Heat TR Manual

A Manual for
MECH 4335
THERMODYNAMICS
AND
HEAT TRANSFER
LABORATORY
William S. Janna
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Memphis
2
2008 William S. Janna
All Rights Reserved.
No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transcribed in any form or by any meanselectronic, magnetic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without the prior written consent of William S. Janna
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Item Page
Course Learning Outcomes, Cleanliness, and Safety................................................................. 4
Code of Student Conduct ......................................................................................................... 5
Statistical Treatment of Experimental Data........................................................................... 6
Report Writing .................................................................................................................... 16
Experiment 1 Thermocouples and Instrumentation.................................................. 21
Experiment 2 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal............................. 24
Experiment 3 Effect of Area on One Dimensional Conduction................................... 26
Experiment 4 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of an Insulator....................... 28
Experiment 5 Determination of Contact Resistance................................................. 30
Experiment 6 Radial One Dimensional Conduction ................................................ 32
Experiment 7 Heat Transfer from a Fin .................................................................. 33
Experiment 8 Determination of Conduction Shape Factor ....................................... 37
Experiment 9 Graphical Solutions to Unsteady Heat Transfer Problems.................. 40
Experiment 10 Transient Conduction with Convection .............................................. 43
Experiment 11 Natural Convection Heat Transfer: Flat, Finned, and Pinned Plates... 47
Experiment 12 Forced Convection Flat Plate to Air .................................................. 49
Experiment 13 Radiation Heat Transfer I................................................................ 51
Experiment 14 Radiation Heat Transfer II............................................................... 54
Experiment 15 Emissivity of Black and Gray Surfaces.............................................. 55
Experiment 16 Radiation View Factor..................................................................... 59
Experiment 17 Analysis of a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger........................................ 64
Experiment 18 Analysis of a Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger................................. 70
Experiment 19 Analysis of a Shell and Tube Condenser ............................................ 76
Experiment 20 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle..................................... 80
Appendix ........................................................................................................ 83
Experiment TBA Analysis of a Cross Flow Heat Exchanger..............................................
4
Course Learning Outcomes
The Heat Transfer Laboratory experiments are
set up so that experiments can be performed to
complement the theoretical information taught
in the heat transfer lecture course. Thus topical
areas have been identified and labeled as Course
Learning Outcomes (CLOs). The CLOs in the
MECH 4335 Laboratory are as follows:
TABLE 1. Course Learning Outcomes
1. Identify safe operating practices and
requirements for laboratory experiments
2. Measure temperature with a thermocouple.
3. Perform one dimensional conduction
experiment(s).
4. Perform multidimensional conduction
experiment.
5. Perform transient conduction experiment.
6. Perform forced convection experiment.
7. Perform natural convection experiment.
8. Perform radiation experiment.
9. Function effectively as a member of a team
Cleanliness
There are housekeeping rules that the user
of the laboratory should be aware of and abide
by. Equipment in the lab is delicate and each
piece is used extensively for 2 or 3 weeks per
semester. During the remaining time, each
apparatus just sits there, literally collecting dust.
University housekeeping staff are not required to
clean and maintain the equipment. Instead, there
are college technicians who will work on the
equipment when it needs repair, and when they
are notified that a piece of equipment needs
attention. It is important, however, that the
equipment stay clean, so that dust will not
accumulate too heavily.
The Heat Transfer Laboratory contains
equipment that uses water or air as the working
fluid. In some cases, performing an experiment
will inevitably allow water to get on the
equipment and/or the floor. If no one cleaned up
their working area after performing an
experiment, the lab would not be a comfortable or
safe place to work in. No student appreciates
walking up to and working with a piece of
equipment that another student or group of
students has left in a mess.
Consequently, students are required to clean
up their area at the conclusion of the performance
of an experiment. Cleanup will include removal
of spilled water (or any liquid), and wiping the
table top on which the equipment is mounted (if
