SAS 203T

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS II


Study Notes, 2
ND
Ed.




1

SAS 203 T STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS II
Faculty of Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology 1
ST
semester 2009

Lecturer: Mr S E Seanego Room 3-528, Tel. 012 3585233, seanegoes@tut.ac.za
Outcomes: 1.To understand the fundamentals of Stuctural Analysis.
2.To be able to analyse and accurately compute Strucural Analysis problems
correctly.
3. To be able to use the computer aided design software in Structural Engineering.
Course Description:
Application of combined stresses theory in the analysis of bearing pressure below footings and retaining
walls. The analysis of retaining walls for overturning, and sliding. Analysis and drawing of Axial
Thrust, Bending Moments and Shearforce Diagrams in Portal Frames. Analysis and drawing of
Axial Thrust, Radial Shear ,Bending Moments and Shearforce Diagrams in Parabolic and Circular
Arches. The analysis of load carrying capacities of struts by the theories of Euler,Rankine and
Perry-Robertson. Assesment of stability and determinancy of structural models.


Tentative Schedule:
Weeks Topic PAGE

1 Bases
2 Retaining Walls.
3 Test1
4 Portal Frames.
5 Parabolic Arches.
6 Experiment 1 Parabolic Arch
7 Cicular Arches
8 Test2
9 Experiment 2 - Struts
10 Struts.
11 Determinancy of Structures
12 Test3


Course Delivery Method: Each topic will be presented by means of a formal lecture from the
courseware. It is estimated that each module will be handled in two periods indicated on your
timetables. Examples will be handled during these formal lectures. The student must then individually
solve the problems from the notes at home.


References: Kassamali A;Structural Analysis;Prentice Hall,
Khajes Alexandra ;Structural Analysis; Prentice Hall
Marshall and Nielson ;Structures; McGraw Hill,.

Evaluations: A total of three test wilbe written as shown above The final mark will be the average
mark of the tests .A MINIMUM OF 40% must be obtained for your semester mark. Entrance to
examinations will not be granted if your semester mark is below 40%.The final course mark is the
average of your semester and mark obtained from the examination to be written at the end of the
semester..



2
1COMBINED DIRECT AND BENDING STRESS

DIRECT STRESS

When a force F is applied to the center of gravity of a cross sectional area A , the direct
stress can be formulated and expressed as:




BENDING STRESS
When a Moment M is applied to the center of gravity of a cross sectional area A , the
bending stress can be formulated and expressed as:

The bending stress can also be expressed as
Z
M
! W since
y
I
Z !
3
If a force is applied to a cross-section at any point other than the center of gravity, the
force acts with an eccentricity , ex, measured from the axes X and Y through the center
of gravity as shown by the figure below.It ca be seen that the eccentric load P has an effect
of inducing a direct strss equal to
A
F
! W , as well as bending stress about the X-X axis equal
to
x
x
Z
M
! W where
x
M equal to
X
Fe
When the two above stresses are added the expression becomes :
X
X
Z
Fe
A
F
! W

2
6
bd
Fe
bd
F
X
! W


b
e
x
X
Y
F
Y
d
X




Similarly if a load F is applied a distance
Y
e from the Y axes shown below the
combined stress is:
2
6
db
Fe
bd
F
Y
! W
NB! The section modulus is now around the Y axes.


4
When the Force F, IS applied eccentric about both axes as shown below: it produces direct
stress
A
F
! W bending stress
X
x
Z
M
! W , as well as
Y
y
Z
M
! W
The maximum stress at the corners can be expressed as:


2 2
6 6
db
Fe
bd
Fe
bd
F
Y X
TOTAL
! W


Example 1

Y

A 3m B



4m
CG X
0.2
K F


D C
0.15
not to scale


Calculate the ground pressure at A B C and D if;
i) a Load of 2000kN is applied at the centre of gravity
7 . 166
4 3
2000
! !
x
W kN/m
2

5
ii) a Load of 2000kN is applied at F

2
4 3
6 2 . 0 2000
4 3
2000
-
- -
!
x
W
50 7 . 166 !
7 . 116 !
B A
W kN/m
2

7 . 216 !
D C
W kN/m
2



iii) If the load is applied at K

2 2
3 4
6 15 . 0 2000
4 3
6 2 . 0 2000
4 3
2000
-
- -

-
- -
!
x
W
50 50 7 . 166 !
7 . 166 !
A
W kN/m
2
; 7 . 66 !
B
W kN/m
2
;
7 . 166 !
C
W kN/m
2
; 7 . 266 !
D
W kN/m
2
iv) If a clockwise moment of 1000 kNm is applied around the Y axes

2
3 4
6 1000
-
-
! W
7 . 166 !
LEFT
W kN/m
2
; 7 . 166 !
RIGHT
W kN/m
2























6
Example 2




7






8
















MAT FOUNDATION STRAP FOOTING
COMBINED FOOTING
COMBINED FOOTING
STRAP BEAM
PROPERTY LINE
ISOLATED FOOTINGS
FIGURE 1. TYPES OF FOOTINGS
9
Example 3





Calculate the maximum and minimum stress for the base as shown in the sketch
If a load of 2000 kN is applied at C 1.5m from A and a load of 2500 kN is applied at D
3.5m from A
i ) Centre of gravity of the section
The section is divided onto two triangles and a rectangle as shown

)
) 15 2 5
2
1 5
2 ! -
-
- ! A m
2
5 . 2 10
3
5
5 . 2 2 15 -

- ! x
222 . 2 ! x m from B

The second moment of area around a axes through B
1667 . 104
3
5 2
12
5 1
2
3 3
!

-
!
B
I m
4

)
2
222 . 2 15 1667 . 104 !
CG
I
=30.093 m
4

The position of the resultant force:
) ) 5 . 3 2500 5 . 1 2000 4500 - - !
R
x
611 . 2 !
R
x m from A ( 2.389 m from B )

167 . 0 222 . 2 389 . 2 ! ! e m (to the left of the CG )
1000
2000
1000
5000
A B C D
CG
x
R
x
1.5 2m 1.5
e
10
) 5 . 244 222 . 2
093 . 30
167 . 0 4500
15
4500
!
-
!
B
W
2
m
kN

) 4 . 369 778 . 2
093 . 30
167 . 0 4500
15
4500
!
-
!
A
W
2
m
kN



The Middle Third Rule



For zero stress to develop at the one side:
0 !
Z
M
A
F

0
6
2
!
bd
Fe
bd
F


6
d
e ! ( as long as the eccentricity E falls within the middle third of the
base the stress below the base will be positive )
With eccentricity more than
6
d
a negative stress develops .This is not applicable for bases








Example 4
e
2
d

F
2
d

Z
M
A
F

Z
M
A
F

11

i ) Calculate the eccentricity measured from the centre of the round base to produce a
zero stress at the edge of the base, if the load applied is 2000 kN and the diameter of
the base is 2.4m




64
4
D
I
T
!
2 64
4
D D
Z z !
T

32
3
D T
!

Z
Fe
A
F
! ! 0
min
W
3 2
32 4
D
e F
D
F
o
T T
- -

-
!
300
8
2400
8
! ! !
D
e mm

ii ) Calculate the max and min stress if the eccentricity is 60 mm

) )
3 2
4 . 2
32 06 . 2000
4 . 2
4 2000
T T
W
- -

-
!
m


= 530.5 or 353.7 kN/m
2







Consider the following base

D
12


R is known



The maximum ground pressure will occur at A and the minimum at B
For the min pressure to be zero 0
6
2
! !
bd
Fe
bd
F
X
TOTAL
W

6
d
e
x
!
This means that the ground pressure below the base will always be positive provided
The resultant force R falls within the middle third of the base.

