomach wall. 5. Stomach wall protected by thick mucus membranes. 6. Weak spot in mucus membrane resulting from stress and smoking enzymes cause the membrane to disintegrate. 7. Muscular valve at lower end of stomach. 8. Muscular spasm of wall of colon stress. 9. Prevents constipation, stimulates peristalsis. 10. Enlarges the absorbing surface. 11. Long, twisted, villi, microvilli. 12. Labels villum: .........CLASS ACTIVITY: CASE STUDY 1. Beneficial bacteria are destroyed by antibiotics. 2. Continued infection. 3. Sugar allows uncontrolled fungi to flourish. 4. Beneficial bacteria help. 5. Lacto milk; bacillus rod-shaped.

LEARNING UNIT 3: NUTRITION AND HEALTH

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: POSTER NAME OF DISEASE Scurvy Beriberi Rachitis/rickets DEFICIENCY Vit C Vit B Vit D SYMPTOMS Bleeding gums and skin Nerves weakness Soft bones bend AFFECTED TISSUES Blood vessels nerves Been

NAME OF DISEASE Pellagra Kwashiorkor Anaemia

DEFICIENCY Vit B Proteins Iron

SYMPTOMS Flaky skin, headaches, poor memory, diarrhoea Bulging stomach/belly; emaciated limbs, hair loss Tiredness and pallor

AFFECTED TISSUES Skin, alimentary canal Skin, alimentary canal, nerves Red blood corpuscles

................................. DISCUSSION ON THE HEALTHY DIET 1. Eat food from all food groups daily and in correct amounts/proportions. 2. Eat plenty of fruit and vegetables. 3. Drink 8 glasses of water. 4. Avoid refined foods and sugars, as well as coffee and alcohol. 5. Eat small amounts of red meat remove visible fat.

LEARNING UNIT 4: THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

............. EXPLAIN EACH OF THE ADAPTATIONS LISTED IN THE TABLE: Diaphragm Intercostal muscles Thousands of alveoli Blood capillaries with thin single-layered walls Alveoli with single-layered epithelium Mucus membranes with cilia Increases/decreases the thoracic cavity (chest cavity) Raise/lower the ribcage Enlarge the surface Short distance for diffusion

Thin layer for fast diffusion

Mucus layer traps particles, cilia remove particles and dust

. .CLASS ASSIGNMENT: DRAWING

Labels: alveoli

LEARNING UNIT 5: RESPIRATION AND HEALTH

QUESTIONS; PULMONARY DISEASES: 1. Bronchi close up. 2. Blood capillaries rupture because of bouts of coughing. 3. Neglect, unhealthy living conditions, poor education, crowded living conditions. 4. Phlegm must be coughed up. 5. Too much phlegm.

LEARNING UNIT 6: THE HUMAN EXCRETORY AND SECRETORY SYSTEMS

ORGAN Lungs Skin Alimentary canal Kidneys EXCRETORY PRODUCT CO2 and water vapour Water and salts Food waste material Water, salts and urea

QUESTIONS ON THE KIDNEYS: 1. layer of fat 2. Uric acid forms crystals solvent and laser 3. stores urine 4. holds liquid and controls release 5. inability to control the sphincter 6. a) b) diabetes infection the kidneys or pregnancy

LEARNING UNIT 7: HUMAN REPRODUCTION

.........CLASS ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION- REPRODUCTION 1. c) a) b) d) e) implantation of embryo into the wall of the uterus release of ovum from ovary sexually mature phase in boys and girls shedding of preparatory layer in the monthly cycle

developing embryo after two months

2.

Complete the table: STRUCTURE Testis Forms sperm cells Ovaries Form ova Penis Transferring function Scrotum Protects and holds testes outside the body Uterus Muscular sac for developing foetus Fallopian tubes Tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus, area of fertilisation Placenta Nurturing tissue that is formed when the embryo is implanted Umbilical cord Tube connecting foetus and placenta 3. a pregnancy in which the embryo is implanted in the wall of the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus 4. a) a single zygote that divides early in its development identical information; always of the same sex b) c) two zygotes and two different sperm cells; two different individuals uncompleted identical division FUNCTION

5. father donating X or Y chromosome

LEARNING UNIT 8: FAMILY PLANNING AND VENERAL DISEASE

............. QUESTIONS ABOUT VENEREAL DISEASES: 1. bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics 2. HIV+ means that a person has been infected with the virus; AIDS is the full-blown disease 3. A healthy lifestyle, exercise, plenty of fresh vegetables and fruit, medication that suppresses the virus infection 4. Prevents mother to child transmission of the virus at and after birth .........CLASS ACTIVITY: DISCUSSION ON CONTRACEPTION 1. Quality of life, financial security, costs of living, education 2. cycles may vary not reliable 3. the only method with real guarantees; return to stronger moral values because of fears related to HIV and other factors 4. All are fallible because of the human aspect. 5. a) b) severing of sperm tubes of the male sterilisation removal of the uterus of the female sterilisation

c)

medicinal cream that is usually applied together with other products for contraception

6 and 7 own opinion

LEARNING UNIT 9: GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND ADOLESCENCE

............. QUESTIONS ABOUT AND ASPECTS OF ADOLESCENCE: GROUP DISCUSSION 1. surgical removal of the foreskin/prepuce of the penis 2. a series of rituals and ceremonies that are practised in some cultures may include circumcision male and female 3. skin problems due to abnormal secretion of oils cased by hormones; good basic skin cleansing routine and medicinal creams and preparations Pressure applied by members of same age group and friends with regard to clothing, behaviour, attitudes and habits; decide for yourself by using sound moral values as a frame of reference; also give consideration to the wisdom and experience elf older persons.