appropriate). The lab should always be as clean
or cleaner than it was when you entered. Cleaning
the lab is your responsibility as a user of the
equipment. This is an act of courtesy that students
who follow you will appreciate, and that you
will appreciate when you work with the
equipment.
Safety
The layout of the equipment and storage
cabinets in the Heat Transfer Lab involves
resolving a variety of conflicting problems. These
include traffic flow, emergency facilities,
environmental safeguards, exit door locations,
etc. The goal is to implement safety requirements
without impeding egress, but still allowing
adequate work space and necessary informal
communication opportunities.
Distance between adjacent pieces of
equipment is determined by locations of water
supply valves, floor drains, electrical outlets,
and by the need to allow enough space around the
apparatus of interest. Immediate access to the
Safety Cabinet and the Fire Extinguisher is also
considered. We do not work with hazardous
materials and safety facilities such as showers,
eye wash fountains, spill kits, fire blankets, etc.,
are not necessary. However, waste materials are
generated periodically and they should be
disposed of properly.
Not infrequently, specimens under study are
heated by the use of a heat source. The student is
advised to use caution when conducting
experiments that involve heated surfaces,
because usually there is no visual indication that
a specimen is hot.
Safety Procedures. There is unmistakably
only one, clearly marked exit in this laboratory.
It has a single door and leads directly to the
hallway on the third floor of the Engineering
Building. In case of fire, exit the lab to the
hallway. After closing the door, take the stairs
down to first floor, and leave the building.
There is a safety cabinet attached to the
wall of lab adjacent to the door. In case of
personal injury, the appropriate item should be
taken from the supply cabinet and used in the
recommended fashion. If the injury is serious
enough to require professional medical attention,
the student(s) should contact the Mechanical
Engineering Department in EN 312, Extension
2173.
Every effort has been made to create a
positive, clean, safety conscious atmosphere.
Students are encouraged to handle equipment
safely and to be aware of, and avoid being
victims of, hazardous situations.
5
THE CODE OF STUDENT CONDUCT
Taken from the University of Memphis
19981999 Student Handbook
Institution Policy Statement
The University of Memphis students are citizens
of the state, local, and national governments, and
of the academic community. They are, therefore,
expected to conduct themselves as law abiding
members of each community at all times.
Admission to the University carries with it
special privileges and imposes special
responsibilities apart from those rights and
duties enjoyed by non-students. In recognition of
this special relationship that exists between the
institution and the academic community which it
seeks to serve, the Tennessee Board of Regents
has, as a matter of public record, instructed the
presidents of the universities and colleges under
its jurisdiction to take such action as may be
necessary to maintain campus conditionsand to
preserve the integrity of the institution and its
educational environment.
The following regulations (known as the Code
of Student Conduct) have been developed by a
committee made up of faculty, students, and staff
utilizing input from all facets of the University
Community in order to provide a secure and
stimulating atmosphere in which individual and
academic pursuits may flourish. Students are,
however, subject to all national, state and local
laws and ordinances. If a students violation of
such laws or ordinances also adversely affects the
Universitys pursuit of its educational objectives,
the University may enforce its own regulations
regardless of any proceeding instituted by other
authorities. Additionally, violations of any
section of the Code may subject a student to
disciplinary measures by the University whether
or not such conduct is simultaneously violates
state, local or national laws.
The term academic misconduct includes, but
is not limited to, all acts of cheating and
plagiarism.
The term cheating includes, but is not limited
to:
a. use of any unauthorized assistance in taking
quizzes, tests, or examinations;
b. dependence upon the aid of sources beyond
those authorized by the instructor in writing
papers, preparing reports, solving problems,
or carrying out other assignments;
c. the acquisition, without permission, of tests
or other academic material before such
material is revealed or distributed by the
instructor;
d. the misrepresentation of papers, reports,
assignments or other materials as the product
of a students sole independent effort, for the
purpose of affecting the students grade,
credit, or status in the University;
e. failing to abide by the instructions of the
proctor concerning test-taking procedures;
examples include, but are not limited to,
talking, laughing, failure to take a seat
assignment, failing to adhere to starting and
stopping times, or other disruptive activity;
f . influencing, or attempting to influence, any
University official, faculty member,
graduate student or employee possessing
academic grading and/or evaluation
authority or responsibility for maintenance of
academic records, through the use of bribery,
threats, or any other means or coercion in
