A sophisticated & professional industry called Indian Advertising Indian Advertising starts with the hawkers calling out

their wares right from the days when cities and markets first began Shop front signages From street side sellers to press ads The first trademarks Handbills distributed separately from the products 18th Century Concrete advertising history begins with classified advertising Ads appear for the first time in print in Hickey's Bengal Gazette. India's first newspaper (weekly). Studios mark the beginning of advertising created in India (as opposed to imported from England) Studios set up for bold type, ornate fonts, more fancy, larger ads Newspaper studios train the first generation of visualisers & illustrators Major advertisers: Retailers like Spencer's, Army & Navy and Whiteaway & Laidlaw Marketing promotions: Retailers' catalogues provided early example Ads appear in newspapers in the form of lists of the latest merchandise from England Patent medicines: The first brand as we know them today were a category of advertisers Horlicks becomes the first 'malted milk' to be patented on 5th June 1883 (No. 278967).

The 1900s 1905 - B Dattaram & Co claims to be the oldest existing Indian agency in Girgaum in Bombay 1912 - ITC (then Imperial Tobacco Co. Ltd.) launches Gold Flake 1920s - Enter the first foreign owned ad agencies - Gujarat Advertising and Indian Advertising set up - Expatriate agencies emerge: Alliance Advertising, Tata Publicity - LA Stronach's merges into today's Norvicson Advertising - D J Keymer gives rise to Ogilvy & Mather and Clarion 1925 - LR Swami & Co, Madras 1926 - LA Stronach & Co (India) Pr. Ltd, Bombay starts - Agency called National set up for American rather than British Advertisers

- American importers hire Jagan Nath Jaini, then advertising manager of Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore. National today is still run by Jaini's family - Beginning of multinational agencies - J Walter Thompson (JWT) opened to service General Motors business 1928 - BOMAS Ltd (Formerly DJ Keymer & Co Ltd) set up 1929 - J Walter Thompson Co Pr. Ltd formed

Indian agencies, foreign advertising in the thirties 1931 - National Advertising Service Pr. Ltd. Bombay set up - Universal Publicity Co, Calcutta formed 1934 - Venkatrao Sista opens Sista Advertising and Publicity Services as first full service Indian agency

1935 - Indian Publicity Bureau Pr Ltd, Calcutta established 1936 - Krishna Publicity Co Pr. Ltd, Kanpur begins operations - Studio Ratan Batra Pr. Ltd, Bombay established - Indian Broadcasting Company becomes All India Radio (AIR) 1938 - Jayendra Publicity, Kolhapur started 1939 - Lever's advertising department launches Dalda - the first major example of a brand and a marketing campaign specifically developed for India - The Press Syndicate Ltd, Bombay set up Indianising advertisements in the forties 1940 - Navanitlal & Co., Ahmedabad set up 1941 - Lux signs Leela Chitnis as the first Indian film actress to

endorse the product - Hindustan Thompson Associates (HTA), the current incarnation of JWT, coins the Balanced Nourishment concept to make Horlicks more relevant to India - Green's Advertising Service Agents, Bombay formed 1943 - Advertising & Sales Promotion Co (ASP), Calcutta established 1944 - Dazzal, Bombay comes into existence - Ranjit Sales & Publicity Pr. Ltd, Bombay started 1945 - Efficient Publicities Pr. Ltd, Madras set up - Tom & Bay (Advertising) Pr. Ltd., Poona begins operations in India 1946 - Eastern Psychograph Pr. Ltd., Bombay set up - Everest Advertising Pr. Ltd, Bombay established 1947

- Grant Advertising Inc, Bombay formed - Swami Advertising Bureau, Sholapur started 1948 - RC Advertising Co, Bombay set up - Phoenix Advertising Pr. Ltd, Calcutta formed Corporate advertising in the fifties 1950s - Radio Ceylon and Radio Goa become the media option 1951 - Vicks VapoRub: a rub for colds, causes ripples with its entry in the balm market 1952 - Shantilal G Shah & Co, Bombay 1954 - Advertising Club, Mumbai set up - Express Advertising Agency, Bombay - India Publicity Co. Pr. Ltd., Calcutta

1956 - Aiyars Advertising & Marketing, Bombay - Clarion Advertising Services Pr. Ltd, Calcutta 1957 - Vividh Bharati kicks off 1958 - Shree Advertising Agency, Bombay 1959 - Associated Publicity, Cuttack

Creative revolution in the sixties 1960 - Advertising Accessories, Trichur started - Marketing Advertising Associates, Bombay set up 1961 - Industrial Advertising Agency, Bombay comes into existence - Bal Mundkur quits BOMAS to set up Ulka the same year 1962

- India's television's first soap opera - Teesra Rasta enthralls viewers 1963 - BOMAS changes names to SH Benson's - Stronach's absorbed into Norvicson - Lintas heading for uncertainty - Levers toying with giving its brands to other agencies - Nargis Wadia sets up Interpub - Wills Filter Tipped cigarettes launched and positioned as made for each other, filter and tobacco match 1965 - Kersey Katrak sets up Mass Communication and Marketing (MCM) 1966 - Government persuaded to open up the broadcast media - Ayaz Peerbhoy sets up Marketing and Advertising Associates (MAA) 1967 - First commercial appears on Vividh Bharati 1968

- Nari Hira sets up Creative Unit - India wins the bid for the Asian Advertising Congress 1969 - Sylvester daCunha left Stronach's to run ASP; later sets up daCunha Associates 1970 - Frank Simoes sets up Frank Simoes Associates The problematic seventies

1970-1978 - National Readership Studies provided relevant data on consumers' reading habits 1970 - Concept of commercial programming accepted by All India Radio - Hasan Rezavi gives the very first spot on Radio Ceylon 1971 - Benson's undergo change in name to Ogilvy, Benson & Mather 1972

- Western Outdoor Advertising Pvt Ltd (WOAPL) introduces first closed circuit TV (CCT) in the country at the race course in Mumbai 1973 - RK Swamy/BBDO established 1974 - MCM goes out of business - Arun Nanda & Ajit Balakrishnan set up Rediffusion 1975 - Ravi Gupta sets up Trikaya Grey 1976 - Commercial Television initiated 1978 - First television commercial seen 1979 - Ogilvy, Benson & Mather's name changes to Ogilvy & Mather Glued to the television in the eighties 1980

- Mudra Communications Ltd set up - King-sized Virginia filter cigarette enters market with brand name of 'Charms' 1981 - Network, associate of UTV, pioneers cable television in India 1982 - The biggest milestone in television was the Asiad '82 when television turned to colour transmission - Bombay Dyeing becomes the first colour TV ad - 13th Asian Advertising Congress in New Delhi - Media planning gets a boost 1983 - Maggi Noodles launched to become an overnight success - Canco Advertising Pvt. Ltd. founded - Manohar Shyam Joshi's Hum Log makes commercial television come alive - Mudra sponsors first commercial telecast of a major sporting event with the India-West Indies series 1984