LEARNING UNIT 10 NERVES AND SENSITIVITY

...................ACTIVITY: COMPLETING TABLES VOLTOOI - nerves 1. impulse/stimulus receptor impulse cns impulse effector 2. labels: sketch brain + neurone 3. Complete the function table: STRUCTURE Brain FUNCTION Decision making; reasoning; memory; thought processes; senses; Reflex action Impulses from cns to muscles and glands Impulses to cns from sense organs

Spinal cord Motor neurone Sensor neurone

4. Complete the table on the senses:

SENSE

ORGAN

STIMULUS
Light Sound odour, chemicals Seeing Hearing Smelling

SENSATION

FUNCTION

Eye Ear Nose

SENSE

ORGAN

STIMULUS
taste, chemicals Mechanical Tasting

SENSATION

FUNCTION

Tongue Skin 5 b) a)

heat, cold, pain, touch, pressure

reflex action to lubricate the eye with a lubricant

Tears drain the tear duct that opens at the back of the throat cavity which is also the back of the nasal cavity c) d) opening enlarges to allow more light nasal receptors temporarily out of action; tongue only recognises sweetness, saltiness, acidity, and bitterness

LEARNING UNIT 11 PROPULSION AND TRANSPORTATION

............. QUESTIONS: MUSCLES AND SKELETON 1. tendon and ligaments strained tissue damage 2. limited tissue damage 3. pain; unnatural shape; loss of movement immobilise; doctor 4. Ligaments attach one bone to another; tendons attach muscles to bones ............. QUESTIONS: BLOOD SYSTEM / CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. leukaemia white blood corpuscles normally destroy red blood corpuscles 2. This is where blood corpuscles are manufactured 3. anaemia iron is part of haemoglobin pigment 4. propulsion and pulsation of blood 5. Coronary arteries are blocked because of a coating of cholesterol 6. Coronary heart disease is a result of a condition of the coronary artery and is usually leads to a heart attack which results from an oxygen deficit in the tissues of the cardiac muscle. 7. a) b) blood vessels on the brain that rupture brain tissue is damaged as a result of increased pressure Thrombosis: formation of a blood clot blocking of the arteries.

MEMORANDUM GRADE 9 MODULE 2

THE EARTH, GALAXIES AND SPACE PROGRAMMES
Memorandum
LEARNING UNIT 1: THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
...............ACTIVITY 2: QUESTIONS 1. no matter one little ball smaller than an atom; then a mixture of particles and forces 2. super force by which the smaller ball exploded in matter 3. a number of quarks were compressed to form hydrogen 4. a subatomic particle 5. a) b) merger of He atoms C atoms under extreme temperatures

6. Force of gravity, electromagnets, powerful nuclear forces and weak nuclear forces 7. opposites of matter cancel out matter ...............ACTIVITY 3: CALCULATION 1. 10 million kilometres 2. approximately 2 billion 3. 1018 4. 150 x106 5. 100 000 x 300 000 ................ACTIVITY 4: Definitions 1. the distance that light travelling at 300 000 km.s-1 covers during one earth year 2. an accumulation of billions of stars that include our sun 3. next nearest galaxy 4. gigantic clouds of gas among the galaxies 5. to make it possible to form a concept of a figure

LEARNING UNIT 2: THE EARTH AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

.................ACTIVITY 6 HOW BIG IS THE EARTH? 1. The shape of the earth is not altogether round. It is slightly flattened at the poles because its rotation is faster at the equator

2. A Greek philosopher who was the person to show that the earth is round by means of a calculation. ...................ACTIVITY: PIE GRAPH The atmosphere consists of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 0.03 % carbon dioxide, and 0.9 % argon In diagram: atmospheric gases
atmosferiese gasse
0.9 0.03 21 1 2 3 78 4

LEARNING UNIT 4: THE PLANETS OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

................ACTIVITY 8: INTERPRETATION 1. 9 2. Mercury 3. Neptune 4. elliptical 5. Venus 6. Mars ..............ACTIVITY 10: QUESTIONS Which planet. 1. Jupiter 2. Saturn 3. Neptune 4. Jupiter 5. Saturn 6. Neptune 7. Jupiter 8. Mercury 9. Saturn's Titan 10. Ganymede, of Jupiter, is the largest one in our galaxy and is bigger than Mercury