Regard the scenario where
6
d
e
x

The theoretical ground pressure will be the following:


The section presents a negative pressure ( suction/tension in joints ) which of coarse is not
possible in

the case of foundations.

d
R
e
A
B
A
B

2
6
bd
Fe
bd
F
X
TOTAL
! W


2
6
bd
Fe
bd
F
X
TOTAL
! W

C
13
The ground pressure distribution is as follows and the max. pressure is corrected to be
positive only as shown:


The position of the Resultant must coincide with the centre of gravity if the triangle
) b s R
m
- - ! 3
2
W
W is the average stress and

! e
d
s
2

sb
R
m
3
2
! W
These equations are the appropriate to be used whenever
6
d
e


















1.The trapezoidal combined footing shown below weighs
3
/ 22 m kN and is 0.5 m thick.It
carries column point loads of 200kN and 150kN at A and B respectively.
(a)Locate the centroid of the base (6)
m
W
2s
s
R
CG
14
(b) Compute the moment of inertia of the base about its centroid (10)

( c ) Plot the pressure distribution under the base (14)







2. The figure below shows the plan of a 0.8 m thick footing which carries three column loads.
Each load lies 0.8m from the adjacent edges .Plot the pressure distribution underneath the
base, take the density of concrete as 2 240kg/m
3
. (total 20 marks)

15


4. For the trapezoidal combined footing shown belowtha weighs
3
/ 22 m kN and is 0.8 m thick
and loaded as shown, calculate the dimensions B1 and B2 if the bearing pressure under the
base must uniformly distributed and mus not exceed 250KPa .



3. For both the circle and the rectangle shown below, calculate the minimum eccentricity (e)
that will produce no tensile cracks in the joints at the extreme fibres. P IS AN APPLIED
LOAD (10 MARKS)


16

6
0
0
2
5
0
B
2
0
0
6
0
0
A
D
C
y
x
100kN
x
y
150kN



C
D
7
0
0
Y
X X
A
20
2 200 kN
2
1
0
0
500
B
Y
1500


5.A concrete column 600mm X600mm in cross section supports a 150kN load on a bracket
200mm from the face of the column and 250mmfrom the corner of the bracket, as well as an
axial load of 100Kn. Ignore the mass of the column and:
a) Calculate the stresses at points A,B,C and D of the column (16)
b) Plot the stess distribution underneath the column (4)


6.The figure below shows a concrete footing. Calculate the magnitude and nature of the stresses imposed
along A-B and along C-D, when a load of 2200kN is applied at 20mm from the edge as shown on the
diagram. .Note that all dimensions are in mm.

17
2 RETAINING WALLS












18






RANKNE`S THEORY
The assumptions made in this theory is that theRETAINED material is incompressible,
homogeneous .granular and cohesion less and that it possesses internal frictional
resistance to movement between the grains Thus if a quantity of such material were
tipped onto a flat surface it would flow out to form a conical shape. The material
within the cone supports itself due to the internal friction between the grains.
The angle that the side of the cone makes with horizontal is known as the
angle of repose
Should the material be restrained by a vertical surface the active lateral pressure
is : h K p
a a
K ! where


J
J
sin 1
sin 1

!
a
K in terms of the angle of shearing resistance J
and K is the weight density of the material ( kN/m
3
)
19
Therefore at depth H the active pressure:
h K p
a a
K !
= H - -

K
J
J
sin 1
sin 1

Since
a
P varies uniformly with depth in a homogeneous material the distribution
diagram for the lateral pressure is a triangle and the resultant Force resulting from the
triangular distribution of pressure H K P
a a
K
2
1
!
2
acting at distance
3
H
above. surface of the
Soil






H


a
P

3
H


A


The moment around point A is referred to as the OVERTURNING MOMENT

3
6
1
H K M
a a
K !
The overturning moment is resisted by the RESISTING MOMENT created by the
weight of, the retaining wall and all the material on the base of the retaining wall.The
resisting moment are generated about the toe A, of the retaining wall.
20
NGL
Wc1
surcharge
Pa
Psu
h
/
2
h
/
3
Pp
NGL
d
1
Wc2
d5
A
d2
Wc3
d3
d4
Ws
Wsu


The safety factor against overturning =
G OVERTURNIN
RESISTING
M
M

SURCHARGE
When a superimposed pressure is applied at the surface of the retained soil the active
lateral pressure is increased by a proportional amount. The pressure distribution of
which is rectangular and the resultant force acts at half the depth.
for a surcharge of q kN/m
2
the pressure q K p
a SU
!
and the force qH K P
a su
! acting
2
H
from the surface
2
2
qH K
M
a
su
! @
GROUND PRESSURE
The stress below the base is the combined stress of the direct stress and the
bending stress caused by the eccentricity of the resultant load R on the base


Wsu Ws W W W R
c c c
7 !
3 2 1


21

CL
A
R
E
B/2
s e
B/2
B


The eccentricity can be found by

R
M M
s
o R

!

R
M M b
s
b
e
O R

! !
2 2

The pressures at point A and B respectively are

Z
e R
A
R -
!
max
W and
Z
e R
A
R -
!
min
W

since we regard I m length of the wall Z becomes

6
1
2
b
Z
-
!

2
Re 6
b b
R
m
! W






22
For a zero stress to develop behind the wall the eccentricity becomes

2
Re 6
0
b b
R
!

6
b
e ! @
In order to prevent negative stresses to develop below the base the resultant must fall
within the middle third of the base.

Example 1
Calculate the ground pressure below the base of the retaining wall shown The soil
carries a surcharge of 4 kN/m
2
( Regard 1m length of the wall only )
And show a diagram of the moments on the wall, heel and toe.

0
30 ! J ;
soil
K = 18 kN/m
3
;
concrete
K = 24kN/m
3


0.3m 4kN/m
2
diagram of lateral pressure

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
soil surcharge







4m w
2
w
1
p
s


P
a


2
8 . 4


3
8 . 4


0.8m
A y w
3
0.6m

2.7m

Overturning moment:
333 . 0
30 sin 1
30 sin 1
0
0
!

!
a
K
soil: ) 5 . 110 8 . 4 18 333 . 0
6
1
3
! - - - !
o
M kN.m
surcharge: 34 . 15
2
8 . 4 4 333 .
2
!
- -
!
s
M kN.m
23
M
o
= 125.84 kN.m


Resisting moment:
w
1
1.8 x 18 x 4 = 129.60 x 1.8 233.28
w
2
0.3 x 4 x 24 = 28.8 x .75 21.60
w
3
0.8 x 2.7 x 24 = 51.84 x 1.35 69.98
S 4 x 1.8 = 7.20 x 1.80 12.96

W = 217.44 kN M
R
= 337.82 kN.m

Safety factor @ overturning = 68 . 2
84 . 125
82 . 337
!
Eccentricity of the resultant force from the center of the base:
e = 1.35 -
)
44 . 217
84 . 125 82 . 337
= 0.375 m
for the base Z = 215 . 1
6
7 . 2 1
6
2 2
!
-
!
bd
m
3
Ground pressure
Z
We
A
W
! W

)
64 . 147
215 . 1
375 . 0 44 . 217
1 7 . 2
44 . 217
!
-

-
!
TOE
W kN/m
2


toe
)
42 . 13
215 . 1
375 . 0 44 . 217
1 7 . 2
44 . 217
!
-

-
!
HEEL
W

kN/m
2





13.42 kN/m
2
147.64 kN/m
2















24




Passive pressure:


surface of the soil behind the wall





H

soil in front
a
P

3
H

H
P
P
P


The soil in front of the wall does not actively exerts a pressure against the wall instead
the wall is applying a pressure to the soil. The soil induces a passive pressure to
resist the pressure applied by the wall with magnitude:

