Lupinus Theubiquitousfamiliarityofthecommongardenlupinprovideslittlehintofthegreatdiversity encompassedbythec.280ofspeciesinLupinusasawhole.Therearetwomaincentresofspecies diversityinwesternNorthAmericaandtheAndes,aswellassecondaryclustersofspeciesineastern SouthAmericaandaroundtheMediterranean.ThetaxonomyofLupinusisnotoriouslyproblematicand overburdenedbyasurfeitofnames(c.1800),andwhilethereareseveralauthorativeregionalfloristic accounts,thelastmonographicaccountwasthatofAgardhin1835,whichrecognised83species.The taxonomyoftheAndeanandMexicanspeciesisparticularlychaotic.Workonanewtaxonomic accountfortheAndeanspeciesisinprogress.

LupinusspeciesfromtheAndes Newphylogenies Insightsintothediversityandevolutionaryandbiogeographicalhistoryoflupinshavebeenlimited byconfusionaboutspeciesdelimitation,conflictingnomenclature,andsparsesamplingandlackof resolutioninpreviousphylogeneticstudies.Overthelastfewyearswehavegeneratedaseriesof moredenselysampled(includingc.40%ofspecies),wellresolved,androbustlysupportedtime calibratedphylogenies,basedonDNAsequencesfrommultiplenuclearandplastidgenes(Hughes andEastwood,2006;Eastwoodetal.,2008).Whilesomeuncertaintyremainsastotheprecisesister grouprelationshipsofthe13OldWorldspecies,currentdatasuggestthattheancestralrangeforthe genusisintheOldWorld,withatleasttwoindependentdispersaleventstotheNewWorldwithin thelast510millionyears.TheNewWorldspecies(excludingtheunifoliolatespeciesfromFlorida) areplacedintworobustlysupportedclades:(i)aneastern,largelylowland2n=36cladecomprising c.35speciesand(ii)awestern,largelymontane2n=48cladecomprisingc.225species.Thesetwo cladesaredistributedlargelyallopatricallywithonlylimitedoverlapinTexasandthesouthcentral

 PhylogenyofLupinusshowingthedistributionsofthetwomajorNewWorldcladesandthediversity lifehistorycharacteristicsoftheAndeanspecies.ReproducedfromHughes&Eastwood(2006). Andes,butbothcontainancestralNorthAmericanandderivedSouthAmericanelements,suggesting atleasttwoindependentdispersaleventsbetweenNorthAmericaandSouthAmerica.Thesenew phylogeniesalsoprovideclearevidencefortwoindependentevolutionaryoriginsofunifoliolate leavesinFloridaandBrazil(congruentwithchromosomedata),resolvinglongstandingdebateabout therelationshipsofthesetwogroups.Ofparticularnoteistheexceptionallyhighrateof diversificationinthewesternNewWorld2n=48clade.Inthisgrouparapidrateofspeciation coincideswiththetransitionfromannualtoperenniallifehistoryandcolonizationofmontane

habitats,permittingtheexploitationofnovelecologicalopportunitiesfollowingrecentupliftofthe northernAndes. OriginofdomesticatedL.mutabilis LupinusmutabilisSweetisapparentlyunknowninthewildbutiscultivatedasanimportantfood cropthroughouttheAndesandisalsothefocusofcropbreedinganddevelopmentelsewherein AustraliaandEurope.Thespeciesexhibitstypicallegumedomesticationsyndrometraitsincluding indehiscentpods,largeseeds,waterpermeableseedcoats,reducedseedpigmentation,rapidand uniformgerminationandgrowth,andanearlyannuallifehistory,butretainshigherseedalkaloid levelsthanotherlupindomesticates.

Despitethisimportanceasacrop,theoriginsofdomesticationofL.mutabilisintermsofwhere, when,howmanytimesandfromwhatwildprogenitorsitwasdomesticatedremainunknown.Our phylogeneticstudiesplaceL.mutabilisinawellsupportedAndeanclade,rulingoutearlier speculationsthatthecropmighthaveoriginatedfromwildNorthAmericanspecies(Eastwoodand Hughes,2008).However,withintheAndes,researchtoidentifytheprogenitorsofL.mutabilisis hamperedbychaotictaxonomy,theverylowlevelsofDNAsequencedivergenceamongstthe Andeanspecies,andlimitedlupinseedremainsretrievedfromarchaeologicalsites.Despitethese challenges,recentfield,herbariumandlaboratoryinvestigationofL.mutabilisprovidenewevidence frommorphology(leaves,indumentum,habit,flowersize,flowercolourvariation,podandseedsize) andDNAsequencedatathatsuggestL.piurensisasthemostlikelywildprogenitorofdomesticatedL. mutabilis(EastwoodandHughes,2008).Thisspecieshasnotpreviouslybeenproposedasaputative progenitorofL.mutabilisdespiteitsclearmorphologicalsimilaritiesandlargeseeds.Lupinus piurensisisrestrictedtothewesternslopesoftheAndesbetween1650and3300maltitudein

northernPeruandsouthernEcuador,suggestingthatdomesticationofL.mutabilismayhave occurredinthatarea.AlimitednumberofflowerandseedcolourvariantsaredocumentedwithinL. mutabilis,butinmanyrespectsthespeciesisratheruniform. PublicationsonLupinus Eastwood,R.J.&Hughes,C.E.2008.OriginsofdomesticationofLupinusmutabilisintheAndes.Pp. 373379,in:Palta,J.A.&Burger,J.B.(Eds.)LupinsforHealth&Wealth,Proceedings12th InternationalLupinConference,Fremantle,Australia,InternationalLupinAssociation, Canterbury,NewZealand. Eastwood,R.J.,Drummond,C.S.,SchifinoWittmann,M.T.&Hughes,C.E.2008.Diversityand evolutionaryhistoryoflupinsinsightsfromnewphylogenies.Pp.346354,in:Palta,J.A.& Burger,J.B.(Eds.)LupinsforHealth&Wealth,Proceedings12thInternationalLupinConference, Fremantle,Australia,InternationalLupinAssociation,Canterbury,NewZealand. Stepkowski,T.,Hughes,C.E.,Law,I.J.,Markiewiez,L.,Gurda,D.,Chlebicka,A.&Moulin,L.2007. DiversificationoflupinBradyrhizobiumstrains:evidencefromnodulationgenetrees.Applied &EnvironmentalMicrobiology73:32543264.doi:10.1128/AEM.0212506 Hughes,C.E.&Eastwood,R.J.2006.Islandradiationonacontinentalscale:exceptionalratesofplant diversificationafterupliftoftheAndes.ProceedingsNationalAcademyofSciences103:10334 10339.doi:10.1073/pnas.0601928103