..............ACTIVITY 11: CALCULATING DISTANCE (translation) 1. A = Mars ( 1,6 x 150 milj) B= Jupiter C = Uranus D= Pluto 2. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury, and Pluto 3. Jupiter 4. Neptune 5. Each according to its own mass 6a) Pluto 6b) Jupiter

LEARNING UNIT 5: COMETS AND OTHER TRAVELLERS THROUGH SPACE

..............ACTIVITY 13: QUESTIONS 1. a) b) c) d) 2. 3. 4. 5. a) b) a) b) Blocks of ice and rocks that are in orbit around the sun giant meteorites meteors cavities formed by impact Shoemaker- Levy 9 Halley Kuiper 's girdle cold regions beyond Neptune and Pluto between Mars and Jupiter

Tswaing in the vicinity of Pretoria, Vredefort koepel, Hoba in Namibia

Ceres

LEARNING UNIT 6: SPACE PROGRAMMES

..............ACTIVITY 15: QUESTIONS 1. to gain more knowledge of possibilities beyond our own planet 2. gas cloudheatingforcesnuclear reactionexpansionlayers cast off inner core collapses explosion/supernovaneutron or black hole remains 3. telecommunication, television transmissions, weather forecasts 4. Red giant Black hole Stage of exansion in the life cycle of a star Stage of deterioration at the end of a star's life

Space probe White dwarf Supernova Pulsar

Investigations of space Collapse of a star Final explosion resuls in clouds of gas Neutron star or remains

5. Chemical reactions. Agricultural products. Cultivation of cells. Medicine against AIDS and other illnesses. New alloys of metal. Warning systems to alert against giant asteroids. Possibly a future "half-way house" between the earth and the rest of the solar system.

MEMORANDUM GRADE 9 MODULE 3

ENERGY, FORCES AND MACHINES
Memorandum
LEARNING UNIT 1 ENERGY
................Activity 1.1

Forms of energy illustrated: Mill: Kinetic Nuclear/atomic Radiation Atomic bomb: Radio tower:

Heater: Radiation Battery: Chemical Light bulb: Food: Radiation Chemical

Table: EXAMPLE FORM SOURCE Food supplied chemical energy by which the book was lifted onto the table through kinetic energy (the action of the muscles) Chemical or nuclear: electricity Chemical (food or electricity) transported the person to a higher point Chemical or nuclear: electricity Chemical or nuclear: electricity Chemical or nuclear: electricity Chemical or nuclear: electricity Chemical: electricity Chemical: sunlight that is held (in the food) Chemical: electricity Atoms Chemical

Book on table Ring of cell phone Ski-jumper Express train Microwave oven X-ray plates Factory robot Lightning bolt Lunch Sound Electrical energy at Koeberg Light from a torch

Potential Radiation Potential and kinetic Kinetic / mechanical Radiation Radiation Kinetic / mechanical Radiation (warmth, light, sound) Potential, chemical Radiation Chemical / electrical Radiation (warmth, light)

................Activity 1.2 Ball: Wood: Eskom: Satellite: Ice-cream: Torch: Submarine: Skating: Water wheel: Pistol: Light bulb: Yes: potential to kinetic and sound chemical / potential to sound, light, heat chemical / potential to electrical radiation to electrical chemical / potential to chemical / potential (stored in the body) to kinetic chemical / potential to light and heat atomic / nuclear / chemical to electrical to kinetic chemical / potential to kinetic kinetic to electrical chemical / potential to kinetic, heat and sound electrical to light and heat Steam is derived from coal, which is dead plant material formed by means of photosynthesis, with the help of sunlight (radiation energy).

Bicycle wheel: chemical / potential to kinetic/mechanical

LEARNING UNIT 2 FORCES AND FRICTION

................Activity 2.1

1. 2. 3. 4.

Directions of motion: to the left, right or upwards. A force: the ability to do work; by pushing (thrust) or by pulling; friction is another example of a force. Examples of friction: learners could name a wide range of examples, e.g. the rubber from car tyres on tar, engine parts that are not lubricated, a chair on the floor, soles of shoes against the floor, etc. Table: accept the times provided by learners.

Questions (first set): To obtain an average that would supply a more accurate indication, as conditions may not be always be exactly the same. The friction is reduced: bricks alone provide the most, cardboard / perspex causes less (because of the smoother surface), a skateboard involves the least friction. Lubrication, objects like small pellets that fill the space between the two surfaces reduce the surface of friction, etc. Ball bearings, pistons in cylinders, toothed wheels, chains, door hinges, steering mechanism, springs, speedometer cable, a jack, etc.

