Notes 18.1-18.2 y Scientific revolution-foremost cause of change in world view. Science no longer secondary and subordinate.

It became independent and even primary for many educated people in 18th century. Modern science a long term development. Developed in Western Europe. Astronomy and physics heart of scientific revolution Aristotelian view of universe: Earth sitting in center, 10 spheres around, Heaven is somewhere in space and Angels moved the spheres. Aristotle s views main ideas of later developed theories; ex. He believed a force would keep objects at a constant speed until a force stopped it. Thought up the sublunar worlds and the elemental forces. Because Aristotle s views made sense to the people of his time because they could see it with their eyes and it fit in with the Christian doctrine, it was at first a branch of theology and reinforced religious thoughts. Scientists of the medieval time came up with reasoned explanations of the universe only that which were worthy of God s perfect creation. Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish clergyman and astronomer who studied church law and astronomy in different universities. Astronomers of time depended on work of Ptolemy, a great ancient astronomer who worked out the complicated rules to explain minor irregularities in movement of planets which enabled people to track planets precisely. Made people believe changing relationships between planets and stars influenced and even determined future (astrology). Copernicus theorized Aristotelian belief but instead of Earth in middle, the Earth moved with the other planets and the sun was in the middle. He wrote his theory into On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) and published on year of his death for he was a cautious man. Copernicus ideas kind of jacked up. Made stars stay still and the universe seem infinite. Destroyed basic idea of Aristotelian physics by saying Earth is just a planet, that earthly world was different from heavenly one. No place for heaven or throne of God. Religious figures appalled by Copernicus s theory. Even Protestants Calvin and Luther spoke against it. Catholic church declared theory false in 1616 Time for the radical renovation of astronomy was called for when a star exploded, contradicting idea of perfect heavenly spheres and a comet broke into the impenetrable crystal sphere which surrounds the planet. Tycho Brahe, a Danish born noble, est. himself as Europe s leading astronomer. He lost his nose in a duel and had a bridge of gold and silver alloy and exploited peasants arrogantly and the heavens humbly. His greatest contribution was his large mass of data. His limited math skills kept his data from making sense. He believed planets revolved around sun and entire group of sun and planets revolved in turn around earth moon system, a copernicun and Ptolemaic mash. Kepler, Brahe s assistant and German born, furthered Brahe s work. Said planets orbit sun elliptically not circularly. Said planets do not move at a uniform spend. Said the time a planet

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takes to orbit sun completely is precisely related to its distance from the sun. He came close to formulating idea of universal gravitation with his third law. He proved mathematically, not by speculation, the relations of the solar system. His work demolished Aristotle and Ptolemy systems. Florentine Mathemetician Galileo Galilei challenged old ideas of motion by the elaboration and consolidation of the modern experimental method. Said gravity produced a uniform acceleration and formulated law of inertia, saw the moon was not perfectly smooth, and saw Jupiter s four moons with his homemade telescope, which proved there could not be any crystal sphere embedding planet and furthered Copernican theory which he believed. With Galileo s famous Siderus Nuncius, writing on ugly moon plane, the view of things starts to shift as traditional religious and theological world view was moved to finding stuff out the scientific methody way. Galileo was tried for heresy by papal Inquisition for saying Copernicus ideas were right and tradition Aristotle and Ptolemy ideas were dumb in his Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World. The trial shows conflict between religious belief and scientific knowledge. Isaac Newton brought a single explanatory system that comprehended motion both on earth and in skies. He was a genius who united experimental and theoretical math sides of science and an alchemist. The key feature of Newtonian synthesis was law of universal gravitation. The causes of the scientific revolution accounted for: long term contribution of medieval intellectual life and medieval universities (the promotion of scientific development through academic sciences at universities and the teaching of them by the great pathfinders), the stimulation of scientific progress by the renaissance and patroners, the needing of navigational help on sea (which led to making of instruments such as telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump.), better instruments, and controversially Religion, mainly Protestant Calvinists. Science accepted part of lifee in England after 1640 when it was neautral and useful. Francis Bacon was the greatest early propagandist for the new experimental method. His contribution was formalizing empirical method into general theory of inductive reasoning called empiricism. Provided a radically new and effective justification for private and publice support of scientific inquiry. He was an inductive experimentalism man. Rene Descartes put algebra and geometry together, saying geometry can be solved with algebra and made Cartesian Dualism, the fact that mind and soul are different from the body, but they work together. He was a deductive, mathematical rationalism man. Scientific revolution consequences included: rise of international scientific community, a new knowledge about nature and how to obtain such knowledge, an impact on how people thought and believed, and very few consequences on economic life and living standards. It did not have much of an application to everyday life like now.

