In OpendTect, seismic attributes are calculated using user-defined parameters.

The parameters selected are based on factors such as the quality of the seismic data, the nature of faulting in the area, size of the dataset and the availability of high end computing facilities for the attribute calculation. Once the desired parameters are selected, the seismic attributes are calculated on-the-fly or stored as attribute volumes.

Table 3.2 is a summary of the parameters used for the calculation of the seismic attributes presented in this chapter. The time gate is a measure of wavelength of structures mapped in the seismic attribute. A smaller time gate will image short-wavelength structures in the seismic volume and a larger time gate will image broader structures. The step-out defines the radius of investigation, while the full steering modes ensure that the attribute is calculated from one trace to another. The concept of steering the calculation of seismic attributes presented in this thesis is described and illustrated in section 3.2.2.2 of this chapter.

Attribute Raw steering Detailed steering Background steering Similarity Dip-steered similarity Maximum curvature

Time gate (ms) (-24, 24) (-24, 24) -

Lateral position Step-out (3,3,3) Step-out (0,0,5) Step-out (0,5,0) Full steering Step-out (3)

Other settings No steering Full steering Full steering

Table 3.2: List of parameters used in the calculation of seismic attribute volumes. The time gate is the time window sample, the step out is the radius of investigation in inlines and crosslines. The steering data is the dip trends of the seismic volume used to steer the calculation of similarity and curvature attributes. These parameters can be selected to suit the quality of the input data and the desired end results.

In addition to enhancing the resolution of discontinuities in the seismic volume, the dipsteered similarity attribute has also enhanced the resolution of the stratigraphic pattern of the seismic reflectors. Figure 3.21 is a cross sectional demonstration of how dip-steering can guide the interpretation of stratigraphy from the similarity pattern of the seismic reflectors.

The seismic reflection pattern in the top half of the cross section is predominantly strong. A prominent reflection marks a change from strong to weak/transparent reflections. Two strong reflections occur where the pattern of seismic reflection changes. In similarity cross sections the predominantly strong reflections in the top half of the seismic cross section is a zone of high similarity and alternations of high and low similarity is probably due to changes in acoustic impedance caused by alternating lithology. The predominantly weaker and chaotic reflections below the upper zone of high similarity appear as a zone of poorly defined chaotic similarity and are perhaps a reflection of a different lithology. The high similarity reflection (block red arrows) is probably one of several detachment levels typical of gravity-driven thin-skinned deformation in the Niger Delta. The top of basement is presumably the strong high similarity reflection below the presumed detachment level (block black arrow).

Previous interpretation of stratigraphy using seismic amplitude cross section has suffered from the poor resolution of the sedimentary sequences in seismic cross sections. Therefore these attributes not only aid in interpreting structures but also permits the identification of lithologic types based on the attribute response of the seismic reflectors.

A demonstration of how dip-steered similarity attributes have been used to guide the interpretation of the stratigraphic setting of the seismic dataset is presented in chapter four of this thesis.

WSW

2500 m

ENE

Stong reflection

Weak reflection

Weak reflection 1.0 s twtt Stong reflection

Amplitude +ve -ve

WSW

2500 m

ENE

High similarity

Low similarity

Low similarity 1.0 s twtt High similarity

Similarity 0.0 1.0

Figure 3.21: Seismic amplitude cross section (a), and dip-steered similarity cross section (b).The dipsteered similarity attribute can guide the interpretation of stratigraphy from the similarity pattern of the seismic reflections. The block red arrows show how the imaging of prominent stratigraphic features in the seismic data is enhanced by the similarity attribute. Similarity values close to zero are interpreted as low similarities and values close to one are interpreted as nearly similar trace segments. Vertical scale is seconds (two-way-travel time) and horizontal scale is in meters.

kGauss a
Anticlastic

kmax b
-Concave

Planar

Planar

Synclastic

Convex

Figure 4.6: Colour scale used to present the curvature maps of thrust faults mapped in JDZ seismic volume. The Gaussian curvature colour bar (left) is selected to show anticlastic (negative), planar and synclastic (positive) Gaussian curvature of the faults at a particular range of scale of observation, while the maximum colour bar is selected to show positive (convex), planar and negative (concave) maximum curvature.