Questions (second set): 1. Effects of force: Form: rugby ball / soccer ball, stress ball, toffee, orange being sucked dry, boxer's face, etc. Acceleration: bicycle, car, stone being thrown or shot from a catapult, someone beginning to run, etc. Forces without contact: magnet, earth, moon (e.g. tides at sea). Forces of thrust: magnet, air from the engines of a jet aircraft that push the aircraft ahead, etc. 2. Illustrations: Changes in shape, acceleration Force of thrust Change of shape ................Activity 2.2

Assist the learners by means of a framework according to which the report is to be assessed: Planning (stating the problem, identifying sources) Execution (collecting data) Evaluating and communicating data Appreciation of science as a human endeavour

................Activity 2.3

MASS:

MEASURED IN GRAM OR KILOGRAM

Questions: 1. 10N 2. Weight is determined by means of the attractive force of the earth, which may vary from one place to another. Mass remains unchanged. 3. Learner's answer 4. Learner's mass in kg 10N 5. Mass 0,6N 6. Weight signifies the force with which the earth attracts the body. It therefore has to be measured in the same unit. 7. 8. The spring balance directly measures the earth's attractive force. A balance (pair of scales) measures by comparing an object with a known mass ('weights) or by using a calibrated resistance (e.g. a spring).

................Activity 2.4 Questions: 1. A spring 2. Friction is added to the pull 3. Marked according to acknowledged units of measure, e.g. metric units 4. 2,5 Kg 10N = 25 Kg 5. It makes it possible to readjust the spring balance. 6. Gravitation and friction 7. Weight: attractive force of the earth on mass Mass: the amount of matter

LEARNING UNIT 3 WORK/EFFORT

................Activity 3.1 Questions: 1. a) F s = 10N 3m = 30 Joule b) F s = (2,5 10) 5 = 125J 2. 3. 300 kJ = 300 000J divided by 125J = 2 400 bricks 300 000J divided by 25N = 12 000 m = 12 km

Energy required to move a learner over a distance of 10 m: Learner's mass = A W (energy) = F (force) s (distance) = (A X 10) 10m

LEARNING UNIT 4 WORK AND CONVERSION OF ENERGY

................Activity 4.1 Questions: 1. The fan (turbine) rotates 2. Chemical to steam to kinetic / mechanical 3. Kinetic to electrical to chemical 4. Natural resources (e.g. coal) are not used and pollution is avoided Paragraph: E.g. natural energy is converted to usable energy Without consumption of resources

Without pollution There are no waste products to be got rid of

Examples of utilising turbines: generation of electricity, previously also for driving mills Effort is measured in Joule ................Activity 4.2 Any power generator Compressor Vehicle engine Sewing machine Kitchen appliances Etc.

Ineffective machines: any machine or system that releases energy in a non-usable form, e.g. a car that is driven with the hand break on (much energy is wasted in the attempt to overcome the force of friction energy in the form of heat goes to waste).

LEARNING UNIT 5 POWER

................Activity 5.1 Questions: Power Labour Weight = Labour (work) Time = Power (F) s = Mass 10 = Kg = F s Time =

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

a)

1000 Watt, in other words, 1 000 Joule/second

b) The amount of kW that is delivered or consumed in one hour Larger cars approximately 100 kW; smaller cars approximately 70 kW Engine has greater power / capacity for doing work First calculate total consumption of energy (kWh): = kW h (hour) = 3 kW 124 h = 372 Kw

Then calculate the costs: = 372 R0,35 = R130,20 ................Activity 5.2

The power per hour of appliances (more of less): Pocket calculator Microwave oven Drill 500W Radio 28W Toaster800W Fan Iron 100W 1 200W 250W 0,0006W 750W

Stove 1000W Computer

Questions: 1. 2. 3. The greater the power, the higher the cost of using it Debate a) W = F x s = (75 x 10) x 320 = 750 x 320 = 240 000 J
Power =
= 240 000 J ( 20 60) 240 000 1 200

= 200 W (or 0,2lW )

b)

W = F x s = (150 x 10) x 5 = 7 500 J

D ing ryw = = Arbeid Tyd 7 500 J 600 s

= 12 ,5 W

One worker's performance

= 12,5 2 = 6,25 W

LEARNING UNIT 6 MACHINES MAKE WORK EASIER

................Activity 6.1

The deduction must be that it is better to use appliances with a higher Watt capacity.

................Activity 6.2 APPLIANCE Bottle opener Broom USE Removin g a lid Sweeping action Pinching action Transport ing a load Point where power is applied Handle Top of broomstick Handles The effect of the power: where and how Lifts the edge of the lid Small movements at the top end facilitate large movements at the bottom end Handles are longer than the area of the pinching action, providing power Load distributed between wheel and person pushing the wheelbarrow

Pliers

Wheel -barrow

Point where the handles are gripped

................Activity 7.1 a) Class 3 b) Class 2 c) Class 3 d) Class 1 ................Activity 7.2 L.W. A study of levers is no longer required as part of the syllabus, but levers are referred to in this module to illustrate the transfer of energy from one body to another. 1. 2. Reduce the force distance a) b) ................Activity 7.3

Assess according to the learning outcomes and assessment standards indicated in the module.

MEMORANDUM GRADE 9 MODULE 4

PLANT CELLS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
MINIMUM CONTENT LEARNING UNIT 1
................Activity 1.1 Assignment 1:

Plants, like all other living organisms, consist of basic elements or cells. The structure of cells can be examined through a microscope. To be able to do this, it is necessary to learn how a microscope is operated. This will also unlock further possibilities in your studies.

