Ionic bond

Main article: Ionic bond Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms which have a large electronegativity difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but a difference of electronegativity of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic, and a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent.[4] Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between 3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion, in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it, is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type. It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near it. This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still discernable from the shorter distances between them, as measured by with such techniques as X-ray diffraction. Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids, such as sodium cyanide, NaCN. Many minerals are of this type. X-ray diffration shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium cations (Na+) and the cyanide anions (CN-) are ionic, with no sodium ion associated with any particular cyanide. However, the bonds between C and N atoms in cyanide are of the covalent type, making each of the carbon and nitrogen associated with just one of its opposite type, to which it is physically much closer than it is to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal. When such crystals are melted into liquids, the ionic bonds are broken first because they are nondirectional and allow the charged species to move freely. Similarly, when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water, but the covalent bonds continue to hold. For example, in solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CNions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na+. In water, charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to a number of water molecules, than to each other. The attraction between ions and water molecules in such solutions is due to a type of weak dipole-dipole type chemical bond. In melted ionic compounds, the ions continue to be attracted to each other, but not in any ordered or crystalline way.

[edit] One- and three-electron bonds

Bonds with one or three electrons can be found in radical species, which have an odd number of electrons. The simplest example of a 1-electron bond is found in the hydrogen molecular cation, H2+. One-electron bonds often have about half the bond energy of a 2-electron bond, and are therefore called "half bonds". However, there are exceptions: in the case of dilithium, the bond is actually stronger for the 1-electron Li2+ than for the 2-electron Li2. This exception can be explained in terms of hybridization and inner-shell effects.[5] The simplest example of three-electron bonding can be found in the helium dimer cation, He2+, and can also be considered a "half bond" because, in molecular orbital terms, the third electron is in an anti-bonding orbital which cancels out half of the bond formed by the other two electrons. Another example of a molecule containing a 3-electron bond, in addition to two 2-electron bonds, is nitric oxide, NO. The oxygen molecule, O2 can also be regarded as having two 3electron bonds and one 2-electron bond, which accounts for its paramagnetism and its formal bond order of 2.[6]

Molecules with odd-electron bonds are usually highly reactive. These types of bond are only stable between atoms with similar electronegativities.[6]

[edit] Bent bonds

Main article: Bent bond Bent bonds, also known as banana bonds, are bonds in strained or otherwise sterically hindered molecules whose binding orbitals are forced into a banana-like form. Bent bonds are often more susceptible to reactions than ordinary bonds.

[edit] 3c-2e and 3c-4e bonds

In three-center two-electron bonds ("3c2e") three atoms share two electrons in bonding. This type of bonding occurs in electron deficient compounds like diborane. Each such bond (2 per molecule in diborane) contains a pair of electrons which connect the boron atoms to each other in a banana shape, with a proton (nucleus of a hydrogen atom) in the middle of the bond, sharing electrons with both boron atoms. Three-center four-electron bonds ("3c4e") also exist which explain the bonding in hypervalent molecules. In certain cluster compounds, so-called four-center two-electron bonds also have been postulated. In certain conjugated (pi) systems, such as benzene and other aromatic compounds (see below), and in conjugated network solids such as graphite, the electrons in the conjugated system of bonds are spread over as many nuclear centers as exist in the molecule, or the network.

[edit] Aromatic bond

Main article: Aromaticity In organic chemistry, certain configurations of electrons and orbitals infer extra stability to a molecule. This occurs when orbitals overlap and combine with others on different atomic centres, forming a long range bond. For a molecule to be aromatic, it must obey Hckel's rule, where the number of electrons fit the formula 4n + 2, where n is an integer. The bonds involved in the aromaticity are all planar. In benzene, the prototypical aromatic compound, 18 (n = 4) bonding electrons bind 6 carbon atoms together to form a planar ring structure. The bond "order" (average number of bonds) between the different carbon atoms may be said to be (18/6)/2=1.5, but in this case the bonds are all identical from the chemical point of view. They may sometimes be written as single bonds alternating with double bonds, but the view of all ring bonds as being equivalently about 1.5 bonds in strength, is much closer to truth. In the case of heterocyclic aromatics and substituted benzenes, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring may dominate the chemical behaviour of aromatic ring bonds, which otherwise are equivalent.

Metallic bond
Main article: Metallic bond In a metallic bond, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The freely-moving or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength.

[edit] Intermolecular bonding

Main article: Intermolecular Force There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more (otherwise nonassociated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance.