2
P P
P
H K
P
- -
!
K
where
E
E
sin 1
sin 1

!
P
K
Because it is doubt full whether this pressure is sustainable. Most engineers do not
take it in account when determining the moment of resistance of the wall
However the passive pressure plays an important role in resisting sliding of the wall.
The active force H K P
a a
K
2
1
! pushes the wall foreword, and if this force is larger than the
esisting force sliding will occur.
The resisting force comprises:
a )The friction between the base and the soil, equaling R Q where R is the
resultant downward force applied by the wall as well as the soil on top of the base

Q is the coefficient of friction between the concrete of the base and the
Soil, and . Q .
3
2
tan tan
2
1
e e
b) The passive force
2
P P
P
H K
P
- -
!
K
; with
P
K the reciprocal of
a
K
The safety factor against sliding =
A
P
P
P R Q



25



Inclined backfill:
The soil surface makes a angle F with the horizontal
F





H
a
P
F


3
H




The active pressure at any depth z acts parallel to the surface of the fill in
accordance with the following equation.
E F F F
E F F
F K
2 2
2 2
cos cos cos
cos cos cos
cos


! z p
and the resultant force:
E F F F
E F F
F K
2 2
2 2
2
2
1
cos cos cos
cos cos cos
cos


! H P
A
, acting at height
3
H
from the base
This force can now be compounded into vertical and horizontal components
The horizontal component causes overturning while the vertical component adds to
the weight resistance. ( this value must if applicable be added to w
1
,w
2
,w
3
and S
in example 1 to form the total resisting force W, and M
R
)
Example2
26



27


Bending moments on retaining walls and retaining wall bases.
a) The wall:
the bending moment at the base of the wall =
3
6
1
W a
H K BM K !
where
W
H is the height of the wall above the base.


b ) The toe of the base:




SOIL
h soil


BASE
h base

B A

d
Pressure due to weight of the soil =
SOIL SOIL
h K

1

2
Pressure due to weight of the base =
CONC BASE
h K
MAX
W


4

A
W

3



A
W is derived at by linear interpolation between
MAX
W and
MIN
W
The bending moment at A is calculated as the bending moment caused at A by the
28
load distribution 1, 2, 3, 4 on cantilever AB, fixed at A
The area 1,2,3,4 is divided onto a square with arm
2
d
and a triangle with arm
3
2d



c ) The heel of the base:


surcharge

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
surface of the soil




soil




X Y
base


X



MIN
W



X
W















The heel of the base is regarded as a cantilever XY fixed at X
29
The load on the cantilever is the weight of the soil plus the base plus the surcharge
acting downwards, minus the ground pressure acting upwards.
Again the area is divided onto a square with arm
2
d
and a triangle with arm
3
d

The deflected form of the retaining wall



vvvvvvvvvv







































30


1.The trapezoidal retaining wall with a heel shown below weighs
3
/ 22 m kN and retains on its
vertical face soil with an equivalent density of
3
/ 16 m kN and an angle of internal friction ()
of 30
o
. The retained soil also carries a surcharge of
2
/ 9 m kN .acting horizontal at the
surface
(a)Check the stability of the wall against overturning (15)
(b) Check the stability of the wall against sliding (5)
( c ) Plot the bearing pressure distribution under the base (10)
The factors of safety against overturning and sliding may be taken as 2.5 and 1.5 respectively

2. The trapezoidal retaining wall shown below weighs
3
/ 22 m kN and retains on its vertical face
soil with an equivalent density of
3
/ 16 m kN and an angle of internal friction () of 30
o
. The
imposed soil carries a surcharge of
2
/ 9 m kN .
(a)Check the stability of the wall against overturning (10)
(b) Check the stability of the wall against sliding (5)
( c ) Plot the bearing pressure distribution under the base (5)
31


6
0
0
3
6
0
0
4
0
0
1200 600
400
1200

4.The masonry retaining wall shown below supports a cohesionless soil applied to the surface
of which there is a surcharge pressure of 60
2
/ m kN . The soil has a unit weight of
19.1
3
/ m kN and an angle of shearing resistance of 28
o
, the unit weiht of the masonry is
24.5
3
/ m kN .Determine:
(a)The position of the resultant ground reaction
(b)The bearing pressure underneath the retaining wall.
( c ) The factor of safety against overturning
(d) The factor of safety against sliding

surcharge
1
.
5
m
5
m
5
m
6
m
2
m
2.4m 6m
A
1m
1m
1m
B
NGL

3.A concrete retaining wallretains water to a depth of 3.6m in a reservoir as shown below
(a)Check the stability of the wall against overturning (15)
(b) Check the stability of the wall against sliding (5)
( c ) Plot the bearing pressure distribution under the base (10)
The factors of safety against overturning and sliding may be taken as 2.5 and 1.5 respectively.
Take the density of water as 1000
3
/ m kg , the density of concrete as 2500
3
/ m kg
and the coefficient of friction between the wall and the bearing soil is 0.655.Bearing pressure
will only be concentrated underneath the retaining wall.
32
5.The concretey retaining wall shown below supports a cohesionless soil,The soil has a unit
weight of 18.1
3
/ m kN and an angle of shearing resistance of 35
o
, the unit weight of the
concrete is 24.5
3
/ m kN .Determine:
(a)The position of the resultant ground reaction
(b)The bearing pressure underneath the retaining wall.
( c ) The factor of safety against overturning
(d) The factor of safety against sliding


NGL
0.5m
6
m
0
.
5
m
1
m
3.5m
NGL
0.5m1.5m
0.5m

6.The concretey retaining wall shown below supports a cohesionless soil ,The soil has a unit
weight of 16.5
3
/ m kN and an angle of shearing resistance of 38
o
, the unit weight of the
concrete is 24.5
3
/ m kN .Determine:
(a)The position of the resultant ground reaction
(b)The bearing pressure underneath the retaining wall.
( c ) The factor of safety against overturning
(d) The factor of safety against sliding



6
m
3.4m
NGL
NGL
5
m
1
m
0.5m 0.5m

33
3 PORTAL FRAMES


Three pinned Portal Frames

Example 1 . For the structure shown below , draw the axial thrust, shear force and bending
moment diagrams



6kN
3m 3m
A
B
10kN
D
5
m
E
C




Solving the reactions:

6kN
3m 3m
Va
Ha
A
B
10kN
D
He
Ve
5
m
E
C

It is important to note that the third pin at point C makes the arch statically determinate

The sum of the moments around C ( or any other point ) = 0

The Bending moment at point C = 0
34
0 ! 7
C
M and 0 ! 7
C
BM
Moments around C of section CE
0 5 ! -
e
H
0 ! @
e
H kN
The sum of the horizontal forces on the frame as a whole = 0
6 !
a
H kN
The sum of the moments of all the forces around A
) ) 3 10 5 6 6 - - ! -
e
V
10 !
e
V kN

The sum of the vertical forces on the frame as a whole = 0
10 !
e a
V V

0 ! @
a
V
kN




10kN
B
30kNm
0kNm
0kN 0kN
0kN
O
10kN
D
C
B B
E
C
10kN
0kN
10kN
5
m
0kN
0kNm
A
B
0kN
6kN
6kN
0kN
B 30kNm
6kN
0kN
6kN
0kN
B
0kN
30kNm
30kNm
B
D C
A
C
E
B
AXIAL TRHUST DIAGRAM
SHEAFORCE DIAGRAM
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
FBD1
FBD2
FBD3
FBD4
10kN
D
B
A
30kNm
30kNm
10kN
E
D
E
C
6kN
A

Remember: The Bending moment at ant point on the structure is the sum of the moments
of all the forces to one side of that point on the structure

Note: It is custom to draw the BM diagram on the tension side of members.