HOW A MICROSCOPE IS CONSTRUCTED

PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE Eyepiece/ ocular Barrel Arm Coarse adjustment screw Fine adjustment screw Rotating nose-piece / objective turret Objectives / lenses Clamps Stage Diaphragm Condenser Light bulb or mirror FUNCTION Lens at the upper end of the barrel facilitates enlargement Beams of light travel through this barrel, which separates the ocular and the objectives Handle for holding Moves the stage towards the object lens; Initial focussing For finer, closer focussing For moving objectives into position These lenses make it possible to achieve different magnifications Holds the microscope slide in position For the positioning of the microscope slide Controls the amount of light that passes from the object to the eye Concentrates light on the object Light source

HOW
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

TO HANDLE A MICROSCOPE

Carry it carefully using both hands. Take care not to mark it with fingerprints. Never remove the lenses. Handle the highest objective with great care. Protect the microscope from dust and damp.

MAGNIFICATION

Value on the objective x value on the ocular E.g.: 10 x 40 = 400 x magnified

...............Activity 1.2: Assignment 1:

Practical

Assignment 2:

WET
1. 2.

SPECIMEN

Select a microscope slide / object glass and wipe it clean. Use a dropper to place a single drop of water in the centre of the slide.

Microscope slide Water drop

3. 4. 5. 6.

Using a tweezer or dissecting needle, select the object (specimen) and place it in the drop of water. Open it up and flatten it. Stand a dissecting needle vertically in the centre of the object. Position a cover-glass at an angle against the needle. Quickly remove the needle to allow the cover-glass to fall into place over the specimen.

7. 8.

Tap the cover-glass lightly, using the back of the needle, to release bubbles that might be trapped. Use an iodine solution to stain the specimen for greater cell definition. Starch grains will also be stained.

PLANT CELL

It consists of a framework containing a special liquid PROTOPLASM with a variety of structures suspended in it. Control the light quantity carefully with the condensor/ Focus carefully up and down when busy with the maximum enlargement.

Assignment 3

Colouring: with iodine solution for better self definition starch grains will also colour. ................Activity 1.3 Assignment 1 1. Sketch of the plant cell:

LABEL NUMBER
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

LABELS

FUNCTION

Chloroplast Nucleus Tonoplast of vacuole Cell sap Mitochondrion Cell wall Cell membrane Cytoplasm

Photosynthesis occurs here Controls all cell activity Membrane enclosing the vacuole; vacuole stores moisture and colourants Moisture, colourants Respiration, produces energy External protective and strengthening membrane Controls entry and exit of substances Medium in which reactions occur and in which the organelles are suspended

Assignment 2:

THE NUCLEUS

Label
1. 2. 3. 4. Nucleole Chromatin network Nuclear membrane Nucleoplasm

Function
Controls molecules in the nucleus Stores genetic material; bears heriditary characteristics Contains nuclear material, communicates with the rest of the cell Special structures and moisture

Assignment 3

Plants PHOTOSYNTHESISE and RESPIRE. The two organelles that are involved are the CHLOROPLAST and the MITOCHONDRION. Studying this aspect of natural science remains important right through to matric.

CHLOROPLASTS
Contain the colour pigment chlorophyll; Accommodate photosynthesis; Enclosed by a double membrane; Contains stroma of liquid and grana stacked hollow disks (thylacoids) that are suspended in it. Grana are attached to other flat membranes (lamellae).

MITOCHONDRIA
accommodate the ENERGY-providing process of RESPIRATION; also enclosed by a double membrane; a fold/ridge of the inner membrane is called a crista (cristae); the matrix is the liquid inside the mitochondrion.

All the organelles that might occur are not discussed in Grade 9, but those that are mentioned will indicate some of the differences between typical plant and typical animal cells.

Structure
Cell wall

Explanation
Absent in animal cells; maintans form and provides sturdiness in plant cells, as plants have no supporting skeletons. Small or absent in the case of animal cells; it provides storage and also adds to the sturdiness of the plant cell. Animal cells have no PLASTIDS. Plant cells have a fixed shape determined by the cell wall animal cells come in many shapes.

Vacuole Chloroplasts Determined shape

Perhaps you have realised that plant cells are unique. In nature, though, there is endless variation in the shape and characteristics of plant cells. Such variation of form is referred to as DIFFERENTIATION, the variation in function that accompanies it is referred to as SPECIALISATION. Both of these terms are of importance in the biological study of cells. When cells are grouped together, we have to do with the next level of organisation, namely TISSUES. Tissuea are cells that are grouped together to execute a specific task. This, for example, provides for cells that only serve to conduct water through the plant the xylem. Tissues are also grouped together to perform a combined function. Such a structure, consisting of many different kinds of plant tissue, but with a combined main function, is known as an ORGAN.