- Hum Log, Doordarshan's first soap opera in the colour era is born - Viewers still remember the sponsor (Vicco) of Yeh Jo Hai Zindagi! 1985 - Mudra makes India's first telefilm, Janam 1985-86 - 915 new brands of products and services appearing on the Indian Market 1986 - Sananda is born on July 31. The Bengali magazine stupefies India by selling 75,000 copies within three hours of appearing on the newsstands. - Mudra Communications creates India's first folk-history TV serial Buniyaad. Shown on DD, it becomes the first of the mega soaps - Price quality positioning of Nirma detergent cakes boost sales 1988 - AAAI's Premnarayan Award instituted 1989

- Advertising Club Bombay begins a biennial seminar called 'Advertising that Works' - Advertising & Marketing (A&M) magazine launched

Tech savvy in the nineties

1990 - Marks the beginning of new medium Internet - Agencies open new media shops; go virtual with websites and Internet advertising - Brand Equity (magazine) of The Economic Times is born 1991 - First India-targetted satellite channel, Zee TV starts broadcast - Close on the throes of the Gulf War enters STAR (Satellite Transmission for Asia Region) 1992 - Spectrum, publisher of A&M, constitutes its own award known as 'A&M Awards'

- Scribes and media planners credit The Bold And The Beautiful serial on STAR Plus channel as a soap that started the cultural invasion 1993 - India's only advertising school, MICA (Mudra Institute of Communications Ahmedabad), is born - Tara on Zee TV becomes India's first female-centric soap 1995 - Advertising Club of Bombay calls its awards as Abby - Country's first brand consulting firm, SABRE (Strategic Advantage for Brand Equity) begins operations 1996 - The ad fraternity hits big time for the first time by bagging three awards at the 43rd International Advertising Festival, Cannes - Sun TV becomes the first regional TV channel to go live 24 hours a day on all days of the week 1997 - Media boom with the growth of cable and satellite; print medium sees an increase in titles, especially in specialised areas

- Government turns towards professional advertising in the private sector for its VDIS campaigns - Army resorts to the services of private sector agencies - Advertising on the Internet gains popularity - Equitor Consulting becomes the only independent brand consultancy company in the country - Several exercises in changing corporate identity - For the first time ever, Indians stand the chance of winning the $ 1million booty being offered by Gillette as part of its Football World Cup promo 1998 - Events assume important role in marketing mix - Rise of software TV producers banking on ad industry talent - Reinventing of cinema -advertising through cinema begins 1998 - Lintas becomes Ammirati Puri Lintas (APL) 1999 - B2B site agencyfaqs.com launched on September 28, 1999 - The Advertising Club Bombay announces the AdWorks

Trophy

In the new millennium 2000 - Mudra launches magindia.com - India's first advertising and marketing Gallery - Lintas merges with Lowe Group to become Lowe Lintas and Partners (LLP) - bigideasunlimited.com - a portal offering free and fee ideas for money launched by Alyque Padamsee and Sam Mathews - Game shows like Kaun Banega Crorepati become a rage; media buying industry is bullish on KBC - Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi marks the return of familyoriented soap on TV - French advertising major Publicis acquires Maadhyam 2001 - Trikaya Grey becomes Grey Worldwide - Bharti's Rs 2.75-crore corporate TV commercial, where a baby

girl is born in a football stadium, becomes the most expensive campaign of the year 2002 - Lowe Lintas & Partners rechristened Lowe Worldwide - For the first time in the history of HTA, a new post of president is created. Kamal Oberoi is appointed as the first president of HTA

Creative quality drives more than half of the sales changes for TV and digital advertising campaigns, four times higher than the impact of the specific media plan involved, according to new comScore ARS data. Creative Quality Single Biggest Factor Looking at how much of a positive change in a brands sales stemming from a TV or digital advertising campaign results from different factors, comScore analysis indicates 52% of the change results from creative quality.

Other factors, such as price, promotion and distribution, combine to contribute another 35% of total positive sales change. The specific media plan only contributes the remaining 13%, meaning creative quality is four times more important than the characteristics of the media plan in generating sales.

Creative Quality Crucial to Above-average Performance comScore research into the impact creative quality has on advertising campaign effectiveness also suggests it is a crucial component of campaigns that produce above-average performance.

Using proprietary data and research methodology, comScore ranked a variety of advertising campaigns in terms of the value they produced and quality of their creative content. Results indicate that 70% of advertising campaigns which had above-average creative quality produced above-average value, with 30% having average creative quality and none having below-average creative quality. In contrast, 65% of advertising campaigns which had belowaverage value had below-average creative quality, with 35% having average creative quality and none having aboveaverage creative quality. Sixty-seven percent of advertising campaigns which produced average value had average creative quality, 20% had below-average creative quality and only 13% had creative quality measured as above average. Getting the creative right is absolutely essential, and yet its importance so often gets minimized in the process of developing an ad campaign, said Jeff Cox, EVP of comScore ARS. Though often overlooked, getting the creative strategy right from the start is essential if an advertiser wants its creative execution to actually perform. Doing so will improve the likelihood of achieving a successful campaign that will generate increased sales. A sub-par upfront strategy is a virtual guarantee that the execution is destined for failure.

Commercials Confuse Many Americans In one sign of advertisers not paying enough attention to creative quality, many Americans at least occasionally get confused by TV commercials, according to recent data from Harris Interactive. Harris data indicates 89% of Americans overall watch TV commercials, and 75% have found a TV commercial confusing at some point. In addition to 75% of Americans having ever found a TV commercial confusing, 21% often do so. However, while just 14% say they never find commercials on television confusing, 55% say they do not find commercials confusing very often, and 11% do not watch commercials on TV.

The Economic Times, Indias largest business newspaper from Times of India Group in association with Nielsen has conducted The Most Trusted Brands Survey. The team has identified the brands that bond with consumers, these brands are not just the most familiar, but consumers believe they are embodiment of certain quality and reassurance. Claimed to be the largest of its kind, the survey considered sample of 8,160 across socio-economic classes, age, income and geography. It has been zeroed in onto a list of 300 brands (217 consumer products and 83 service brands). Each brand was then evaluated on seven attributes, they are: 1. Always maintains a high level of quality 2. Is worth the price it commands 3. Is a brand I would surely consider if I have to buy the product 4. Has been a popular brand for many years 5. Has something that no other brand has

6. Evokes a feeling of confidence and pride among its users7. Is very special brand with unique feelings associated to it. There is a good representation across different brands in categories surveyed. Brands (as well as new brands, total 35 in numbers) are evaluated on the basis of their sales, retail and media visibility, market and trade feedback. The sample was determined after interviewing all the possible consumers who use the brands which includes the Chief Wage Earners (CWE) who contribute maximum to the household income, housewives, young adults (both males and females). Nationally, regionally and locally the survey has been carried out in SEC A, B and C in urban India with a reason to focus on the prime target audience for consumer-branded products & services. The survey has been conducted across 13 cities in the west, east, north and south zones. A total of 8,160 interviews were conducted, split amongst the identified target groups 2,040 CWEs, 2,040 housewives, 2,040 young adult male and 2,040 young adult female respondents across eight levels of monthly household incomes.