order to affect a students grade or
evaluation;
g. any forgery, alteration, unauthorized
possession, or misuse of University documents
pertaining to academic records, including, but
not limited to, late or retroactive change of
course application forms (otherwise known as
drop slips) and late or retroactive
withdrawal application forms. Alteration or
misuse of University documents pertaining to
academic records by means of computer
resources or other equipment is also included
within this definition of cheating.
The term plagiarism includes, but is not limited
to, the use, by paraphrase or direct quotation, of
the published or unpublished work of another
person without full or clear acknowledgment. It
also includes the unacknowledged use of
materials prepared by another person or agency
engaged in the selling of term papers or other
academic materials.
Course Policy
Academic misconduct (acts of cheating and of
plagiarism) will not be tolerated. The Student
Handbook is quite specific regarding the course of
action to be taken by an instructor in cases where
academic misconduct may be an issue.
6
Statistical Treatment of Experimental Data
Introduction
This laboratory course concerns making
measurements in various heat transfer geometries
and relating those measurements to derived
equations. The objective is to determine how well
the derived equations describe the physical
phenomena we are modeling. In doing so, we will
need to make physical measurements, and it is
essential that we learn how to practice good
techniques in making scientific observations and
in obtaining measurements. We are making
quantitative estimates of physical phenomena
under controlled conditions.
Measurements
There are certain primary desirable
characteristics involved when making these
physical measurements. We wish that our
measurements would be:
a ) Observer-independent,
b) Consistent, and
c) Quantitative
So when reporting a measurements, we will be
stating a number, but whats in a number? A single
number, in isolation, has almost no significance,
but the implied question is, Is it large or small?
Is 26 a large number? Is 6 x 10
5
a large number?
The answer requires another number for reference
purposes. Is 26 a large number compared to 6 x 10
5
?
Furthermore, we will have to add a dimension
and this leads to another question: Are we
talking about a number or a dimensional physical
quantity? We know from experience that a
physical value without a unit has no
significance.
In reporting measurements, another question
arises as to how should we report data; i.e., how
many significant digits should we include?
Which physical quantity is associated with the
measurement, and how precise should it or could
it be.
For example, does 2.54 cm = 2.54001 cm? It is
impossible to answer this question without some
measure of the expected natural variation in the
measurement. So it is prudent to scrutinize the
claimed or implied accuracy of a measurement.
Performing experiments
In the course of performing an experiment, we
first would develop a set of questions or a
hypothesis, or put forth the theory. We then
identify the system variables to be measured or
controlled. The apparatus would have to be
developed and the equipment set up in a
particular way. An experimental protocol, or
procedure, is established and data are taken.
Several features of this process are
important. We want accuracy in our
measurements, but increased accuracy generally
corresponds to an increase in cost. We want the
experiments to be reproducible, and we seek to
minimize errors. Of course we want to address all
safety issues and regulations.
After we run the experiment, and obtain data,
we would analyze the results, draw conclusions,
and report the results.
Estimation
In some situations, there is no time to run
formal experiments to answer a question or verify
an equation. In such cases, it is often useful to
make careful estimates. These can help to
determine the ranges of parameters to investigate
in the experiments. Also, estimates are necessary
for partial validation of experimental results.
Consider, for example, that we must obtain a
quick estimate of the density of a rock. We
observe that it sinks in water, so it must be more
dense than water, 1 000 kg/m
3
. As an upper bound,
we might suggest that it is less dense than steel
at 3 000 kg/m
3
.
So if we conduct an experiment and obtain a
value outside this range, we would be suspicious
and check the equipment and the experimental
approach.
Comments on Performing Experiments
Keep in mind the fundamental state of
questions or hypotheses.
Make sure the experiment design will answer
the right questions.
Use estimation as a reality check, but do not
let it affect objectivity.
Consider all possible safety issues.
Design for repeatability and the appropriate
level of accuracy.
7
Error & UncertaintyDefinitions
The laboratory in heat transfer is designed to
provide the students with experiments that
verify the descriptive equations we derive to
model physical phenomena. The laboratory
experience involves making measurements of heat
flux and temperature, among other things.
However, we have to ask if the measurements we
make are accurate and/or precise. In the
following paragraphs, we will examine our
measurement methods and define terms that
apply. These terms include error, uncertainty,
accuracy, and precision.
Error. The error E is the difference between a
TRUE value, x, and a MEASURED value, x
i
:

