ABSTRACT: DIGITAL IMAGING SENSORS AND APPLICATIONS INTRODUCTION:

An image may be defined as a 2-d function f(x,y) where x and y are spatial (plane) coordinates and the amplitude of function at any pair of coordinates (x,y) is called intensity or gray level of image at that point.when x,y and intensity values of function are finite,discrete quantities we call the image a digital image. The principal energy source for images in use today is the electromagnetic spectrum.other important sources are acoustic,ultrasonic and electronic.

APPLICATIONS:
1> Gamma ray imaging 2> X ray imaging 3> Ultraviolet imaging:
a) Lithography b) Florescence c) Microscopy

4> Imaging in visible and infrared bands:

a) Light microscopy b) Astronomy c) Remote sensing Infrared sensing capability to observe faint sources present on earths surface including cities,towns etc.

5> Microwave band

COMPONENTS OF IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM

Two elements reqired. 1> Physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wish to image.

2> Digitizer for converting the output of the physical sensing device into digital form.

FUNDAMENTAL STEPS

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL IMAGE SENSOR

1. Image acquisition 2. Image enhancement 3. Image restoration 4. Color image processing 5. Wavelets 6. Compression 7. Morphological processing 8. Segmentation 9. Representation and description 10. Recognition

RADARS AND SENSORS

RADARS has the capability to collect data virtually over any region at any time regardless of weather and lightening conditions.

Radar is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves. When they come into contact with an object they are scattered in all directions. The signal is thus partly reflected back and it has a slight change of wavelength (and thus frequency) if the target is moving. The receiver is usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter. Although the signal returned is usually very weak, the signal can be amplified through use of electronic techniques in the receiver and in the antenna configuration. This enables radar to detect objects at ranges where other emissions, such as sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect. Radar uses include meteorological detection of precipitation, measuring ocean surface waves, air traffic control, police detection of speeding traffic, determining the speed of baseballs and by the military.

RADAR EQUATION
The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where

 Pt = transmitter power  Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna  Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna 

= radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target

 F = pattern propagation factor  Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target  Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The angle of a target is detected by scanning the field of view with a highly directive beam. This is done electronically, with an phased array antenna, or mechanically by rotating a physicalantenna. The emitter and the receiver can be in the same place, as with the monostatic radars, or be separated as in the bistatic radars. Finally, the radar wave emitted can be continuous or pulsed. From the choice of the architecture depends the sensors to be used.

SCANNING ANTENNA

Active versus passive ESA

A passive electronically scanned array with a monopulse feed network.

An electronically scanned array (ESA), or a phased array, offers advantages over mechanically scanned antennas such as instantaneous beam scanning, the availability of multiple concurrent agile beams, and concurrently operating radar modes. Figures of merit of an ESA are thebandwidth, the effective isotropically radiated power (EIRP) and the GR/T quotient, the field of view. EIRP is the product of the transmit gain, GT, and the transmit power, PT. GR/T is the quotient of the receive gain and the antenna noise temperature. A high EIRP and GR/T are a prerequisite for long-range detection. Design choices are:


Active versus passive: In an active electronically scanned array (AESA), each antenna is connected to a T/R module featuring solid state power amplification (SSPA). An AESA has distributed power amplification and offers high performance and reliability, but is expensive. In a passive electronically scanned array, the array is connected to a single T/R module featuring vacuum electronics devices (VED). A PESA has centralized power amplification and offers cost savings, but requires low-loss phase shifters

Architecture: The field of view is scanned with a highly directive frequency-orthogonal (slotted waveguide), spatially-orthogonal (switched beamforming networks), or timeorthogonal beams. In case of time-orthogonal scanning, the beam of an ESA is scanned preferably by applying a progressive time delay, , constant over frequency, instead of by applying a progressive phase shift, constant over frequency. Usage of true-time-delay (TTD) phase shifters avoids beam squinting with frequency. The scanning angle, , is expressed as a function of the phase shift progression, , which is a function of the frequency and the progressive time delay, , which is invariant with frequency:

Note that

is not a function of frequency. A constant phase shift over frequency has

important applications as well, albeit in wideband pattern synthesis. For example, the generation of wideband monopulse / receive patterns depends on a feed network which

combines two subarrays using a wideband hybrid coupler.



Construction: An electronically scanned array is a brick, stick, tile, or tray construc. tionBrick and tray refers to a construction approach in which the RF circuitry is integrated perpendicular to the array plane. Tile, on the other hand, refers to a construction approach in

which the RF circuitry is integrated on substrates parallel to the array plane. Stick refers to a construction approach in which the RF circuitry is connected to a line array in the array plane. Polarization: The polarization of ground-based radar sensors is vertical, in order to reduce multipath (Brewster angle). Radar sensors can also be polarimetric for all-weather applications.

CONCLUSION:
So we see that digital sensors have various applications and can be of high usage in radars as they are also based on the same principle and by bringing about some changes their utility can be manifolded.

TEAM MEMBERS:
SAKSHI NARULA ANU AGGARWAL MANJUL TRIPATHI ALL FROM MAHARISHI MARKANDESHWAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE(MMEC),MULLANA,AMBALA.