4.2.5 Fault curvature frequency plots Frequency plots of fault surface curvature show the graphical distribution of curvatures in the time axis of the faults (Fault transport direction). The default view is colourmapped in which the data points are binned by the number of divisions on the plot and colour coded. The plot viewer samples the surface for a modelled surface attribute along the horizontal and picks up different attribute values and plots the values along that time in the cross plot. Furthermore, a frequency colour map ranging from zero to hundred percentage is used to point to indicate the frequency of occurrence of the attribute. High frequency colour bin is an indication of the large concentration of data points in the plot,

and a low frequency is an indication of few data points. Zero frequency is an indication of the lack of modelled data on the surface or non existance of data. The colour-binned plot view therefore provides a three-dimensional plot of the surface attributes. The three axes include the x and y representing the fault attribute and the horizontal time axis, while the frequency colour bin constitutes the third axis. In this thesis, a spectrum colour bar is used to show the frequency of curvature attributes on the fault surface in the time axis (Figure 4.7). The top and bottom of the colour bar represents the minimum and maximum fault surface attribute frequencies respectively.

Frequency (%) 0

100
Figure 4.7: Colour scale used to present the frequency plots of fault surface curvature. The red shades represents low frequency of surface attribute and purple shades represents high frequency of curvature.

Figures 4.8 is an example of how the plot viewer is used to present and interpret graphical plots of an attribute modelled on a fault surface. Figure 4.8a is the raw plot of a modelled fault surface attribute. The x and y axis represents the fault surface attribute and time direction respectively. The bold black ellipse in the raw data plot indicates regions of

high raw data points. The dashed ellipse represents regions of low raw data points. In figure 4.8b, the raw fault surface attribute data have been colour-binned to show a colourcoded representation of the frequency of the attribute on the fault surface. The black bold ellipse in figure 4.8b indicates regions of high frequency of fault surface attribute (purple) based on the high density of raw data points in figure 4.8a. In the same manner, the dashed ellipse in figure 4.8 represents low frequency of fault surface attribute (red) based on the low density of raw data in figure 4.8a. Figure 4.9 is a normalized frequency histogram of the modelled fault surface attribute. In figure 4.8b, the majority of the high frequency data plots where the fault surface attribute is high. This is confirmed by the high frequency of high fault surface attribute.

Trace length (m)

Hanging wall similarity slice 100 m parallel to fault R egion of low similarity in hanging wall slice

Similarity 0.00

Figure 6.26: Similarity fault slices parallel to fault 1 at 100 m in the hanging wall and footwall. Note the localized region of low similarity indicated by the block arrows in the hanging wall and footwall. Vertical scale is in milliseconds two-way-travel time and horizontal scale is in meters. Vertical exaggeration is approximately 1.6.

TWT (ms)

1.00

500 ms 1000 m

Trace length (m)

Footwall similarity slice 100 m parallel to fault
Strike (degrees) 0.00

Region of low similarity in footwall slice

Similarity 0.00

TWT (ms)
360

1.00

N N

500 ms 500 ms 1000 m 1 km

Trace length (m)

Region of pronounced curvature on fault plane

Trace length (m)

Hanging wall similarity slice 100 m parallel to fault superimposed fault on strike model Region of pronouced change in fault strike closely match zone of low similarity in the hanging wall

500 ms

Figure 27: Fault surface model (a), strike model of the fault surface (b), hanging wall similarity slice 100 m parallel to the fault superimposed on the fault strike model (c) and footwall similarity slice 100 m parallel to the fault superimposed on the fault strike model (d). Note the close match between the zone of pronounce curvature of fault, zone of pronounced change in fault strike matches localized zones of low similarity in the hanging wall and footwall at 100 m in the wall rocks. Vertical scale is in milliseconds two-way-travel time and horizontal scale is in meters. Vertical exaggeration is approximately 1.6.

TWT (ms)

TWT (ms)

1000 m
Strike (degrees) Similarity 0.00 0.00

500 ms 1000 m
360 1.00

Trace length (m)

R egion of pronounced change in fault strike on fault plane
Strike (degrees) 0.00

Trace length (m)

Footwall similarity slice 100 m parallel to fault superimposed on faultstrike model Region of pronouced change in fault strike closely match zone of low similarity in the footwall

500 ms 1000 m

TWT (ms)

TWT (ms)

360

Strike (degrees) 0.00

Similarity 0.00

500 ms

N
1000 m

360

1.00