35

Example 2







36









Note that in this example , the positive Bending Moment is drawn on the compression side


37


















Example3







38

reactions











39





40


















41

1. For the structure shown below ,
a) Calculate the reactions (4)
b) draw the combined axial thrust diagram (5)
c) Draw the combined shear force diagram (5)
d) Draw the combined bending moment diagram (6)



8
m
5m
4
m
4
m
A
B
30kN/m
D
C pin
6kN
E




1
6
m
5
m
30m
Ax Bx
20kN/m
2.5kN/m
A
Ay
D
By
C
B
E




2. For the structure shown below ,
a) Calculate the reactions (4)
b) draw the combined axial thrust diagram (5)
c) Draw the combined shear force diagram (5)
d) Draw the combined bending moment diagram (6)

42

A B
C
9m
9
m
30
2kN/m
9m



4. For the structure shown below ,
a) Calculate the reactions (4)
b) draw the combined axial thrust diagram (5)
c) Draw the combined shear force diagram (5)
d) Draw the combined bending moment diagram (6)
e) .


A
20kN
4m 6m
30kN
6
m
C
B
1
0
m
E
C











3. For the structure shown below ,
a) Calculate the reactions (4)
b) draw the combined axial thrust diagram (5)
c) Draw the combined shear force diagram (5)
d) Draw the combined bending moment diagram (6)
.

43

4 PARABOLIC ARCHES

1. Arch Action
An arch is a curved beam with both ends fixed in position that is in the X and Y direction and
may be fixed against rotation. This means that the supports may be pinned or fixed(built-in)
but never on roller supports.



Ha
Vb
Hb
P
span
Va
y



Any load placed on the arch causes both horizontal and vertical reaction at the supports. The
horizontal forces exerted by the supports is known as Arching Action and greatly
reduces the bending moments in the arch. The parabolic arch acts as the inverse of a flexible
cable which hangs in pure tension to form a parabola when a uniform distributed load is
suspended from it. The parabolic arch
consequently is in pure compression when carrying a uniformly distributed load For the arch
above, we have the following BM diagrams



44

PL/4
Hy
Free BM diagram for H taking arch as simply suppoted beam
Free BM diagram for P taking arch as simply suppoted beam
Combined BM diagram
-ve
+ve
-ve
-ve
+ve





2 . Terminology

2.1 Symmetrical Arch


span
rise
crown
spring line



2.2 Unsymmetrical Arch



span
s
p
rin
g
lin
e
rise
crown




45

roadway
spandril
intrados
extrados


Roadway suspended from Arch eg Footbridge on Apies River near Mayville, Akasia Golf Course
,Tollgate Bridge, Berea, Durban


roadway



3. Types of Arches

3.1 Fixed Ended Arch



In this case we have 4 reactions and 2 reactive moments at the supports. One can still remove
three reactions and the structure will still stand. This type of structure is therefore
statically indeterminate to the 3
rd
degree .

3.2 Two Pinned Arch



46


The removal of two moment reactions that were in the fixed arch, leavs us with 4 reactions
at the supports. One horizotal reaction can still be removed, the arch would spread but still
remain a structure This type of structure is therefore statically indeterminate to the 1
st

degree .


3.3 Three Pinned Arch




The introduction of an additional pin on the arch creates an additional equation(The sum
of all the moments as well as the bending moment is zero at the pin), to the three
equations of statics( 7 V = 0 ; 7 H = 0 ; 7 M = 0 ( of the structure as
a whole ))
, we now have 4 unknowns and 4 Equations, making the arch to be statically determinate. The
Storms River Bridge is an example of this type of structure



3 Geometry of the Parabolic Arch

4.1 The symmetrical Parabolic Arch






47

X
Y
X
l
r
A
B



c bx ax y !
2
1
Taking the origin at A ( 0,0)
@c =0
bx ax y !
2

@ B 0 , ! ! y l x
@
al b !
2
@ C r y
l
x ! ! ,
2



2 4
2
bl al
r ! @ 3


















4.2 Unsymmetrical Parabolic Arch
48



Y
Y
X X
Ya
Yb
A
B
C
L2 L1
L
ORIGIN



c bx ax y !
2

Taking the origin at C ( 0,0)
@c =0
bx ax y !
2

Point C is the turning point and 0 !
dx
dy

0 2 ) (
2
! ! b ax bx ax
dx
d


@ C 0 0 ! @ ! b x

2
ax y ! @

@ A
a
Y y L x ! ! ,
2


2
2
aL Y
a
! @ .1
@ B
b
Y y L x ! ! ,
1


2
1
aL Y
b
! @ ..2
Solving for a from 1

2
2
L
Y
a
a

!
Substitute in 2

2
2
2
1
L
L
Ya Y
b
!


49

2
1
L
L
Y
Y
a
b
! @
AXIAL FORCE AND RADIAL SHEAR FORCE


E
centreline of arch
horizontal
tangent through D
Nornal or perpendicular to X-X
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

x

o
f

H
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

y

o
f

H
D
E
X
,
A
Y
E
D
Y
C
X
B



Regard a section of the parabola.
At any point D on the curve the AXIAL THRUST acts in the direction of the tangent to
the
curve at that point and is the sum of the components of all horizontal components the
forces ( including the reactions ) to the left ( or right ) of that point in the direction of
the tangent.

The component of H in the plane Y-Y = E sin H 7 and thee component of H in the X-X
plane = E cos H 7


E
centreline of arch
horizontal
tangent through D
Nornal or perpendicular to X-X
D
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

x

o
f

V
V
E
X
A
Y
E
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

y

o
f

V
D
Y
C
X
B


The component of V in the plane Y-Y = E cos V 7 and the component of H in the X-
X plane = E sin V 7


50


Adding both components in the direction of the tangent:






Similarly the RADIAL SHEAR force at any point x on the curve is the component of all the
forces to the left ( or right ) of that point perpendicular to the tangent at that point.
Adding in the direction perpendicular to the tangent:



S = 7 V cos E - 7 H sinE ------------B


NB! Formulas A & B applies only for section AB with,

V 7 upwards and H 7 from left to right.

It is recommended that all inclined forces be resolved into horizontal and vertical

components to calculate V 7 and H 7 ; the sum of all the vertical and horizontal

forces to the left of point D

again H is taken as positive from left to right and V positive upwards

For section CB above the formulas change to,

F = 7 H Cos E - 7 V SinE

and, S = 7 V Cos E + 7 H SinE

To calculate the maximum and minimum bending moments, the bending moment must

be written in terms of the variable x . ) x f M !


F = 7 H cosE + 7 V sin E ... ------------ A
51
0 !
dx
dM
giving the x values for maximum and minimum bending moments

eg. With udl w
m
kN



) )
)
2
2
x a w
y V x a V BM
B A

!













Example 1
A three pinned parabolic arch spans 10m between supports, and an a height of
2.5m at the crown. It carries a u.d.l. of 15kN/m (15 kN per horizontal meter ) over the
left half of the span.
Calculate the bending moment , axial thrust force and the radial shear force at a point D
4
l
from the left hand support


Y
. 15kN/m
xxxxxxxxxxxx C
Dy

2.5m
H
A
H
B
X

V
A
V
B

! l 10m





52




Taking the origin at A ( 0,0)

bx ax y !
2
1


@ al b ! ..2 a b 10 !


2 4
2
bl al
r ! @ 3 b a 5 25 5 . 2 !