LEARNING UNIT 2 PLANT ORGANS: ROOTS

................Activity 2.1 Assignment 1

Plants live and grow unobtrusively and we are often unaware of the marvels that are hidden within them. We have to take a closer look to learn to understand how miraculously they function. A typical plant consists of the PLANT ORGANS:

Root, Stem, Leaf and Flower

Plant organ Above ground or underground
Under Above Above Above

Main function with regard to the plant

Root Stem Leaf Flower

Absorbs water and minerals; anchors the plant. Bears the leaves and flowers, and fruit, eventually, in a way that exposes each organ correctly. Photosynthesis Propagation

................Activity 2.2 Assignment 1

ROOT SYSTEMS

There are adventitious root systems and taproot systems. Plants develop one or the other of these systems according to the type of plant that they are (There are two main types). Plants that survive for more than one year, perennials, require deep root systems for finding water during dry seasons and to be anchored properly. You will realise that tall trees and large shrubs and bushes need such root systems. They belong to the group called DICOTYLEDONS. They develop from seeds that have two seed leaves or cotyledons, like the seed of the bean plant. Other plants, like grasses and maize plants, annuals, live and grow for one season only and therefore do not need such deep root systems. They need wide-reaching, shallow root systems. These plants belong to the MONOCOTYLEDONS and develop from seeds that have one seed leaf, e.g. a maize kernel.

Assignment 2 A taproot system consists of one main root, the taproot, and lateral roots that grow from it. An adventitious root system consists of equally sized roots that grow from the base of the stem, the adventitious roots.

 The life cycle of annuals is completed in a year they do not need taproots and they will therefore have an adventitious root system Trees have a taproot system because they require to be anchored deeply and have to obtain water from deep below the ground. As adventitious roots grow from stems, they will be of no value for trees that need deep anchoring. Lateral roots only grow out of other roots.

MAIN

FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS:

anchoring uptake of water uptake of mineral salts in solution conducting water to the upper parts of the plant When a root system is investigated, the following structure can be observed:

Assignment 3 wear. Root hair region: region where root hairs develop Cell lengthening region: region where cells lengthen and differentiate Cell division region: where cells divide Meristem: general region where cell division and cell lengthening occur Root tip: Protects the sensitive foremost growth tip by keeping it slimy to prevent

A root hair is a special cell on the outer surface of the root immediately following the growth tip that is specially enlarged to take up a maximal amount of water and salts from the soil. The srtucture of the root hair is of importance in further studies in Biology.

Assignment 4 This is what we shall focus on next.

Root hair

The root hair penetrates the small spaces between the particles of soil to suck up all moisture that is trapped between the soil particles. Then it is the function of the next plant organ, namely the plant stem, to conduct the water.

LEARNING UNIT 3
................Activity 3.1 Assignment 1

PLANT ORGANS: STEMS

As you have indicated, the functions of the plant stem include bearing the leaves, flowers and eventually also the fruit, in such a way that they are exposed to sunlight, pollinating agents and fruit distributors respectively. In the case of large trees, the stem, in time, becomes the trunk, which is greatly thickened and strengthened with bark and other structures. Plant stems need to have channels for conducting the main products that have to be moved up and down. If you understand that water has to be conducted from the lowest tip of the roots to the highest tip of the uppemost leaf, you will realise that we need a conducting channel for such water and for mineral salts. The leaves produce starch and sugar, which have to be conducted to all the cells, even to those that are at the furthest tips of the roots, but cannot be conducted along the same channels as the water, because this would lead to confusion. The special channel for these nutrients is known as the PHLOEM. Further variations occur on the outer surfaces of stems. Herbaceous stems are green and fleshy, but woody stems are brown and hard.

The annual monocotyledon usually has fleshy, green herbaceous stems and the perennial dicotyledon, e.g. a fruit tree, has hard, woody stems. As we are mentioning fruit trees they are deciduous, which means that they lose their leaves in autumn.

If you know that leaves are the most important part of the plant (and therefore of fruit trees) when it comes to respiration, and that deciduous trees are without leaves during winter, you might ask what they do about respiration. We should actually ask how gas exchange takes place. Examine the brown, woody twigs that you have collected. There is a good chance that you will notice fine white specks on these brown twigs. These are LENTICELS. Lenticels are pores (openings) that facilitate gas exchange during the wintry season.

Assignment 2

DIFFERENT PARTS ON THE TIP OF STEM

Terminal bud: end bud of a stem, where the growing tip is situated. Apical meristem: growth tip tissue at the end tip. Internodes: regions of the stem between nodes. Nodes: region on stem where buds, leaves and lateral shoots will develop. Leaf nodes: marks on stems where previous leaves have fallen off. Axil: region in a node where bud growth will take place. Scale leaves: Protective leaves for the terminal bud and other growth tips.

1. different types of twig a green, herbaceous type and a brown, woody type.