E x x
i
(1)
There is no error-free measurement. All
measurements contain some error. How error is
defined and used is important. The significance of
a measurement cannot be judged unless the
associated error has been reliably estimated. In
Equation 1, because the true value of x is unknown,
then the error E is unknown as well. This is
always the case.
The best we can hope for is to obtain the
estimate of a likely error, which is called an
uncertainty. For multiple measurements of the
same quantity, a mean value,

x, (also called a
nominal value) can be calculated. Hence, the
error becomes:

E x x
However, because x is unknown, E is still
unknown.
Uncertainty. The uncertainty, x, is an estimate
of E as a possible range of errors:
x E (2)
For example, suppose we measure a velocity and
report the result as
V = 110 m/s 5 m/s
The value of 5 m/s is defined as the uncertainty.
Alternatively, suppose we report the results as
V = 110 m/s 4.5%
The value of 4.5% is defined as the relative
uncertainty. It is common to hear someone speak
of experimental errors, when the correct
terminology should be uncertainty. Both terms
are used in everyday language, but it should be
remembered that the uncertainty is defined as an
estimate of errors.
Accuracy. Accuracy is a measure (or an estimate)
of the maximum deviation of measured values, x
i
,
from the TRUE value, x:

accuracy estimate of x x
i
max (3)
Again, because the true value x is unknown, then
the value of the maximum deviation is unknown.
The accuracy, then, is only an estimate of the
worst error. It is usually expressed as a
percentage; e.g., accurate to within 5%.
Example 1. Consider a measurement that is
reported as:
p = 50 psi 5 psi
What is the accuracy of the pressure probe used
for making this measurement?
Solution: The relative uncertainty is calculated
to be

p
p

5
50
0 1 10 . %
Thus the accuracy may be estimated to be
(around) 10%.
Example 2. A sensor is claimed to be accurate to
5%. What will be the uncertainty (in psi) in the
measurement of a pressure of 50 psi?
Solution: The accuracy ( relative uncertainty)
is 5%, so

p
p
5%

p p 0 05 0 05 50 . .
or

p psi 2 5 .
8
The uncertainty in p in psi is 2.5 psi, so the
measurement should be reported as follows:
p = 50 psi 2.5 psi.
Accuracy and Precision. As mentioned, accuracy is
a measure (or an estimate) of the maximum
deviation of measured values from the true value.
So a question like:
Are the measured values accurate?
can be reformulated as
Are the measured values close to the true
value?
Accuracy was defined in Equation 2 as

accuracy estimate of x x
i
max (3)
Precision, on the other hand, is a measure (or an
estimate) of the consistency (or repeatability).
Thus it is the maximum deviation of a reading
(measurement), x
i
, from its mean value, x :