Selling product - Product = headaches? Advertisements are supposed to make us feel good and curious about trying the product being recommended! Okay..but frankly speaking most of them are just irritating...You just want to switch off the TV. Some are so cheap you feel disgusted! Some use a lot of visuals and stuff but fail to focus on the main

requirement of an ad, to sell the product! Celebrities, talking about briefs,vests,100cc motorcycles.. I mean give us a break, why the hell is dhoni going to ride " TVS star city ", when he has gotten himself a brand new Harley Davidson ? I think the new one where dhoni is shown being a villager was a more sensible approach but still, better make some sense than none a t all! Indian television is being flooded with such good for nothing advertisements, and i thought of penning down a few of the most irritating,boring and silliest ads on Indian television! PS - The list is endless so spare me if i missed some of the eerie ones... NO 10) ILLOGICALLY WORST - Thumbs up - "Taste the thunder " Ok agreed taste the thunder good line, but why do some weird stunts when the shops selling Thumbs ups are just round the corner! If lightning could give us Thumbs up, why go to the shop for buying one? ILLOGICAL, irrelevant and probably half of the people dint get what they were thinking! My advice - Make some sense next time... NO 9) CHEAP & WORST - Amul macho - "Yeh to bada Toing hai!" Showing some woman going gaga over Amul macho, cheap and disgusting! Why make an ad which one can see only when alone? If anyone is near, probably we would change the channel! And moreover,what has a chimpanzee to do with an underwear anyways? No sense, no logic! Pathetic display of nonsense! I mean, may be the point here is " We were apes before and when we were, we used Amul Macho ?" May be amul butters catchline will be added to this in the future! Amul macho - Utterly butterly delicious?....God knows! My reckoning, they will! - CHEAP & WORST for sure! My advice - Use a gorilla instead...probably it will work :-) NO 8) COSTLIEST WORST - Coca cola - with Aishwarya rai,hrithik roshan and who else! Pay aishwarya rai some BIG bucks to become a teenager and expect

us to believe COKE is good! No uncle sam, i dont think so.. I am not sure what those people were trying to do there! Better yet, i think they forgot what they were selling, coke or aishwaryas smile! Money wasted..and that too to make sure we stay away from Coca Cola! I surely did after this one :-) My advice - Take someone who has a shorter husband :P NO 7) IRRITATING WORST - Himani Navratna tel - "Thanda Thanda Cool cool" ! Sanjay dutt flaunting his style to show us how important a champi is! Ishhh...." Mamu banane ko aur koi nahi mila ?" Dimaag ko thanda rakkhe ! Oh please, give us a break! You feel like kicking yourself after watching this ad! I certainly do! :-) Not sure what navratna tel would do to your head, but this ad sure gives u a headache! My advice - Mamu, Use circuit! May be a rampuri chaaku would be needed to sell your product! NO 6) IDIOTIC WORST - Emami fairness cream - " Hi handsome hi handsome " Oh god..i really hate that ad..SRK doing his best to justify that ad, but man...pathetic ad.. " chup chup ke...chup chup ke kahe tu ladkiyo ki cream lagaye !" " Unki twacha hai komal komal! " Please...stop that! I mean whenever i see that ad, i feel so so stupid.. Idiotic show..a cream jo gora banaye...No thanks ill rather use navratna tel on my face! My advice - Spare SRK to do some movies and may be some brand ambassador giri! NO 5) SILLY & WORST - VIP frenchie - You must remember this ad, where this guy jumps up from the building in his glowing lil VIP underwear to save the girl! Yeah right! And i am still learning how to add 2+2! So are you trying to say that i need a VIP to save a girl..is it a compliment or an insult! Whatever that was, it was pathetic to the core!

SILLIEST ADs KA BAAP! My advice - TRY ARRANGING SUPERMAN TO DO THE STUNTS! And use a Red VIP frenchie! :-) NO 4) PSEUDOBORINGOHYPERUSELESSOPHOBIC WORST - AXE EFFECT How on earth do they come out with such ideas! Put some axe on your shoulders..girls keep hanging on to you! Some axe on a coin makes a girl jump in a fountain! If it was so easy why would someone gift a ring to his GF?..may be some axe will do! Pathetic reasoning! and the best one ...Some Chocolate dark temptation makes girls bite your bum..yummy! Wow...is this your idea of a deodorant ad?..Think again! Spare us oh mighty AXE ad campaigners for we wish to be left alone! My advice - Apni Leg pe Axe maarna band karo! :-) NO 3) STUPID & WORST - Reliance - Remember " Sehwag ki maa ka phone" ? That has to be the stupidest ad ever made! Maa ka phone = Sehwaags century! Totally insane! And i remember, all the comedy shows used to put this one on their agenda for all the jokes! And after that sehwag somehow lost it in cricket! May be maa ka talktime khatam! Stupid people stupid ads stupid all the way! My advice - Get an Airtel Connection Sehwag! NO 2) WEIRDEST WORST - Mobile store ad - " For all your mobile shopping " Seriously, its just a mobile dude! why does he have to run all around naked for buying a mobile & its accesories? What were they thinking? Making any sense?...Not to me, not at all! I will better not use a mobile than going there! Who knows,may be they will strip me of my clothes! This ones a sure LOSER!..Weird and worse than most i have seen! My advice - Try out china Market, cheaper mobiles and accesories and guess what, you dont have to strip!

NO 1) WORSEST WORST - Harpic - Aman verma selling toilet cleaners at every home that has a yellow toilet! I mean come on man, thats the most pathetic ad, i have ever seen! And strangely enough, this ads airs whenever you are about to eat! So, My Filmfare for the Worst Commercial on TV goes to Aman verma and his Harpic! I better use some toilet acid than use harpic just to make sure i dont have to remember this ad! My advice - Keep your toilets clean, nahi to Aman Verma AA jayega! ...with his harpic products to the rescue! Inspite of such low grade worthless ads, which are so devastating and stupid and scary, we still look forward to watching Advertisements in the TV breaks..So, may be some day we will watch only good commercials! and May be ..just may be..some day i will get to see a better HARPIC ad..LOL! Case Study 1: Infant Milk Food The Background Mother's milk is the most complete nutrition for a baby. Traditionally, women in India have been breast-feeding babies for centuries. But baby food manufacturers created a doubt in the minds of mothers that their milk may not be the best for their babies, particularly if they have been ill or they are working mothers. The publicity created by these people has been so strong that most people have begun to believe that artificial food is better for babies than mother's milk itself. What very few people know is that it is against the law to influence a mother into thinking that her own milk is less than best for her baby. With a view to countering the negative publicity created by the baby food manufacturers, the government enacted the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act in 1992.