MAIN

FUNCTIONS OF STEMS:

to carry leaves in such a way that photosynthesis can take place; to carry flowers in such a way that they can be pollinated; to carry fruit in such a way that they can be dispersed; to conduct water and nutrients between leaves and the roots. Assignment 3: The following column graph shows the longitudinal growth of six different sunflower seedlings (A, B, C, D, E, F) during the first week after germination.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

histogram have spaces inbetween M highest growth approximately 6 mm L and N 8-7=1mm 12-6= 6mm cells divide cells lengthen and differentiate = growth

LEARNING UNIT 4
................Activity 4.1 Project

PLANT ORGANS: LEAVES LEAVES

You have to collect a variety of leaves and sort them into groups according to their VENATION (the way in which the veins are arranged on the leaf). Long, narrow leaves with parallel veins usually occur on MONOCOTYLEDONS. Examples of plants with such leaves are the maize plant and grasses. Most leaves have widely differentiated networks of veins. This is seen in DICOTYLEDONS.

................Activity 4.2 Assignment 1 Make a drawing of a typical monocotyledon and of a typical dicotyledonous leaf in the spaces that are provided

 Collect leaves from about 15 different kinds of plants from your environment. Examine them carefully. Do the shapes differ greatly? And the leaf margins? Examine the veins. Do you notice any differences? Now make a poster: Arrange the leaves in groups that are similar, and paste them into position. Provide labels to classify them, using terms like those used in the inset on types of leaf shape and leaf margin. Hand posters to your educator on the predetermined date. If you examine the leaves closely you will discover important aspects of their structure, namely STOMATA. We have already spoken about these as the "breathing holes" of the leaf. Gases that have to move into and out of the leaves have to pass through these openings. Oxygen has to enter because the plant needs to respire. All living things are dependent on respiration, plants included. It is a process that takes place unremittently. Plants also engage in photosynthesis, i.e. they release oxygen after carbon dioxide has been taken up during the production of nutrients. Such gas exchange also has to take place through the stomata. The additional important process of TRANSPIRATION also has to take place. During this process, masses of water are discharged through the stomata by means of evaporation. This action causes a continuous force of suction that draws water from under the ground into the plant. It has been calculated that approximately 90% of all the water that a plant sucks up in this way is discharged through transpiration. The water is not lost, however, because it condenses in the air to become part of the water cycle.

STOMATA
................Activity 4.3 Assignment 1

1.

MAKE

A DRAWING OF A STOMA

(THE

OPENING AND SURROUNDING CELLS).

STRUCTURE

Label
Chloroplasts Kidney-shaped stomatic cells Thick external walls Thin internal walls

Function
Photosynthesis manufactures starch Irregular shape surrounding an opening (a pore or stoma) Unequal forces help to open the stoma Unequal forces help to open the stoma

All the modifications or adaptations are aimed at opening and closing the stomata. It is important for the plant to be able to regulate this to prevent excessive loss of water on hot, dry or windy days. Something else of increasing importance is the internal structure of the leaf. The illustration shows the different cells and how the are adapted to the three main functions of the leaf, i.e.: Photosynthesis: the process for manufacturing nutrients Respiration / gas exchange: gases are exchanged for photosynthesis and respiration Transpiration: loss of water vapour from the leaf surface

................Activity 4.4 Assignment 1

DORSOVENTRAL LEAF

Dorsoventral refers to the upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) sides of the leaf blade, which differ from one another. If you examine a leaf, you will notice that the upper side has a darker green colour than the duller, lower side. The typical internal structure is represented in the sketch that follows remember, though, that this is a simplified line drawing.

Top

Bottom

1. Label
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Palisade cells Mesophyll cells Air chambers Stoma Stomatic cells

Function
Photosynthesis many chlorophyll pigments dark green Photosynthesis and gas exchange due to the spaces between the cells Gas exchange Opening to outside Control the opening and closing of the stomatic cells

Gases should move in and out freely and that is why the mesophyll has such a spongy structure (the cells are arranged loosely). Palisade cells, again, are arranged in a tight formation for maximum exposure to the sun and for photosynthesis. Stomata mostly occur on the lower (ventral) side of the leaf blade, as it is in the shade and therefore suffers less loss of moisture. 2. 3. 4. gasses in and out freely densely packed for maximum exposure to the sun and photosynthesis in shadow less moisture loss

LEARNING UNIT 5
................Activity 5.1 Assignment 1 PLANT ORGANS: FLOWERS

Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are the most prolific and successful group of plants on the earth. Their secret is partly related to the way in which they are propagated. The key to this secret lies in the structure of the flowers and in how they operate. The fact that propagation is SEXUAL, facilitates their success. The flower is a structure that contains both the male and female structures of the plant. It is true that these aspects sometimes occur in separate flowers, but they generally occur together in a single bisexual (gynandrous) flower. If not, they will be unisexual, which means that there will be male and female flowers.

1.