precision estimate of x x
i
max
(4)
Note the difference between accuracy and
precision.
Regarding the definition of precision, there is
no true value identified, only the mean value (or
average) of a number of repeated measurements of
the same quantity. Precision is a characteristic of
the measurement. In everyday language we often
conclude that accuracy and precision are the
same, but in error analysis there is a difference.
So a question like:
Are the measured values precise?
can be reformulated as
Are the measured values close to each
other?
As an illustration of the concepts of accuracy and
precision, consider the dart board shown in the
accompanying figures. Let us assume that the blue
darts show the measurements taken, and that the
bullseye represents the value to be measured.
When all measurements are clustered about the
bullseye, then we have very accurate and,
therefore, precise results (Figure 1a).
When all measurements are clustered
together but not near the bullseye, then we have
very precise but not accurate results (Figure 1b).
When all measurements are not clustered
together and not near the bullseye, but their
nominal value or average is the bullseye, then we
have accurate (on average) but not precise results
(Figure 1c).
When all measurements are not clustered
together and not near the bullseye, and their
average is the not at the bullseye, then we have
neither accurate nor precise results (Figure 1d).
We conclude that accuracy refers to the
correctness of the measurements, while precision
refers to their consistency.
Classification of errors
Random error. A random error is one that arises
from a random source. Suppose for example that a
measurement is made many thousands of times
using different instruments and/or observers
and/or samples. We would expect to have random
errors affecting the measurement in either
direction () roughly the same number of times.
Such errors can occur in any scenario:
Electrical noise in a circuit generally produces
a voltage error that may be positive or
negative by a small amount.
By counting the total number of pennies in a
large container, one may occasionally pick up
two and count only one (or vice versa).
The question arises as to how can we reduce
random errors? There are no random error free
measurements. So random errors cannot be
eliminated, but their magnitude can be reduced.
On average, random errors tend to cancel out.
Systematic error. A systematic error is one that is
consistent; that is, it happens systematically.
Typically, human components of measurement
systems are often responsible for systematic
errors. For example, systematic errors are common
in reading of a pressure indicated by an inclined
manometer.
Consider an experiment involving dropping a
ball from a given height. We wish to measure the
time it takes for the ball to move from where it is
dropped to when it hits the ground. We might
repeat this experiment several times. However,
9
1
18
4
13
6
10
15
2
17 3
7
16
8
11
14
9
12
5
FIGURE 1a. Accurate and Precise
1
18
4
13
6
10
15
2
17 3
7
16
8
11
14
9
12
5
FIGURE 1b. Precise but not Accurate.
1
18
4
13
6
10
15
2
17 3
7
16
8
11
14
9
12
5
FIGURE 1c. Precise but not Accurate.
1
18
4
13
6
10
15
2
17 3
7
16
8
11
14
9
12
5
FIGURE 1d. Neither Precise nor Accurate.
the person using the stopwatch may consistently
have a tendency to wait until the ball bounces
before the watch is stopped. As a result, the time
measurement might be systematically too long.
Systematic measurements can be anticipated
and/or measured, and then corrected. This can be
done even after the measurements are made.
The question arises as to how can we reduce
systematic errors? This can be done in several
ways:
1. Calibrate the instruments being used by
checking with a known standard. The
standard can be what is referred to as:
a) a primary standard obtained from the
National Institute of standards and
technology (NIST formerly the National
Bureau of Standards); or
b) a secondary standard (with a higher
accuracy instrument); or
c) A known input source.
2. Make several measurements of a certain
quantity under varying test conditions, such
as different observers and/or samples and/or
instruments.
3. Check the apparatus.
4. Check the effects of external conditions
5. Check the coherence of results.
A repeatability test using the same instrument is
one way of gaining confidence, but a far more
reliable way is to use an entirely different
method to measure the desired quantity.
Uncertainty Analysis
Determining Uncertainty. When we state a
measurement that we have taken, we should also
state an estimate of the error, or the uncertainty.
As a rule of thumb, we use a 95% relative
uncertainty, or stated otherwise, we use a 95%
confidence interval.
Suppose for example, that we report the
height of a desk to be 38 inches 1 inch. This
suggests that we are 95% sure that the desk is
between 37 and 39 inches tall.
When reporting relative uncertainty, we
generally restrict the result to having one or two
significant figures. When reporting uncertainty in
a measurement using units, we use the same
number of significant figures as the measured
value. Examples are shown in Table 1:
10
TABLE 1. Examples of relative and absolute
uncertainty.
Relative uncertainty Uncertainty in units
3.45 cm 8.5% 5.23 cm 0.143 cm
6.4 N 2.0% 2.5 m/s 0.082 m/s
2.3 psi 0.1900% 9.25 in 0.2 in
9.2 m/s 8.598% 3.2 N 0.1873 N
The previous tables shows uncertainty in
measurements, but to determine uncertainty is
usually difficult. So as a rule of thumb, we use a
95% confidence interval which gives us an
estimate. Now the estimate of uncertainty
depends on the measurement type: single sample
measurements, measurements of dependent
variables, or multi variable measurements.
Single-sample measurements. Single-sample
measurements are those in which the
uncertainties cannot be reduced by repetition. As
long as the test conditions are the same (i.e.,
same sample, same instrument and same
observer), the measurements (for fixed variables)
are single-sample measurements, regardless of
how many times the reading is repeated.
Measurement Of Function Of More Than One
Independent Variables. In many cases, several
different quantities are measured in order to
calculate another quantitya dependent
variable. For example, the measurement of the
surface area of a rectangle is calculated using
both its measured length and its measured width.
Such a situation involves a propagation of
uncertainties.
Multi-Sample Measurements. Multi-sample
measurements involve a significant number of
data points collected from enough experiments so
that the reliability of the results can be assured
by a statistical analysis.
In other words, the measurement of a
significant number of data points of the same
quantity (for fixed system variables) under
varying test conditions (i.e., different samples
and/or different instruments) will allow the
uncertainties to be reduced by the sheer number of
observations.
Single-sample uncertainty. It is often simple to
identify the uncertainty of an individual
measurement. It is necessary to consider the limit
of the scale readability, and the limit
associated with applying the measurement tool
to the case of interest.
Consider some measuring device that has as
its smallest scale division x. The smallest scale
division limits our ability to measure something
with any more accuracy than x/2. The ruler of
Figure 2a, as an example, has 1/4 inch as its
smallest scale division. The diameter of the
circle is between 4 and 4
1
/4 inches. So we would
correctly report that
D = 4
1
/
8