A large difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms will cause a permanent charge separation, or dipole, in a molecule or ion. Two or more molecules or ions with permanent dipoles can interact in dipole-dipole interactions. The bonding electrons in a molecule or ion will, on average, be closer to the more electronegative atom more frequently than the less electronegative one, giving rise to partial charges on each atom, and causing electrostatic forces between molecules or ions. A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of a permanent dipole. The large difference in electronegativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. The London dispersion force arises due to instantaneous dipoles in neighbouring atoms. As the negative charge of the electron is not uniform around the whole atom, there is always a charge imbalance. This small charge will induce a corresponding dipole in a

nearby molecule; causing an attraction between the two. The electron then moves to another part of the electron cloud and the attraction is broken.

A cationpi interaction occurs between the electron density of pi bonds above and below an aromatic ring and a cation.

[edit] Summary: electrons in chemical bonds

In the (unrealistic) limit of "pure" ionic bonding, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in the bond. Such bonds can be understood by classical physics. The forces between the atoms are characterized by isotropic continuum electrostatic potentials. Their magnitude is in simple proportion to the charge difference. Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond theory or molecular orbital theory. The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number. The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, the two electrons on the two atoms are coupled together with the bond strength depending on the overlap between them. In molecular orbital theory, the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) helps describe the delocalized molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed anisotropic properties. These may have their own names, such as sigma bond and pi bond. In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediates between ionic and covalent, depending on the relative electronegativity of the atoms involved. This type of bond is sometimes called polar covalent. An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds are formed between a cation, which is usually a metal, and an anion, which is usually a nonmetal. Pure ionic bonding cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding. Thus, an ionic bond is considered a bond where the ionic character is greater than the covalent character. The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms involved in the bond, the more ionic (polar) the bond is. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. Ionic bonding is a form of noncovalent bonding. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as a solid. They generally have a high melting point and tend to be soluble in water.

Metallic bond
Main article: Metallic bond In a metallic bond, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The freely-moving

or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength. Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attractive forces between the delocalized electrons, called conduction electrons, gathered in an "electron sea", and the positively charged metal ions. Understood as the sharing of "free" electrons among a lattice of positively charged ions (cations), metallic bonding is sometimes compared with that of molten salts; however, this simplistic view holds true for very few metals. In a more quantum-mechanical view, the conduction electrons divide their density equally over all atoms that function as neutral (non-charged) entities. Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity, opacity, and luster.[1][2][3][4] Although the term "metallic bond" is often used in contrast to the term "covalent bond", it is preferable to use the term metallic bonding, because this type of bonding is collective in nature and a single "metallic bond" does not exist. Not all metals exhibit metallic bonding: one such example is the mercurous ion (Hg2+2), which forms covalent metal-metal bonds. Metallic bond is the reaction between molecules within metals called alkali reactive force. It involves the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of metal atoms. Metallic bonds may be compared to molten salts. The electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive force between them. Therefore metals often have high melting or boiling points. The principle is similar to that of ionic bonds. The metallic bond accounts for many physical characteristics of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, luster, conduction of heat and electricity. Because the electrons move independently of the positive ions in a sea of negative charge, the metal gains some electrical conductivity. It allows the energy to pass quickly through the electrons generating a current. Heat conduction works on the same principle - the free electrons can transfer the energy at a faster rate than other substances such as those which are covalently bonded, as these have their electrons fixed into position. There also are few non-metals which conduct electricity: graphite (because, like metals, they have free electrons), and molten and aqueous ionic compounds which have free moving ions. [1] [2] [3] Metal atoms have at least one valence electron which they do not share with neighboring atoms, and they do not lose electrons to form ions. Instead the outer energy levels (atomic orbitals) of the metal atoms overlap. They are similar to covalent bonds.[4] Not all metals exhibit metallic bonding. For example, the mercurous ion (Hg2+ 2) forms covalent metal-metal bonds.

Covalent bond
Main article: Covalent bond Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or nonexistent. Bonds within most [organic compound]s are described as covalent. See [sigma bond]s and pi bonds for LCAO-description of such bonding. A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character. This means that the electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. They occur as a bond between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities, and give rise to dipole-dipole interactions. The electronegativity of these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7 .

A coordinate covalent bond is one where both bonding electrons are from one of the atoms involved in the bond. These bonds give rise to Lewis acids and bases. The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding. Such bonding occurs in molecules such as the ammonium ion (NH4+) and are shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. Also known as non-polar covalent bond, the electronegativity of these bonds range from 0 to 0.3. Molecules which are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane. "Covalent" redirects here. For other uses, see Covalent (disambiguation).

A covalent bond forming H2 (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons. A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding.[1] Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interaction, including -bonding, -bonding, metal-tometal bonding, agostic interactions, and three-center two-electron bonds.[2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939.[4] The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Although covalent bonding entails sharing of electrons, it is not necessarily delocalized. Furthermore, in contrast to electrostatic interactions ("ionic bonds") the strength of covalent bond depends on the angular relation between atoms in polyatomic molecules.