1 . 0 ! a and 1 ! b
x x y ! @
2
1 . 0


dx
dy
= tan E = - 0.2x+1

at x = 2.5 m ; tan E = 0.5 and E = 26.57
0


5 . 2 5 . 2 1 . 0
2
- ! @ y = 1.875 m






Reactions:

7 V = 0 V
A
+

V
B
= 5 x 15 = 75 kN

7 M
B
= 0 10V
A
- ) 5 . 7 5 15 - - = 0

V
A
= 56.25 kN

and V
B
= 75 - 56.25 = 18.75 kN

7 M
C
= 0 and H
A
= H
B
= H

) 5 25 . 56 - -
2
2
5
15

- - H ( 2.5 ) = 0

H = 37.5 kN


53



Left of D
15kN/m
xxxxxxxxy D
37.5 kN
2.5 m
56.25 kN


7 H = 37.5 kN and 7 V = 56.25 ( 2.5 x 15 ) = 18.75 kN

apply formulas A and B

F = 37.5 cos 26 , 57
0
+ 18.75 sin 26.57
0


= 41.926 kN ( compression )

S = 18.75 cos 26.57
0
- 37.5 sin 26.57
0


= 0 kN

BM
D
= 56.25 x 2.5 -37.5 x 1.875 - 15 x
2
5 . 2
2
( as before.)

= 23.4375 kN.m







a formula for the bending moment would read:

BM
x
= 56.25 x - 37.5 ) y - 15
2
2
x


= 56.25 x - 37.5 ) x x
2
1 . 0 - 15
2
2
x


= - 3.75
2
x + 18.75 x
At the point of maximum bending moment 0 !
dx
dBM


0 !
dx
dBM
= -7.5x + 18.75
54

giving, x = 2.5 m and y = 2.5 -
10
5 . 2
2
= 1.875 m

The bending moment at this point is M
D
= 23.4375 kN.m



Example 2

A Three-pinned parabolic arch is loaded as shown below.

The reaction at A is elevated 30m above reaction B and the 10 kN point load at D has

inclination of 36.87
0
to the vertical



C 36.87
0
10kN
10m A D
40m

B
40m

120m


If we take the horizontal distance between A and C as x

2
1
L
L
Y
Y
a
b
! =
1
1
120 40
10
L
L

!
m L 40
1
! @


2
ax y !
A(-40,-10) -10 a 1600 ! .1
B( 80 , -40) -40 = 6400a..2

00625 . 0 ! @a


Equation of arch is then
2
00625 . 0 x y ! With the origin C (0,0)

You can test this by rechecking the co-ordinates of A and B



55

at point D
2
) 40 ( 00625 . 0 ! y




D
y = -10 m




Resolving the inclined force into components:

10 kN
8 kN V = 10 cos 36.87
0
36.87
0
= 8 kN

6 kN H = 10 sin 36.87
0


= 6 kN


Reactions: kN V V
B A
8 !

6 !
B A
H H

0 ! 7
C
M
A A
H V 10 40 !

0 ! 7
B
M ) ) 30 6 40 8 30 120 - - !
A A
H V

= 500

083 . 2 !
A
V kN

333 . 8 !
A
H kN





Axial force and radial shear force ( just ) left of point D



2
00625 . 0 x y !

x
dx
dy
0125 . 0 !
56
Slope at D tanE =
dx
dy
= - 0.0125(+ 40 )
E = 26.565
0




7 V = 2.083 kN
7 H = 8.333 kN

F = 8.333 Cos 26.565
0
- 2.083 Sin 26.565
0


= 6.522 kN

S = 2.083 Cos 26.565
0
+ 8.333 Sin 26.565
0


= 5.59 kN

Axial force and radial shear force ( just ) right of point D.

7 V = 2.083 8 = - 5.917 kN

7 H = 8.333 - 6 = 2.333 kN

F = 2.333 Cos 26.565
0
- ( - 5.917 ) Sin 26.565
0


= 4.733 kN

S = - 5.917 Cos 26.565
0
+ 2.333 Sin 26.565
0


= - 4.249 kN

an expression for the bending moment between A and C is:
) ) 10 40 ! y H x V BM
A A AC

= ) ) 10 333 . 8 40 083 . 2 y x

but,
2
00625 . 0 x y !

x x BM
AC
053 . 2 05208 . 0
2
!

and the maximum bending moment occurs at 0 !
dx
dBM


0 !
dx
dBM
= 0.10416x + 2.08333

x = -20 m

The bending moment at x = -20 m

= - 20.821 kN.m
57


2. A parabolic arch ABC is hinged at the supports and the apex as shown on the next
page.The arch carries a uniformly distributed load of 0.7 KN/m horizontally across span AC ,
and two point loads as shown below:The reactions have been calculated and are show on the
diagram.
(a) Derive the equation(s) for the geometry of the arch (5)
(b) Use the equation(s) derived above to calculate the heights of C,D,E and F above point A (8)
(c ) Calculate the bending moment, axial thrust ,and radial shear at a point F (7) ( total 20
marks )


A
0.7kN/m
1
4
21kN
175
150
125
B
50
100
F
42kN
D
C
E




1.A parabolic ABC arch is hinged at the supports and the apex as shown on the figure
beloww.The arch carries six 20 KN point loads as wel as a udl of 10 KN/m horizontally.Find:
(a) The axial thrust and radial shear at a point 15m horizontally to the right of support A(just
left of the point load) (10)
(b) The bending moment in the arch 5m horizontally to left of B, UNDER THE POINT LOAD
(5)
58
































3.For the parabolic arch below:
a) Calculate the height of point D above the X axes (3)
b) Calculate the slope ( gradient ) at point D ( 3 )
c) Calculate the reactions (4)
d) Calculate the Radial Shear force (only ), fractionally to the right of point D (5)
e) Derive an expression for the Bending moment between points A and C (3)
f) Calculate the value of the maximum Bending Moment between A and C (2)
.
6.6m
4.4m
m
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
60m
12m
A
B
C
D
4kN/m
20kN
45
0
X
Y
59
5 CIRCULAR /SEGMENTAL ARCHES


1.Geometry of the circular arch


C
h
X X
Y
Y
Ha Hb
O1
Va
A
a
(x,y)
R
O2
b
Vb
B


From O1
2 2 2
R y x !



2 2
x R y !

From O2
)
2 2 2
R b y x !
2 2 2
b a R !
b h R !
@
2 2 2
2 b hb h R !
@
2 2 2 2
2 b hb h b a !


h
h a
b
2
2 2

! and b h R !

where a = half the span and h = the height of the arch

60
Calculation of tangent angle for segmental arches




C
Y
X
X
U
U
R
x
Y
y

2 2
tan
x R
x
y
x

! ! .


Example
Calculate the Bending Moment, Axial Thrust and Radial Shear at point P, WHICH IS 10 m, horizontally
from A.



C
A
X
20
12m
Y
16m
8
m
4
m
25kN/m
P
Y
O
B
X



61

Example
C
A
X
20
12m
Y
16m
4
m
25kN/m
P
8
m
Ha
Va
Hb
U
Vb
U
Y
O
B
X


2 2 2
R y x !



2 2
x R y !
m y
a
12 ) 16 ( 20
2 2
! !
m y
b
16 12 20
2 2
! !
m y
c
20 0 20
2 2
! !


Reactions
Horizontal Equilibrium
a b
H H !


MOMENTS ABOUT B 2450 7 !
a a
H V ..1
MOMENTS ABOUT C 400 2 !
a a
H V 2

kN H
kN V
a
a
420
410
!
!

Vertical Equilibrium kN V
b
290 !