The Government of India enacted the Act, following the Innocent Declaration in 1990. The Convention of the Rights of the Child and the World Summit Declaration, to which India was a signatory, also took place around this time. These three meetings called attention to the importance of breast-feeding. Earlier, in 1983, the Indian government had adopted the Indian National Code for Protection and Promotion of Breast-feeding. Sadly, despite having the best laws in place, the law is violated time and again. The Association for Consumers Action on Safety and Health (ACASH) is one of three voluntary organizations, which have been authorized, by a government notification, to report violations of the Act. ACASH has been studiously keeping an eye out for negligence on the part of baby food manufacturers. Thanks to this vigilance, Johnson and Johnson faced legal proceedings at two metropolitan magistrate courts in Bombay for violating the Act. ACASH and the Maharashtra Food and Drug Administration filed the complaints, alleging that the company had advertised silicone nipples for their bottles and offered discounts on the bottle, thereby undermining breast-feeding. Such vigilance on the part of a British group, Baby Milk Action, ensured that Nestle is facing a boycott in 17 countries, including the UK, Germany, Switzerland, Norway, Finland and Italy. The Maharashtra-based Breast Feeding Promotion Network of India suggested in 1996 that India join the international boycott. Nestle was given one year to change its approach to marketing. The consumer group's conclusion was that Nestle had not conformed to the requirements of the Act and had recommended the use of cereal-based food at a very early age. In India, Nestls milk-food packaging does not have labels in languages that Indian mothers can

understand. In 1997, the Indian Academy of Pediatrics adopted a resolution not to accept sponsorship or financial assistance from companies that manufacture and market baby food and feeding bottles. The pressure and the temptations, however, continue. If there is anything that can beat the onslaught mounted by baby food manufacturers, it is education about the negative effects of infant milk substitutes and the benefits of breast milk to both mother and baby. The Act The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 as Amended in 2003 (IMS Act) provides for the regulation of production, supply and distribution of infant milk substitutes, feeding bottles and infant foods with a view to the protection and promotion of breastfeeding and ensuring the proper use of infant foods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The Act forbids the advertising of infant milk substitutes or feeding bottles, incentives of any kind for promoting the use or sale of infant milk substitutes or feeding bottles, free samples to mothers. It also stipulates that no container or label of infant milk substitutes shall have pictures of an infant or a woman or phrases designed to increase the saleability of the product. The Act, one of the strongest and most comprehensive laws of its kind in the world, especially prohibits advertising to the public, free samples to mothers, promotion in hospitals and gifts to health workers. Section 3 of the Act, provides that no person shall advertise or take part in the publication of any advertisement, for the distribution, sale or supply of infant milk substitutes or feeding bottles, or give an impression or create a belief in any manner that feeding or infant milk substitutes is equivalent to, or better than mother's milk, or offer inducement of any kind, for the purpose of

promoting the use or sale of infant milk substitutes or feeding bottles. Section 4 of the Act stipulates that no person shall contact any pregnant woman or mother of an infant or offer inducement of any other kind, for promoting the use or sale of infant milk substitutes or feeding bottles. The Real Scenario The World Health Assembly Resolution 58.32 calls for care: "to ensure that financial support and other incentives for programmes and health professionals working in infant and young-child health do not create conflicts of interest." One of the countries to act on this requirement is India, where the Infant Milk Substitutes Act prohibits: "any contribution or pecuniary benefit to a health worker or any association of health workers, including funding of seminar, meeting, conferences, educational course, contest, fellowship, research work or sponsorship." However it was reported that Nestl is sponsoring and attempting to sponsor such events in India. In addition it is reported that leaflets for Lactogen infant formula have been Distributed direct to parents. Seeking direct contact with mothers and producing and distributing promotional literature is prohibited. Since 1997 the Indian Academy of Pediatrics has had a policy of refusing sponsorship from companies that make products covered by the Indian Infant Milk Substitutes Act (1992). This act was revised in 2003 and put the ban on sponsorship into legal force. This does not appear to have deterred Nestl. The law is very clear, stating (section 9(2)): "...No producer, supplier or distributor referred to in sub-section (1), shall offer or give any contribution or pecuniary benefit to a health worker or any association of health workers, including funding of seminar, meeting, conferences, educational course, contest, fellowship, research work or sponsorship."

India is amongst the first countries to implement World Health Assembly Resolution 47.5 (from 1994) and Resolution 58.32 (from 2005) on care over conflicts of interest. Companies should be respecting these Resolutions independently of government measures. In India Nestl continues to try to sponsor health workers as documented in a recent briefing from the Breastfeeding Protection Network of India (BPNI). Nestl planned to sponsor a presentation on liver disease at Ranchi in a three star hotel on 6 April 2006. The Indian Academy of Pediatrics took a strong view that the sponsorship was illegal. The local branch and guest speaker decided to go ahead without Nestl and the event was sponsored by the hospital. With less access to professional associations, Nestl is running its own series of 'Scientific Symposium' refer to invitation below. Despite the clarity of the law, Nestl claims this is not an infringement. Nestl knows the value of close links with health workers and tries to ingratiate itself while they are still in college. For example, in March 2006 it sponsored a music night for medical graduates at BRD Medical College, Gorakhpur. Such an event is surely covered by the 'contribution or pecuniary benefit' provision. These contacts are important for the company because they provide a route for companies to reach mothers. Health workers may display company materials and be more inclined to recommend company products. Company representatives can also use their relationship with health workers to gain access to medical establishments. However, in India many health workers are working to uphold the law. On 18 March 2006 a doctor seized leaflets being distributed by a Nestl representative at an immunization clinic. The leaflets promoted Lactogen infant formula and Cerelac complementary foods and were being given to parents. Such promotion is prohibited.

The Breastfeeding Promotion Network of India had also launched a publicity campaign exposing an article in a parenting magazine in India, which undermines breastfeeding and promotes early complementary feeding. The article New Born Care appeared in Meri Saheli a Hindi magazine for women (issue August 2000). Almost 50% of the space in this four-page article is consumed by advertisements for Nestl Cerelac. These pages are not numbered pages and sources in the advertisement section of Meri Saheli indicate that Nestle bought the space. The article also breaks India's Infant Milk Substitutes Act. It is reported that Nestl placed an advertising feature in Meri Saheli magazine in India (August 2000), promoting Cerelac complementary foods. The article does not contain the information required by India's Infant Milk Substitutes Act (Section 7). The article encourages introduction of complementary foods at 3 months of age and an early end to breastfeeding, contradicting the recommendations of the World Health Assembly, WHO and UNICEF. The above case study has been taken to highlight the necessity of regulation in advertising especially with products of questionable nature, and in this case targeted at the most vulnerable segment of consumers, infants. The IMS Act is a successful case in point. Case Study 2 : Tobacco & Alcohol The Background Tobacco and alcohol are public health hazards.Tobacco has adverse effects on social, economic, health and environmental factors. Alcohol too has adverse medical, psychological, social and economic impacts. Other similar characteristics between alcohol and tobacco are its increasing social acceptability, dependence on the product, aggressive marketing of the product particularly to recruit youth as its consumers.