Notes 18.3 y Three central concepts stand at core of Enlightenment thinking: methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life, aka reason not faith, scientific method could discover laws of society (social science), and the improvements of society. The generation between the late 1600s and early 1700s tied together the scientific revolution and a new outlook on life. Writers such as Bernard De Fontenelle made science witty and entertaining for nonscientific audiences to enjoy. He was very successful. Idea of progress from human mind a creation of late 16th century. Writers of enlightenment generation brought science into conflict with religion. Progressive and antireligious implications writers such as Fontenelle drew from sci. rev. reflect crisis in European thought about several intellectual uncertainties and dissatisfactions. Uncertainty also involved question of religious truth. Apparently Religious freedom was intolerable. It made people ask if ideological conformity in religious matters were necessary. Skepticals asked if religious truth could be known with certainty and said it could not. Pierre Bayle said humanity s best hope was open minded toleration Differences in people s traditions around the world made people think if anything was possible, who was to say if anything is right or wrong. John Locke s Essay concerning Human Understaning talked about how the human minds form and learn their ideas through experience in life, unlike Descartes who said people are born with certain ideas and ways of thinking. The acceptance of new ideas during the American Revolution was the work of the philosophes, an influential group of intellectuals who were bringing light of knowledge to the fellow ignorant people in age of enlightenment. They were philosophers who asked deep questions but were not content with abstract arguments or speculations, rather with influencing all French and European economic and social elites, aka the educated or enlightened public France was location of high point of enlightenment. Jean le Rond d Alembert made distinction between public and the people Philosophes spread ideas to public through satire, Montesquieu a famous philosophe. Montesquieu argued that despotism could be avoided if political power was divided between classes and legal orders. Power checks power. Francois Marie Arouet, aka Volataire, is most famous philosophe. Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Bretuil said her limited discoveries in science were because of the gender roles. Voltaire mixed glorification of science and reason with appeal for better individuals and institutions, and said you could only hope for a good monarch since people could not govern themselves

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A philosophes group effort was the Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d Alembert. Summed up new world view of enlightenment.

18.4 Notes y y y y y y Philosophe unity died down with acceptance of enlightenment view. Some people exaggerated stuff to be original. Baron Paul d Holbach created System of Nature, an atheist work saying humans are machines which made other philosophes repel. David Hume s ideas of impressions in sense experience and the habit of joining experiences together undermined Enlightenment s faith in reason. Marie-Jean Caritat transformed Enlightenment belief in hard won progress into fanciful utopianism Writers and thinkers started attacking Enlightenment s faith in reason, progress, and moderation after about 1770. Jean-Jacques Rousseau said goodness of child has to be protected from cruel civilization, which had an impact on child psychology and modern education. His contribution to the Social Contract based on general will and popular sovereignty Books and literacy began to bloom with newly published works always arising. Forbidden books were usually smuggled Reading revolution linked to rise of critical world view A feminine style, known as rococo, was popular throughout Europe, showing feminine influence. Women rights were then made greater, but not equal. Salons were gatherings made to spread ideas, which were hosted by women. It was a place people could form a public opinion. Philosophes believed change comes from above, not below. The monarchs respected the enlightened, thus changing how they rule and making enlightened absolutism. The most influential new style of monarchs were in Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

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18. 5 Notes y Frederick the great of Prussia created a set of enlightened laws and promoted education that were favored by the public to strengthen his country while he expanded greatly, even by taking land from his own daughter. Catherine the Great of Russia was a very much adored empress who supported enlightenment thinking greatly and changed the laws of Russia to fit her ideals, although not giving much equality for serfs because of a rebellion led by Pugachev. The Austrian Habsburgs, Joseph II and Maria Theresa to the country. Maria made reforms such as church and government relation control, admin reforms that strengthened bureaucracy, smoothed provincial differences, and revamped tax systems, and reducing of power of lords over serfs. Joseph granted religious tolerations to Protestants and Jews, abolished serfdom, and cash payments for work.

18.6 Notes y Louis XIV s way of ruling with the nobilities power in a constant check and at a low level made people challenge it, made people try to limit the king s power. At the death of Louis, the nobility made a comeback through Louis XIV s nephew the duke of Orleans In 1715, the duke brought back parlements in exchange that he is regent. The bringing back of parlement sanctioned a counterweight to absolute power. Louis XV came into rule. On account of a debt crisis following the War of the Austrian Succession, a tax imposed on everyone, including nobility and clergy, was made, which was replied with an uproar and a denounce against it by Parlement of Paris. At another attempt to impose taxes to solve another debt crisis, they made a rule that said the king cannot make a tax without consent of parlement of paris acting as rep. of entire nation Louis XV argued that soverign power rests in him and he then appointed Rene de Maupeou as chancellor to crush judicial opposition Maupeou banished the members of the parlement and put in new royal officials who taxed everyone, even the privileged. Some were applauding reforms, while others on the side of the old parlement and there was a widespread criticism of royal despotism When Louis XV dies, Louis XVI takes the thron. He dismisses Maupeou and his work, old parlements reinstated, and the people of France are eager to see a change toward representative government. Instead, they are in store for a new financial crisis and political upheaval

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