62

At point P
m x 10 !
m y
p
32 . 17 ) 10 ( 20
2 2
! !
m y
a
12 ) 16 ( 20
2 2
! ! as before
kNm Mp 4 . 224 !

o
p 30 ! U

Axial Thrust = 493.7 Kn
Radial Shear = 15.2 kN





































63

B
C
D
A
O
10m
Y
Y
X X
50kN





1..The figure below shows a segmental three-pinned circular arch, with points B and D at a
third of the span. The 50kN point load is applied at 45degrees.
a) Calculate the support reactions (5)
b) Determine the tangent angle at D (5) (total 10 marks)
2. The segmental arch ABC is hinged at the supports and the apex as shown on the figure
below.The arch carries a uniformly distributed load of 5 KN/m horizontally across span BC ,
and a point load at D as shown below:
(a) Derive the equation for the geometry of the arch (4)
(b) Use the equation(s) derived above to calculate the heights of D, B and C above point A
(6)
(c)Calculate all the support reactions (8)
(d ) Calculate the bending moment, axial thrust ,and radial shear at a point D (12)

64



Ha
Hb
Vb
R25m
8 kN/m
42
Va
A
23
C
B




4.The figure below shows a three-pinned arch consisting of two quardrants of circles and
carrying a concentrated load of 40Kn. Find the maximum positive and negative bending
moments0n the arch. Using a as the origin ,also find the equations for the linear arch.

4OkN
5m
5m
A
A
5m
5
m
C
C
B


3. For the three-pinned segmental arch shown below:
1. Calculate the reactions (8)
2. Calculate the axial thrust and radial shear at support A.(4)
3. Calculate the maximum bending moment in section AC (8)
65
6 STRUTS
When we speak of columns (and buckling) we are talking about members loaded in compression,
often axially loaded, although columns may be loaded eccentrically. We also tend to think of
columns as vertical members, however, the formulas we will utilize also apply to horizontal
compression members, or to compression members in general. For instance, compression
members of a truss may be considered to be columns pinned at each end point.
Columns may be divided into three general types: Short Columns, Intermediate Columns, and
Long Columns. The distinction between types of columns is not well defined, but a generally
accepted measure is based on the Slenderness Ratio. The Slenderness Ratio is the
(effective) length of the column divided by its radius of gyration.
The radius of gyration is the distance from an axis which, if the entire cross sectional area of
the object (beam) were located at that distance, it would result in the same moment of inertia
that the object (beam) possesses. Or, it may be expressed as: Radius of Gyration: r
xx
=
(I
xx
/A)
1/2
(radius of gyration about xx-axis)
So, Slenderness Ratio = L
e
/ r.
Notice that we have put a subscript "e" by the length of the column. This is to indicate that,
depending on how the column is supported, we do not use the actual length but an effective
length. KL l
e
! .Where L is the clear HEIGHT of a column.
The factor K is called the effective length factor. This factor depends on the end boundary
of the column. Pinned-Pinned: K= 1, Fixed-Pinned: K= .7, Fixed-Fixed: K = .5, Fixed-
Free: K = 2
L
e
L
e
L
e
L
e
K = 1 K = 2 K = 0.5 K = 0.7

66
A generally accepted relationship between the slenderness ratio and the type of Column is as
follows:
Short Column: 0< L
e
/ r < 60
Intermediate Column: 60< L
e
/ r <120
Long Column: 120< L
e
/ r < 300
I. Short Columns: When the slenderness ratio is less than 60, a column will not fail due to
buckling, as the ratio of the column length to the effective cross sectional area is too small.
Rather a short, 'thick' column, axially loaded, will fail in simple compressive failure: that is
when the load/area of the column exceeds the allowable stress, P/A > s
allow
.
Eccentrically loaded short columns have a slightly more complicated result for compression
failure, which we will look at later in this section.
We also will put off discussion of intermediate length columns until we have discussed long
columns. Idealized buckling in long columns was first treated by the famous mathematician
Leonard Euler.
II. Long Columns & Euler's Equation: In 1757, Leonard Euler (pronounced Oiler) developed a
relationship for the critical column load which would produce buckling. A very brief derivation
of Euler's equation goes as follows:
Column under pin supports
y,v
L
P
P
P
v
M
A
B
A
P
cr
H
B
A
x


A loaded pinned-pinned column is shown in the diagram. A top section of the diagram is shown
with the bending moment indicated, and in terms of the load P, and the deflection distance y,V
we can write:
1. M = - P y.
67
We also can write that for beams/columns the bending moment is proportional to the
curvature of the beam, which, for small deflection can be expressed as:
2. (M /EI) = (d
2
y /dx
2
)
(See Strength of Material text chapters on beams and beam deformations.) Where E =
Young's modulus, and I = moment of Inertial. Then substituting from EQ. 1 to EQ. 2, we
obtain:
3. (d
2
y /dx
2
) = -(P/EI)y or (d
2
y /dx
2
) + (P/EI)y = 0
This is a second order differential equation, which has a general solution form of
4. :
We next apply boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0, and y = 0 at x = L. That is, the deflection of
the column must be zero at each end since it is pinned at each end. Applying these conditions
(putting these values into the equation) gives us the following results: For y to be zero at x =0,
the value of B must be zero (since cos (0) = 1). While for y to be zero at x = L, then either A
must be zero (which leaves us with no equation at all, if A and B are both zero), or
. Which results in the fact that

And we can now solve for P and find:
5. , where P
cr
stands for the critical load which can be applied before buckling is
initiated.
6. By replacing L with the effective length, L
e
, which was defined above, we can generalize the
formula to:
, which then applies to Pinned-Pinned, Fixed-Pinned, Fixed-Fixed, and Fixed-Free
columns.
This equation is a form of Euler's Equation. Another form may be obtained by solving for the
critical stress:
and then remembering that the Radius of Gyration: r
xx
= (I
xx
/A)
1/2
, and substituting we
can obtain:
68

which gives the critical stress in terms of Young's Modulus of the column material and the
slenderness ratio.
Let us at this time also point out that Euler's formula applies only while the material is in the
elastic/proportional region. That is, the critical stress must not exceed the proportional limit
stress. If we now substitute the proportional limit stress for the critical stress, we can arrive
at an equation for the minimum slenderness ratio such that Euler's equation will be valid.

It should also be pointed out that while these formulas give reasonable values for critical
loads causing buckling, it should not be assumed the values are completely accurate. Buckling is
a complicated phenomena, and the buckling in any individual column may be influenced by
misalignment in loading, variations in straightness of the member, presence of initial unknown
stresses in the column, and defects in the material. Several examples of buckling calculations
follow.

Comments of Column Section
o Short columns have more capacity to resist buckling than long columns
o Eulers Load is valid for long columns. For very short columns, the capacity of the column
will be governed by the strength of the material
o Columns with higher flexural rigidity (EI) will be able to resist buckling better than
columns having small flexural rigidity
o Columns with
y z
I I { (yz is the plane perpendicular to the column axis), it will buckle in
the direction of smaller I
o It is then more economical to design columns with the same and
y z
I I than columns with
different moment of inertia for the same cross-sectional area (This may not be true if
the columns subjected to addition bending)
o To increase the moment of inertia by increasing the distribution of material to be
further away from the centroid of the section (
2
I I d A d ! ) will increase the capacity to
resist buckling
69
o Hollow tubular section is generally more economical for use as a column than solid
section having the same cross-sectional area
o Although theoretically the thinner the wall of the hollow tubular is, the more economical
the column will be, too thin wall will lead to local buckling (Only overall buckling of
column is discussed in this course)
Critical Stress
Critical stress can be obtained by dividing the critical load by the column cross-
sectional area
2
cr
cr 2
P EI
A AL
T
W ! !
Defining radius of gyration
I
r
A
! , we have
)
2
2
/
cr
E
L r
T
W !
The ratio L/r is called the slenderness ratio. The above equation is also known as Eulers
stress.
W
/ L r
)
2
2
/
E
L r
T
W !
c y
or W W

70



71



72












73
Example2



74












75
Example3



76
Eccentric Loading
In practical, almost all of the columns are subjected to eccentric loadings
When we have eccentric loading, the bending moment in the column will be increased
e
P
P
L
y, v
x
P
P P
P
M
e
v
v
max


77






78
It can be concluded that Perry developed his formula based on the initial curvature of the column, from

which Robertson (and Godfrey) later developed the known Perry-Robertson formula


P
W =
2
1
) . J
e y
W L W 1 - ) ,
e y e y
W W W L W

2
1
2
1


where:
e
W = Euler stress
y
W = Yield stress

Godfrey proposed the value of
2
100
3 . 0

!
r
l
L which was later included in the British design code BS
449


The South African Steel design code SABS 0162 uses a empirical formula developed in

Canada which is in line with present design codes in developed countries.