Tobacco is the second major common cause of death and the fourth leading risk factor for disease. It is responsible for the death of one in ten adults - 5 million deaths a year worldwide (WHO, Tobacco Free Initiative). While alcohol is the leading risk factor related to the major burden of disease in low mortality developing countries and the third most prevalent risk factor for leading diseases and injuries in developed countries (WHO, 2002). Consumption of tobacco and alcohol in India has been rising, possibly due to economic liberalization of the Indian market. Privatization and opening up the market to foreign companies dramatically changes the advertising and marketing of alcohol and India lacks alcohol and tobacco control national policies and strategies. In contemporary India, tendency of tobacco and alcohol consumption has percolated down to the youth. Media has played a leading role in encouraging the use of tobacco and alcohol among the youth through portrayal in congenial social settings, association of the product use with glamour and celebrity status and by using direct and indirect advertising. The Debate about Alcohol and Tobacco Advertising The alcohol and advertising industries argue that, as alcoholic drink is a legal product it should be legally possible for it to be advertised, and that bans on alcohol advertising would have adverse effects on the alcohol market and on the media. They also argue that bans are not justified as advertising is concerned with promoting sales of individual brands and there is no evidence of a causal link between advertising and the overall level of alcohol consumption or the amount of alcohol- related harm. The main counterarguments are that as well as promoting brands, advertising is also concerned with recruiting new drinkers and increasing sales among existing, and especially heavy

consumers. Intensive advertising and promotion of alcohol appears to sanction and legitimate use of a product which causes high levels of damage to individuals and society. By definition, alcohol advertising is one-sided, avoiding any reference to the negative aspects of alcohol consumption. In modern circumstances, it is also necessary to enable alcohol to compete against other alternative drugs as well as soft drinks. There is in fact some evidence that bans on alcohol advertising can have beneficial effect on the level of harm, at least in the longer term. The arguments regarding alcohol advertising are in most respects parallel to those concerning tobacco advertising. An analysis of internal documents from advertising agencies working for tobacco companies exposed as highly disingenuous the standard tobacco (and alcohol) industry arguments that advertising is only about expanding or protecting brand share, not total consumption, and that if there are any problems industry self-regulation is the answer. Advertising and children Much of the debate concerns the possible effects on children and young people. The Advertising Codes prohibit the specific targeting of minors, but the ubiquity of alcohol advertising ensures that it can hardly be missed by them. Indeed, the evidence is that even young children are aware of alcohol advertisements and tend to remember them. Manufacturers further reduce the chances of young people failing to get the message by sponsorship of sports teams and events and music concerts having particular appeal to the young. There is also evidence that underage drinking and the likelihood of alcohol problems in later life are closely related to positive expectations of benefit for alcohol use, precisely the expectancies advertising is designed to encourage. The Act

Direct advertising of tobacco products was rampant before the enforcement of tobacco control legislation in India. Billboard advertising of international and domestic brands of cigarettes and chewable forms of tobacco was a common sight. But now all direct advertising of tobacco products in all media has been prohibited with the enforcement of National Legislation. Cable Television Network (Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2000, completely prohibits cigarette and alcohol advertisements, which directly and indirectly promote sale of these products (enacted from September 8, 2000). The Real Scenario In India the Alcohol industry is following exactly the same marketing and promotion tactics and strategies as are employed by the Tobacco Industry globally and especially in developing countries. Trends in Tobacco Advertising and Promotion before the enforcement of tobacco control legislations in India Direct advertising of tobacco products was rampant before the enforcement of tobacco control legislation in India. Billboard advertising of international and domestic brands of cigarettes and chewable forms of tobacco was a common sight. Surrogate Advertising or Brand Stretching was also common. Sponsorship of sports events and cultural events by tobacco companies were methods of promoting tobacco brand names. e.g. Wills (brand of Indian Tobacco Company - ITC, a subsidiary of British American Tobacco) used to sponsor Indian cricket team/matches. Tennis tournaments were sponsored by Gold Flake cigarette (brand of Godfrey Phillips India Ltd. GPI, a subsidiary of Phillip Morris). Boat racing was sponsored by Four Square cigarettes (brand of GPI). Polo events and golf were sponsored by Classic (cigarette brand of ITC).

Charms, a cigarette brand sponsored the Spirit of freedom concert, a musical event. Manikchand, manufacturers of gutkha (chewing tobacco), patronized the Filmfare awards ceremony. Advertising and Promotion after the enforcement of tobacco control legislations in India All direct advertising of tobacco products in all media has been prohibited with the enforcement of National Legislation. Surrogate advertising through brand stretching is a common practice being employed by some tobacco companies. 502 Pataka a popular beedi (local Indian cigarette) brand is now being advertised as 502 Pataka chai (tea). Advertising paan masala/ mouth fresheners bearing the same brand name as tobacco products is a common practice. The Red and White Bravery Awards are organized by GPI to advertise and promote Red & White brand of their cigarettes. Trends in Alcohol Advertising and Promotion Billboard advertising of international and domestic brands of alcohol through surrogate means is widely being employed by alcohol industry worldwide. Sponsorship of sports and cultural events is widely being undertaken by alcohol companies in India. Royal stag sponsors Indian cricket matches and cricket players. Shaw Wallace sponsored the Indian open golfing event as the Royal Challenge Indian open and the Kenya cricket team. Seagram sponsors events such as Chivas Regal Polo championships and Chivas Regal Invitational golf challenge for corporates. Indirect Advertising Teachers whiskey has launched the Teachers Achievement Awards. Other sponsored awards and events include: Smirnoff international fashion award. Lakme India Fashion Week was sponsored by Seagrams Blenders pride.

Surrogate Advertising Aristocrat a popular whisky brand is being advertised as Aristocrat Apple Juice. Mc. Dowells is advertised as sodas, Kingfisher has packaged water bottles. Some alcohol brands have introduced brand promotional items such as: Haywards 5000 has darting kits, Bacardi advertises through its Bacardi blast album and also advertises through parties tied up with rediff.com . Path to alcohol control Regulatory strategies for alcohol control thus will have to be formulated on same lines as tobacco control. This will require initiating efforts for alcohol control at national, regional and international levels. Factors Contributing to Global Support for Tobacco Control:Public Outrage Till the time tobacco use was viewed as an individuals problem, people and policy makers maintained a luke warm attitude towards introducing any regulatory measures. International research confirming ill effects of second hand smoke helped in influencing peoples and policy makers opinion related to tobacco control. Impact on legislation in India included initiatives such as: the Supreme Court of India banned smoking in public places. NGOs played a crucial role in creating a supportive environment. Youth led campaigns appealing the government for a comprehensive ban on tobacco advertising through NGOs such as HRIDAY (Health Related Information Dissemination Amongst Youth)-SHAN (Student Health Action Network), created a supportive environment to enforce tobacco control measures. Case Study 3 : Soft Drinks And Fast Foods The Background Two years ago, the World Health Organization (WHO) prepared a global strategy to counter what is known in medical jargon as "diet-related non-communicable diseases". These include heart

diseases, certain types of cancer, diabetes and, last but by no means least, obesity. The strategy addresses diet, physical activity and health. The worlds children need greater protection from the marketing of energydense, low-nutrient foods. Experiences of marketing controls on tobacco and baby-milk show that voluntary marketing codes are unlikely to be adequate, and that stronger regulation is required. International standards are needed to provide a coherent framework to protect and promote childrens health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported the rising incidence of obesity and chronic disease such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, osteoporosis, dental carries and diabetes among the population worldwide. It has also acknowledged the links between many of these diseases and the pattern of food consumed. Treatment of these diseases is an expensive alternative to prevention. Lessindustrialized countries lack the financial resources and infrastructure to implement effective treatment, especially as some countries are experiencing the triple burden of continuing problems of widespread undernourishment and infectious diseases as well as the emerging problem of over consumption of damaging nutrients. Prevention of disease is essential, but requires a change in patterns of food supply and demand. Among other things, this means changes in marketing strategies and the promotion of healthenhancing foods. Manufacturers know that children are particularly susceptible to the persuasion of advertising. Advertising directed at young children is per se manipulative. Such advertising aims to promote products by convincing those who will always believe. Frequent exposure to marketing messages, along with changes in social circumstances, such as