Make a drawing of the flower, showing all its parts

2. Name the functions of each of the following: Anther:

where pollen is produced

Filament:

the stalk of the stamen, which holds the anther in the right position

Stigma:

the part of the ovary where the ripened pollen has to fall

Style:

the long extension of the ovary that bears the stigma

Ovary: Seedbed / ovulum: Petal: Sepal / calyxleaf:

the place where the ovules are formed

the body that develops into a seed when it is fertilised

part of the corolla, which attracts insects (by colour)

protects the flower in its bud stage

Stamen:

the male reproductive part of a flower, consisting of the anther and the filament

Pistil:

the female reproductive part of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style and carpel

Footstalk / peduncle:

the small stalk that bears the flower in the right position.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Augiosperms No, only those that are pollinated by insects No, only those that have to attract insects Propagation of the specis fertilisation of the ovaries

 Angiosperms or flowering plants, especially those with brightly coloured petals, attract insects and are pollinated by them. They are also fragrant. The function of the flower is to ensure the fertilisation of the ovules. The main functions therefore are POLLINATION and FERTILISATION.

................Activity 5.2 Assignment 1

POLLINATION
Pollination is the process by which a ripened (mature) grain of pollen is deposited on a mature stigma of the same type of plant.

A grain of pollen must be ripe, or it will not be able to germinate to grow into the style. The stigma also has to be ripe and receptive to the pollen to be able to develop. The pollen has to come from the same sort of plant, or crossbreeding will result. Sometimes crossbreeding is possible, and this can result in all kinds of exotic plants. The structure of the grains of pollen of each type of plant differs microscopically from those of all other kinds of plants. This means that a grain of pollen virtually has to fit like a key in a lock. A ripe grain of pollen will begin to germinate as soon as it has landed on an appropriate surface. We have mentioned the fact that two main processes have to occur, namely pollination and fertilisation. We know what pollination is and that the ultimate goal of the grain of pollen is to reach the mature ovule to fertilise it.

Assignment 2: Undertake an investigation to obtain information about the pollen and pistils of different kinds of plants. Assemble a sheet of sketches of the different kinds of pollen and pistils that you discover. Fertilisation is the union of the special nuclear contents (gametes or germ cells) of a grain of pollen and an ovule.

The nuclear content that is referred to comprises a special molecule that has a code or plan of what the new plant must be like. We refer to this as the chromatin network, which consists of the molecule known as DNA. You will learn about the exact significance of this later. A zygote, the beginning of the new organism or plant, develops as soon as the nuclear contents or gametes have fused. The process, as it occurs step by step from the moment of pollination to fertilisation, comprises the following:

Assignment 3

Design a flower of your own with the help of the following guidelines: Own memo

................Activity 5.3 Assignment 1 A ripe grain of pollen is deposited on a receptive stigma Germination : growing down the a pollen tube into the style Entering the carpel through the micropyle Travelling through the carpel to the ovule Two male gametes in the pollen tube are released One fuses with the ovule's female gamete FERTILISATION has occurred a zygote is formed The zygote develops into an embryo inside the seed

The carpel becomes the pericarp for seed distribution Carpel: develops into a fruit Seed bud: develops into a seed Pistil: dries up and decays see this at the bottom of an apple, for instance Zygote: develops into an embryo Seed formation naturally is of the greatest importance to the process of propagation, but the process of distributing the seeds, or fruit, ranks with this in importance. OPTIONAL / FOR ENRICHMENT

The educator could suggest a project dealing with fertilisation through which you could investigate the interesting ways and mechanisms of propagation that form part of this process. The David Attenborough video dealing with The Secret Life of Plants could be viewed as an alternative. It contains astonishing visual material.

LEARNING UNIT 6
................Activity 6.1 Assignment 1

GENETICS

As we have been studying the propagation process in simple organisms like plants, we can conclude this module with an important key to further fields of study. Our knowledge of cells and how they react and can be manipulated is increasing with leaps and bounds. Words like cloning, genetic manipulation, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and gene therapy frequently feature in the news. Cell biology, Genetics and related fields will become increasingly important as fields of study. Although this is restricted to the senior grades at present, we want to give you a taste of what is to come. We have seen that important information is transferred during the formation of the zygote, before the complete "plan" is available. The "plan" is fixed in a special molecule known as DNA. DNA is constituted of codes. The codes determine all the characteristics of the new organism. These codes are presented in short strips that we identify as genes. The study of all the relevant molecules and structures like genes is known as genetics.

CONCEPT
1. 2. 3. Gamete Zygote Nucleus Chromatin network DNA Gene Genetics

DEFINITION
Special cells containing half of the nuclear content derived from one parent A fusion of two gametes male and female The controlling structure in each cell which contains the inheritable information Molecule with genetic codes Molecule that forms the chromatin network Bits of DNA with specific codes for specific characteristics Study of heredity

Further concepts that are derived from this, are: NATURAL SELECTION & VARIETY

Interference with the codes can result in errors. Such errors are known as mutations. Sometimes mutations are beneficial and new, stronger characteristics come to the fore. These beneficial variations lead to important processes and phenomena like biodiversity. Sometimes the variations are harmful and lead to the deterioration of the species. This happens particularly when the organisms that are involved are too closely related. In the case of plants and animals we speak of inbreeding, which is bad and detrimental. Nature has a way of ensuring that the organisms that survive are those that adapt better that any others.