The compression resistance of a column is derived from:


)
n
n
Y R
A C
1
2
1

! P W J

where
E r
kL
y
2
T
W
P ! ; n = 1.34 and J = 0.9


Safety factors

Regard the following formula


P
W =
2
1
) . J
e y
W L W 1 - ) ,
e y e y
W W W L W

2
1
2
1



P
W x A = P
p


P
p
represents the ultimate load on a column . Because it is difficult to predict the

load on a column with accuracy a load factor can be applied to P
p
(

Loadfactor
P
P
)



y
W represents the yield stress of the material and similarly because of the difficulty

in predicting the strength of the material a material resistance factor can be applied to
y
W
79


The South African Steel design code SANS 10162 uses a material resistance factor of

0.9 for steel (
y
W x material resistance factor )



SECTION PROPERTIES


To calculate allowable stresses in columns it is essential to calculate the section

properties of the column. For a rectangular section and axes through the center of

gravity
b


CG d
X X


X
1
X
1

Y
The moment of inertia
12
3
bd
I
xx
! ;
3
3
1 1
bd
I
x x
! ; the area A = bd

and the radius of gyration r =
A
I
=
bd
bd 12 /
3
=
12
2
d


where b is the width parallel to the axes and d is the depth at right angles to the axes
For round columns: I
xx
=
64
4
d T
and r =
2
d
where d is the diameter of the circle.

To calculate the moment of inertia of compound columns (made up of multiple sections )

it is handy to use the parallel axes theorem I
1 1
x x
= I
xx
+ Ay
2


where I
xx
is the moment of inertia around the center of gravity and I
1 1
x x
is the moment

of inertia around a axes distance y from the axes through the center of gravity.

The radius of gyration is r
x
=
A
I
x x

1 1

80

I
1 1
x x
represents the moment of inertia around a axes through the center of gravity of the

compound section.

For triangles:

X
APEX
I
APEX
=
4
3
bh




X
CG

3
h


I
CG
=
36
3
bh

X
BASE

I
BASE
=
12
3
bh







4
2
D
A
T
!


y x
I I ! =
64
4
D
I
CG
T
!
D




















81
Example 1

a Column of height 6m is made up from two 250mm x 12mm and one

300mm x 10mm plates, to form a Hsection, as shown in the sketch.



250


12mm

10 mm


X 300mm X



12mm



Calculate : A ; I
xx
;

I
yy
;

r
xx
and

r
yy
(NB! units are important )


A = ) ) 10 300 12 250 2 - - = 9 x 10
3
mm
2


I
xx
=
12
300 10
3
-
+ )

|

-
-
2
3
156 12 250
12
12 250
2 = 168.588 x 10
6
mm
4



I
yy
=
)
12
10 300
12
250 12
2
3 3
-

-
= 31.275 x 10
6
mm
4




r
xx
=
3
6
10 9
10 588 . 168
-
-
= 123.2 mm



r
y
=
3
6
10 9
10 275 . 31
-
-
= 58.95 mm




82
At the top as well as the bottom the column is supported against lateral movement, in

the Y direction ( NB this prevents buckling around the X-axes )




X




In the X direction the column is supported against lateral movement at 2m intervals.

The column is not restrained against rotation anywhere. (pinned, not fixed )



X X



Calculate :

!
x
ex
r
l

2 . 123
6000
= 48.7

!
y
ey
r
l

06 . 58
2000
= 34.4
Calculate the Euler buckling stress Mpa
Y
300 ! W ; E = 200 Gpa

!
E
W
2
2

r
l
E T

=

)
2
3 2
7 . 48
10 200- - T

= 832.3 N/mm
2
(max. slenderness ratio is critical)


Calculate the maximum allowable load on the column using the Perry-Robertson

equation. Use a material resistance factor of 0.9


2
100
3 . 0

!
r
l
L = )
2
487 . 0 3 . 0 = .071

P
W =
2
1
) . J
e y
W L W 1 - ) ,
e y e y
W W W L W

2
1
2
1


83

with the material resistance factor of 0.9
Y
W = 0.9x300 = 270 MPa

= ) . J ) , 3 . 832 270 3 . 832 071 . 1 270
2
1
3 . 832 071 . 1 270
2
1
2
-

= 245.3 MPa

P
P
= 245.3 x 9 x 10
3
N

= 2207.8 kN


( This value compares with the ultimate resistance of the column. which according to

SANS 10162 has to be compared to the ultimate load, being the calculated load

multiplied by a load factor depending on the nature of the load )

For the above example:

)
n
n
Y R
A C
1
2
1

! P W J


E r
kL
y
2
T
W
P ! ; n = 1.34 and P = 0.9



200000
300
7 . 48
2
-
!
T
P = 48.7 x 0.01233 = 0.60


)
34 . 1
1
68 , 2 3
6 . 0 1 300 10 9 9 . 0

- - - !
R
C


= 2052 kN ( 2208 kN )




Columns are often compounded from hot rolled sections e.g. two channels compounded

to form a box profile. In cases where the effective lengths are the same around both axes

the channels can be separated by a distance sufficient to render I
xx
=

I
yy
Example 2

84
Y s
Y
CG
Y
CG
from steel tables:

I
xx
= 19.1 x 10
6
mm
4


I
yy
= 1.67 x 10
6
mm
4
X CG X
A = 3.09 x 10
3
mm
2

a
y
= 22.5 mm

a
y
a




Two 200x10 mm plates are welded to two PFC 200x75 parallel flange channels to form

a compound column.

I
xx
= ) )

|

-
-
2
3
6
105 10 200
12
10 300
10 1 . 19 2

= 82.35 x 10
6
mm
4

I
yy
= 2 )

|

-
- -
12
200 10
10 09 . 3 10 67 . 1
3
2 3 6
s

For I
xx
=

I
yy


s = 103 09 mm

a = 2 (103.09 + 22.5 75 ) = 101.18 mm.













85


Rankine-Gordon


To predict failure in the intermediate region Rankine developed the following formula

P
=

2
) / ( 1 r l a
A
y

W



Where: a =
E
y
2
T
W
(Rankine
`
s constant ) which is approximately
7500
1
for steel

P
r
A


= allowable load
= radius of gyration
= area of cross section
= allowable compressive stress

.



















86


1.. .A 5-m long pin-ended column with the cross section shown is constructed from four pieces
of timber. The timbers are nailed together so that they act as a unit. Determine:
(a) the slenderness ratio (2)
(b) the Eulers buckling load. Use E = 14 GPa for the timber. (5)
(c) The axial stress in the column when the Eulers load is applied (3)
25 mm
25 mm
100 mm
25 mm 25 mm
100 mm





3. The H-SECTION column shown below h is to be used as a pin connected member,
use the Euler equation to determine the maximum load it can withstand before it
begins buckle or the steel yields at 250MPa.The sectional properties of the column
are:
2
5890mm A !