childrens increasingly independent spending power, contribute to a nutritionally toxic or obesogenic environment that is, environments that predispose children to desire and be able to obtain and consume certain foods, especially those that are energy-dense and low in nutrients To promote this strategy, the WHO has been examining a range of interventions that possess the potential to tackle the global rise of such diseases. One of the key points on the agenda is the marketing of food and soft drinks, especially in relation to children. The Law India has a long way to go before it really adopts stringent regulation and standards with regard to advertising of fast food and soft drinks. The debate over advertising junk food to children is still raging in India. There are no bars on advertising in schools in India. In fact Coke and Pepsi offer several sponsorships to schools, particularly for sporting activities. The Maharashtra Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed a ban on the sale of all soft drinks within school premises. This organization, which regulates and controls the sale of all commercial food and drugs, wants a total ban on commercial soft drinks in schools. Unfortunately, many other government organizations will need to be involved in such a ban and it will take some time to see whether the ban can be made into law and then enforced by the police. If it is, this will be the first time something like this has been done for the sake of public health, and the state will be a world leader. In the Indian state of Kerala, sale and production of Pepsi-Cola, along with other soft drinks, has been banned. Five other Indian states have announced partial bans on the drinks in schools, colleges and hospitals. The Real Scenario The aggressive promotional strategies adopted by fast food multinational giants like Coke, Pepsi,

Lays Chips, Mc Donalds, Dominos, Pizza Hut have contributed to the growing concern towards public health. The operations of Coca-Cola and Pepsi in India in the last three decades represent an example of how India's industrial policy and regulations have been dodged, flouted and bent by these companies. The controversy over the presence of traces of pesticides in their soft drinks is only the latest in a series of controversies that have studded Coca-Cola and Pepsis history in India during the last three decades. In India, McDonalds has positioned itself as a family restaurant. Family has become the cornerstone of its strategy. Its outlets are called McDonalds Family Restaurants, as opposed to simply McDonalds as in other parts of the world. Like its other worldwide locations, McDonalds targets children as their main clientele in India. Children are an enormously powerful medium for marketing consumer goods in India. They not only influence markets in terms of the parental decision-making to buy certain kinds of products, they are also future consumers. After all, brand impressions, once formed, can stay for a lifetime. Thus, McDonalds has done everything possible to attract children. Its Happy Meals and the accompanying Lego toys are a great attraction for children. McDonalds play placescalled Fun Zones have been made to attract children and their parents. During their visits, kids are showered with knickknacks. McDonalds also promotes birthday parties complete with cake, candles, and toys in television advertising aimed directly at kids. Soft drinks companies focus their attention and advertising budgets on the childrens market, through sponsorship of music events and link-ups with the most attractive and popular movie stars, pop singers and sports celebrities. The following two examples are just a tiny glimpse of the

extensive marketing activities from these leading soft-drinks brands. Together, Pepsi and CocaCola spend INR 11,000 crores on advertising in a single year. In India, glamorous Bollywood megastars Aamir Khan, Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai promote Coca-Cola brands. Coca-Cola has also sponsored a musical talent contest to create an all-girl band Viva who were so popular, its first album sold over 500,000 copies. As part of its association with Dhoom: 2 (D2), Coca-Cola has been made available in special edition Coca- Cola-Dhoom: 2 bottles. The campaign also includes an 'under-the-crown' promotion with cash prizes totaling up to Rs 1 crore. Lucky Coca-Cola consumers also have a chance to win loads of special prizes, including the complete D2 gear as sported by Hrithik, Aishwarya, Abhishek, Bipasha and Uday Chopra in the movie. Pepsi is endorsed by Bollywood megastars like Amitabh Bachan, Shah Rukh Khan and Kareena Kapoor. The websites of these soft drink companies also referred to as Fun Zones apart from offering a host of promotional campaigns also offers computer and mobile phone downloads like wallpapers, screensavers, ringtones, videos etc. The recent promotional campaign of Pepsi featuring the `Blue Billion', which has a catch line, `Oooh Aaah India, Aaah Yaaa India', has been launched before the 2007 Cricket World Cup. The wrappers around Pepsi bottles will have gifts entitled to the consumers printed on it, ranging from `Blue Billion' tattoos to other assorted goods. The campaign includes 300 free season tickets to be given out to 300 people through the bottle wrappers. The winners will be taken on a special `Blue Billion Express' train accompanied by film stars Shah Rukh Khan, John Abraham and Bipasha Basu to the three venues in India where the ICC Champions Trophy matches will be played. Todays youth icons from the cricket world like Sachin Tendulkar, Virender Sehwag and Dhoni

freely endorse Pepsi. The sponsorship of a sport like cricket in particular may cultivate positive attitudes by associating the product with characteristics which young people admire. In the wake of the recent controversies shrouding Coke and Pepsi, regarding allegations of containing pesticides, these stars not only endorsed these soft drinks but also went so far as to claim that they were safe. This was advertising going too far. Aerated soft drinks, apart from promoting the wrong kind of images, have long been suspected of leading to lower calcium levels and higher phosphate levels in the blood. When phosphate levels are high and calcium levels are low, calcium is pulled out of the bones. The phosphate content of soft drinks like Coca -Cola and Pepsi is very high, and they contain virtually no calcium. Soft drink consumption in children poses a significant risk factor for impaired calcification of growing bones. This situation that ultimately leads to poor bone mineralization, which explains the greater risk of broken bones in children who consume soft drinks. Soft drinks are the single greatest source of caffeine in children's diets. Caffeine is a weak diuretic that causes calcium loss via the kidneys. The relationship between soft drink consumption and body weight is so strong that researchers calculate that for each additional soda consumed, the risk of obesity increases 1.6 times. In 2003, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a nongovernmental organization in New Delhi, said aerated waters produced by soft drinks manufacturers in India, including multinational giants PepsiCo and The Coca-Cola Company, contained toxins including lindane,DDT,malathion and chlorpyrifos--pesticides, that can contribute to cancer, a breakdown of the immune system and cause birth defects. Tested products included Coke, Pepsi, 7