4 6
10 5 . 45 mm X I
XX
!

4 6
10 3 . 15 mm X I
YY
!







87



4.The Aluminium I-SECTION column shown below is fixed at the bottom and braced
at the top by two rods as to prevent movement at the top in the X direction. If it is
assumed to be fully fixed at at its base, use the Euler equation to determine the
largest allowable load P that can be resisted if the factor of safety is 3 ,and
aluminium yields at 215MPa. Youngs Modulus for Aluminium is 70GPaThe sectional
properties of the I- SECTION are:

2
7500mm A !

4 6
10 3 . 61 mm X I
XX
!
4 6
10 2 . 23 mm X I
YY
!

5. The I-SECTION column shown below has been strengthened by welding 300x15
plates to each flange and is to is to be used as a 9metre long pin- connected member,
use the Euler Equation to calculate the safe Working load if the factor of safety is 3,
and the steel yields at 250MPa.The sectional properties of the I- SECTION are
shown below:

X X
Y
300X15 PLATES
203X203X46 H
Y


Designation
Mass
Per
metre
Depth of
Section
Width of
Section
Thickness
Root
Radius
Depth
between
fillets
Second Moment of
Area
Area of
Section
Web Flange
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
h b s t R d Ix Iy A
88
kg/m mm mm mm mm Mm mm cm
4
cm
4
cm
2

203x203x46 46.1 203.2 203.6 7.2 11 10.2 160.8 4568 1548
58.7



y
x
1
5
2
6.4
54.2
76
y
x

Y
X
Y
X


4 6
10 445 . 8 mm X I
XX
!

4 6
10 29 . 1 mm X I
YY
!
2
4564mm A !


)
n
n
Y R
A C
1
2
1

! P W J

where
E r
kL
y
2
T
W
P ! ; n = 1.34 and P = 0.9





P
W =
2
1
) . J
e y
W L W 1 - ) ,
e y e y
W W W L W

2
1
2
1

6.A 2550mm long compound column is constructed by welding two 152x76 x17.9 tapered
channels front to front, together as shown below.The material has a compressive Yield
Strength of 320MPa,Youngs Modulus of 200 000Mpa and Rankines constant may be take
as 1/7500. Calcutate:
a) The Euler load (12)
b) The Perry-Robertson load (10)
c) The Compressive resistance according to SANS10162 (8)
89



STABILITY AND DETERMINACY



90




91

A Reactions;

i) Roller

One reaction perpendicular to the rolling surface

ii) Hinge / pin

Two perpendicular reactions (vertical and horizontal )

iii) Fixed reaction



Three reactions, two preventing movement (displacement ) in both vertical and

horizontal directions, and one moment reaction preventing the rotation of point A

iv) Link


One independent reaction only, in the direction of the member (although there seems to

be two reactions at the hinge these reactions are geometrically dependant )

i) External stability ( reactions )

Classification of structures in terms of stability and determinacy.

For a structure to be stable all the external forces and moments acting on the structure

A
92
must be in balance or is said to be in equilibrium. That means in lay mans terms that the

forces going up must be balanced by the forces going down and the forces from left to

right must balance the forces from right to left. Similarly the clockwise moments must

balance the anti-clockwise moments.

Hence the equilibrium Equations:

0 ! 7V : 0 ! 7H ; 0 ! 7M

a Structure with less than three reactions can not meet the above requirements and is

therefore unstable.

a Structure with three reactive forces can be determined using solely the three

equilibrium equations, and is said to be determinate. A Structure with four or more

reactions requires further equations over and above the three equilibrium equations

to solve the reactions, and is referred to as indeterminate, with the degree of

indeterminacy being the number of reactions minus three. The additional reactions are

also referred to as redundant reactions.

a Structure with
0
r reactions is indeterminate, with ( 3
0
r ) redundant reactions.

Condition Equations

Special conditions apply where the three equilibrium equations can be extended

to allow for further equations to solve additional reactions or unknowns.

These are referred to as condition equations.

Examples of situations that allows for additional equations:

One part of a structure connected to the rest of the structure by means of one pin only.

This allows the normal 0 ! 7M as well as BM = 0 (beams )
93

Similarly when one part of a structure is joined to the other by parallel members only.

a force component perpendicular to the members cannot be transferred.

Both scenarios implies that one portion of the structure must be self sufficient in terms of

stability thus providing an additional equation.

Geometric Instability

It is possible that three or more reactions can be arranged in such a ineffective way

that external stability cannot be assured under all loading conditions. Structures in this

category are termed geometrically unstable.

Examples of geometric instability:

i ) All reactions parallel

ii) The working line of all reactions intersects in one common point.

iii) Three hinges in a row


External classification of Structures
94



Structures with Condition Equations


95

96
ii) Internal
stability and determinacy


a) Plain frames


Trusses similar to that shown on the sketch present a two fold problem:

a) External stability and determinacy as discussed above, as well as

b) There must be sufficient members (bars) not to form a collapse mechanism

under any applied load system.

The simplest plane frame is the triangle shown in full lines in the sketch above

The first assumption with such trusses is that the joints are pinned and consequently, if
the loads are applied at the joints no shear forces or bending moments will develop

leaving us with the axial force as only unknown per member.

The above triangle is stable since it will not change its shape when loads are applied to it
97

and can be extended as shown in dotted lines to form a frame or truss.

Since all member are joined by pins and loads are applied at joints only, each member

has one unknown (axial force ) and each joint supplies two equations:

r s n ! 2 structure is stable and determinate

r s n 2 structure is unstable

r s n 2 structure is stable but indeterminate

Condition equations as discussed apply.



98

99





b) Rigid frames


External classification: ( reactions )

The number of reactions must again be compared to three, similar to plain frames

taking account of condition equations if any.

Internal stability (rigid frames)

Frames where some or all the joints are rigid joints can transfer bending moments and

shear forces and therefore three unknowns per member, making the total number of

unknowns r s 3

To solve this we have available three equations per joint plus the number of condition

equations t n 3 ; where t is the number of condition equations.

Condition equations: Two members joining at a pin gives one condition, three

members joining at one pin gives two condition equations and so on.

t n r s ! 3 3 structure is stable and determinate

t n r s u 3 3 structure is unstable
100

t n r s e 3 3 structure is stable but indeterminate











101





102








103

0
2
.
5
0

1 2
3
0
1
2
-15.00
3
4
Structure, Load Case: CASE1, Units: kN-m
LinPro 2.7 | Enes Siljak | eness@bosnia.ba | www.line.co.ba




0
-11.15
2
.
6
2
1
2
3
4
6.15
-
2
.
6
2
Reactions, Comb: CASE1, Units: kN-m
LinPro 2.7 | Enes Siljak | eness@bosnia.ba | www.line.co.ba


104

-11.15
8.85
0.86
0.86
-5.71
-5.71
6.15
6.15
Shear Force Diagram, Comb: CASE1, Units: kN-m
LinPro 2.7 | Enes Siljak | eness@bosnia.ba | www.line.co.ba






0.00
9.23
24.74
9.23
0.00 0.00
61.54
61.54
0.00
Moment Diagram, Comb: CASE1, Units: kN-m
LinPro 2.7 | Enes Siljak | eness@bosnia.ba | www.line.co.ba


105

-2.62
-2.62
-9.18
-9.18
-7.24
-7.24
2.62
2.62
Axial Force Diagram, Comb: CASE1, Units: kN-m
LinPro 2.7 | Enes Siljak | eness@bosnia.ba | www.line.co.ba