Up,Mirinda,Fanta,Thums Up,Limca and Sprite. Case Studies 2 and 3 highlight the fact that self-regulation is not the answer to the many ills that plague the advertising industry. Most of the Self-Regulation Organizations around the world base their work on the Codes prepared and published by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC).The ASCI in India is no exception. The ICC is the world business organization, the only representative body that speaks with authority on behalf of enterprises from all sectors in every part of the world. Self Regulation in advertising has been pursued and monitored in India in an inexpensive and expeditious manner for the last 20 years by the Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI), a voluntary and non-profit organization set up by a group of advertisers, advertising agencies, media etc., way back in 1985, with the objective of ensuring that all advertising should be legal, decent, honest and truthful along with a sense of social responsibility to the consumer and to the rules of fair competition. ASCIs role has been acclaimed by various agencies including the Government. However, it lacked the force of legal recognition. The Government of India has at last, taken note of this and by one stroke on 2nd August 2006 vide a notification in The Gazette of India: Extraordinary {Part II sec. 3(i)}, made sure that at least as far as TV Commercials go, they abide by the ASCI code. The amendment made in Cable Television Networks (Amendment) Rules, 2006 now states: "(9) No advertisement which violates the Code for Self-Regulation in Advertising, as adopted by the Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI), Mumbai for public exhibition in India, from time to time, shall be carried in the cable service". Case Studies 2 and 3 highlight the very important need for strict regulation and standards for

products of a questionable nature especially if they are targeted to a vulnerable segment of the society like the youth and children. There is an urgent need to spread awareness about the negative effects of such advertising and organizations representing consumers, teachers, dental health professionals, medical charities, public-health groups and children should join in the growing movement calling for restrictions or a ban on the advertising of products of a questionable nature March 15 is World Consumer Rights Day. We as consumers have to join in this movement which reiterates the Consumers Right to Information which would enable the choice to make the most appropriate Buying Decision. The paper seeks to end with the words of Leo Burnett, who says, "Let's gear our advertising to sell goods, but let's recognize also that advertising has a broad social responsibility." By the end of 1996 nearly 50 million households had television sets. International satellite broadcasting, introduced in 1991, has swept across the country because of the rapid proliferation of small scale cable systems. By the end of 1996, Indians could view dozens of foreign and local channels and the competition for audiences and advertising revenues was one of the hottest in the world. In 1995, the Indian Supreme Court held that the government's monopoly over broadcasting was unconstitutional, setting the stage for India to develop into one of the world's largest and most competitive television environments. Broadcasting began in India with the formation of a private radio service in Madras in 1924. In the same year, the British colonial government granted a license to a private company, the Indian Broadcasting Company, to open

Radio stations in Bombay and Calcutta. The company went bankrupt in 1930 but the colonial government took over the two transmitters and the Department of Labor and Industries started operating them as the Indian State Broadcasting Corporation. In 1936, the Corporation was renamed All India Radio (AIR) and placed under the Department of Communications. When India became independent in 1947, AIR was made a separate Department under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. The early history of radio broadcasting in independent India is important because it set the parameters for the subsequent role of television in the country. At Independence, the Congress government under Jawaharlal Nehru had three major goals: to achieve political integration, economic development and social modernization. Broadcasting was expected to play an important role in all three areas. The most important challenge the government faced at independence was that of forging a nation out of the diverse political, religious, geographic and lingual entities that composed independent India. In addition to the territories ruled directly by the British, over 500 hundred "independent" princely states had joined the new nation, some quite reluctantly. The country immediately found itself at war with Pakistan over one of those states--Kashmir. The trauma of the partition of the country into India and Pakistan and the violence between Hindus and Muslims had further weekend the political stability of the country. Broadcasting was harnessed for the task of political nation building. National integration and the development of a "national consciousness" were among the early objectives of All India Radio. Broadcasting was organized as the sole preserve of the chief architect of this process of political

integration--the State. The task of broadcasting was to help in overcoming the immediate crisis of political instability that followed Independence and to foster the long-term process of political modernization and nation building that was the dominant ideology of the newly formed state. Broadcasting was also charged with the task of aiding in the process of economic development. The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, mandated a strong role for the Indian State in the economic development of the country. The use of broadcasting to further the development process was a natural corollary to this state-led developmental philosophy. Broadcasting, was especially expected to contribute to the process of social modernization, which was considered an important pre-requisite of economic development. The dominant development philosophy of the time identified the problems of development as primarily internal to developing countries. These endogenous causes, to which communication solutions were thought to exist, included traditional value systems, lack of innovation, lack of entrepreneurial ability and lack of a national consciousness. In short, the problem was one of old ideas hindering the process of social change and modernization and the role of broadcasting were to provide an inlet for the flow of modern ideas. It was in the context of this dominant thinking about the role of broadcasting in India that television was introduced in 1959. The government had been reluctant to invest in television until then because it was felt that a poor country like India could not afford the medium. Television had to prove its role in the development process before it could gain a foot-hold in the country. Television broadcasts started from Delhi in September 1959 as part of All India Radio's services. Programs were broadcast twice a week for an

hour a day on such topics as community health, citizens duties and rights, and traffic and road sense. In 1961 the broadcasts were expanded to include a school educational television project. In time, Indian films and programs consisting of compilation of musicals from Indian films joined the program line-up as the first entertainment programs. A limited number of old U.S. and British shows were also telecast sporadically. The first major expansion of television in India began in 1972, when a second television station was opened in Bombay. This was followed by stations in Srinagar and Amritsar (1973), and Calcutta, Madras and Lucknow in 1975. Relay stations were also set up in a number of cities to extend the coverage of the regional stations. In 1975, the government carried out the first test of the possibilities of satellite based television through the SITE program. SITE (Satellite Instructional Television Experiment) was designed to test whether satellite based television services could play a role in socio-economic development. Using a U.S. ATS-6 satellite and up-link centers at Ahmedabad and Delhi, television programs were beamed down for about 4 hours a day to about 2,400 villages in 6 states. The programs dealt mainly with in- and out-of-school education, agricultural issues, planning and national integration. The program was fairly successful in demonstrating the effectiveness of satellite based television in India and the lessons learnt from SITE were used by the government in designing and utilizing its own domestic satellite service INSAT, launched in 1982. In these early years television, like radio, was considered a facilitator of the development process and its introduction was justified by the role it was asked to play in social and economic development. Television was

institutionalized as an arm of the government, since the government was the chief architect of political, economic and social development in the country. By 1976, the government found itself running a television network of eight television stations covering a population of 45 million spread over 75,000 square kilometers. Faced with the difficulty of administering such an extensive television system television as part of All India Radio, the government constituted Doordarshan, the national television network, as a separate Department under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Doordarshan was set up as an attached office under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting--a half-way house between a public corporation and a government department. In practice, however, Doordarshan operated much like a government department, at least as far as critical issues of policy planning and financial decision-making were concerned. Doordarshan was headed by a Director General appointed by the I and B Ministry. The Ministry itself and sometimes the office of the Director General as well, was and continues to be, staffed by members of India's civil services. In 1982 television began to attain national coverage and develop as the government's pre-eminent media organization. Two events triggered the rapid growth of television that year. INSAT-1A, the first of the country's domestic communications satellites became operational and made possible the networking of all of Doordarshan's regional stations. For the first time Doordarshan originated a nation-wide feed dubbed the "National Programme" which was fed from Delhi to the other stations. In November 1982, the country hosted the Asian Games and the government introduced color broadcasts for the coverage of the games. To increase television's

reach, the government launched a crash program to set up low and high power transmitters that would pick-up the satellite distributed signals and retransmit them to surrounding areas. In 1983 television signals were available to just 28% of the population, this had doubled by the end of 1985 and by 1990 over 90% of the population had access to television signals. 1976 witnessed a significant event in the history of Indian television, the advent of advertising on Doordarshan. Until that time television had been funded through a combination of television licenses and allocations from the annual budget (licenses were later abolished as advertising revenues began to increase substantially). Advertising began in a very small way with under 1% of Doordarshan's budget coming from advertising revenues in 1976-77. But the possibility of reaching a nation wide audience made television look increasingly attractive to advertisers after the introduction of the "National Programme" in 1982. In turn, Doordarshan began to shift the balance of its programming from educational and informational programs to entertainment programs. The commercialization of Doordarshan saw the development of soap operas, situation comedies, dramas, musical programs, quiz shows and the like. By 1990 Doordarshan's revenues from advertising were about $300 million, accounting for about 70% of its annual expenditure. By 1991, Doordarshan's earlier mandate to aid in the process of social and economic development had clearly been diluted. Entertainment and commercial programs had begun to take center stage in the organization's programming strategies and advertising had come to be Doordarshan's main source of funding. However, television in India was still a modest enterprise with most parts of the country getting just one channel except for the major cities which received two channels. But 1991 saw the beginnings of

international satellite broadcasting in India and the government launched a major economic liberalization program. Both these events combined to change the country's television environment dramatically. International satellite television was introduced in India by CNN through its coverage of the Gulf War in 1991. Three months later Hong Kong based StarTV (now owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Corp.) started broadcasting five channels into India using the ASIASAT-1 satellite. By early 1992, nearly half a million Indian households were receiving StarTV telecasts. A year later the figure was close to 2 million and by the end of 1994, an estimated 12 million households (a little less than one-fourth of all television households) were receiving satellite channels. This increase in viewership was made possible by the 60,000 or so small scale cable system operators who have mushroomed across the country. These systems have redistributed the satellite channels to their customers at rates as low as $5 a month. Taking advantage of the growth of the satellite television audience, a number of Indian satellite based television services were launched between 1991 and 1994, prominent among them ZeeTV, the first Hindi satellite channel. By the end of 1994 there were 12 satellite based channels available in India, all of them using a handful of different satellites. This number was expected to double by the end of 1996, with a number of Indian programmers and international media companies like Turner Broadcasting, Time-Warner, ESPN, CANAL 5 and Pearsons PLC, seriously considering the introduction of new satellite television services for India. The proliferation of channels has put great pressure on the Indian television programming industry. Already the largest producer of motion pictures, India is poised to become a sizable producer of television programs as well.

With Indian audiences clearly preferring locally produced program over foreign programs, the new television services are spending heavily on the development of indigenous programs. The number of hours of television programming produced in India has increased 500% from 1991 to 1996 and is expected to grow at an ever faster rate until the year 2000. Despite the rapid growth of television channels from 1991 to 1996, television programming continues to be dominated by the Indian film industry. Hindi films are the staple of most national channels and regional channels rely heavily on a mix of Hindi and regional language films to attract audiences. Almost all Indian films are musicals and this allows for the development of inexpensive derivative programs. One of Doordarshan's most popular programs, Chitrahaar, is a compilation of old film songs and all the private channels, including ZeeTV and music video channels like MTV Asia and Channel V, show some variation ofChitrahaar. A number of game shows are also based on movie themes. Other genres like soap operas, talk shows and situation comedies are also gaining in popularity, but the production of these programs has been unable to keep up with demand, hence the continuing reliance on film based programming. International satellite programming has opened up competition in news and public affairs programming with BBC and CNN International challenging Doordarshan's long standing monopoly. Most of the other foreign broadcasters, for example, ESPN and the Discovery Channel, are focusing on special interest programming. Only StarTV's STAR Plus channel offers broad-based English language entertainment programs. Most of its programs are syndicated U.S. shows, for example soap operas like The Bold and the Beautiful and Santa Barbara and talk shows like Donahue and Oprah.

However, STAR Plus has a very small share of the audience in India and even this is threatened by the launch of new channels. A peculiar development in television programming in India has been the use of hybrid English-Hindi program formats, popularly called "Hinglish" formats, which offer programs in Hindi and English on the same channel and even have programs, including news shows, that use both languages within a single telecast. This takes advantage of the of the audience for television (especially the audience for satellite television) which is largely composed of middle class Indians who have some knowledge of English along with Hindi and colloquially speak a language that is primarily Hindi intermixed with words, phrases and whole sentences in English. Commercial competition has transformed Doordarshan as well and it is scrambling to cope with the changed competitive environment. Satellite broadcasting has threatened Doordarshan's audiences and self-preservation has spawned a new ideology in the network which is in the process of reinventing itself, co-opting private programmers to recapture viewers and advertising rupees lost to ZeeTV and StarTV. In 1994, the government ordered Doordarshan to raise its own revenues for future expansion. This new commercial mandate has gradually begun to change Doordarshan's perception of who are its primary constituents--from politicians to advertisers. The government's monopoly over television over the years has resulted in Doordarshan being tightly controlled by successive governments. In principle, Doordarshan is answerable only to Parliament. Parliament lays down the guidelines that Doordarshan is expected to adhere to in its programming and Doordarshan's budget is debated and approved by

Parliament. But the guidelines established by Parliament to ensure Doordarshan's political neutrality are largely ignored in the face of the majority that ruling parties have held in Parliament. Doordarshan has been subject more to the will of the government than the oversight of Parliament. Successive governments and ruling political parties have used Doordarshan to further their political agendas, weakening its credibility as an neutral participant in the political process. There have been periodic attempts to reconstitute Doordarshan into a BBC-like public corporation, but governments have been reluctant to relinquish their hold on such a powerful medium. The government drew its right to operate the country's broadcasting services as a monopoly from the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 which empowers the government with the exclusive right to "establish, maintain and work" wireless services. In addition, the Constitution lists broadcasting as the sole domain of Parliament, effectively shutting out the states from making any laws with regard to television. Within the ambit of these provision it was assumed that media autonomy or liberalization in any form was the prerogative of the government to grant. But the government's monopoly was challenged in the Indian Supreme Court in 1995. The Court held that the government monopoly over broadcasting was unconstitutional and while the government has the right to regulate broadcasting in the public interest, the Constitution forbids monopoly control over any medium by either individuals or the government. The Court directed the government to establish an independent public authority for "controlling and regulating" the use of airwaves. The Court's decision holds out the promise of significant

structural changes in Indian broadcasting and the possibility that terrestrial television may finally free itself from governmental control. It is evident that over time the State's control over television will continue to diminish. As its revenue structure begins to change and Doordarshan begins to respond to increasing commercial pressures, the character of its programming will begin to increasingly reflect the demands and pressures of the market place. In the meantime, caught between the government and the market, Doordarshan continues to struggle to maintain its mandate of public service programming. But the Supreme Court's recent decision ordering the government to establish an independent broadcasting authority to regulate television in the public interest holds the promise of allowing Indian television to escape both the stifling political control of the state and the commercial pressures of the market. There are a number of other constituencies like state governments, educational institutions, nongovernmental organizations and social service agencies who can participate in a liberalized broadcast system. The Supreme Court has provided an opportunity to develop a broad based television system. How the country responds to this opportunity in the next few years will determine the future of broadcasting in India in the next century.