1
/
8
in.
This is the correct reported measurement for
Figure 2a and Figure 2b, even though the circles
are of different diameters. We can guesstimate
the correct measurement, but we cannot report
something more accurately than our measuring
apparatus will display. This does not mean that
the two circles have the same diameter, merely
that we cannot measure the diameters with a
greater accuracy than the ruler we use will allow.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
( a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b)
FIGURE 2. A ruler used to measure the diameter
of a circle.
The ruler depicted in the figure could be any
arbitrary instrument with finite resolution. The
uncertainty due to the resolution of any
instrument is one half of the smallest increment
displayed. This is the most likely single sample
uncertainty. It is also the most optimistic because
reporting this values assumes that all other
sources of uncertainty have been removed.
11
Uncertainty In Measurement of a Function of
Independent Variables. The concern in this
measurement is in the propagation of
uncertainties. In most experiments, several
quantities are measured in order to calculate a
desired quantity. For example, to estimate the
gravitational constant by dropping a ball from a
known height, the approximate equation would
be:

g
L
t
2
2
Now suppose we measured: L = 50.00 0.01 m and
t = 3.1 0.5 s. Based on the equation, we have:

g
L
t

2 2 50 00
3 1
10 4
2 2
2
.
.
. m/s
We now wish to estimate the uncertainty g in
our calculation of g. Obviously, the uncertainty
g will depend on the uncertainties in the
measurements of L and t. Let us examine the
worst cases. These may be calculated as:

g
min
.
.
.
2 49 99
3 6
7 7
2
2
m/s
and

g
max
.
.
.
2 50 01
2 6
14 8
2
2
m/s
The confidence interval around g then is:

7 7 14 8
2 2
. . m/s m/s g
Now it is unlikely for all single-sample
uncertainties in a system to simultaneously be the
worst possible. Some average or norm of the
uncertainties must instead be used in estimating a
combined uncertainty for the calculation of g.
Definition of the Euclidean Norm. In general, if
the quantity f is determined by an equation
involving n independent variables x
i
:

f x x x
n
( , , ..., )
1 2
(5)
and the uncertainty in each independent
measurement variable x
i
is called x
i
then the
uncertainty in f is given by:

f
f
x
x
i
i
i
n
j
(
,
\
,
(
2
1
(6)
We will need a process or an algorithm for
calculating f. The procedure is as follows:
1. Write expression for f in terms of its
independent variables, x
i
2. Evaluate each

f
x
i
term separately
3. Calculate

f
f
x
x
i
i
i
n
j
(
,
\
,
(
2
1
4. Calculate the relative uncertainty f/f.
As an example of this procedure, we calculate
the Euclidean Norm in the example for
determining the gravitational constant:
1. Write expression for g in terms of its
independent variable(s):

g
L
t
2
2
2. Evaluate each partial derivative term
separately:

g
L t
2
2

g
t t
4
3
3. Calculate the Euclidean norm

g
t
L
L
t
t
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
2 4
2
2
3
2

g
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
2
3 1
0 01
4 50 00
3 1
0 5
2
2
3
2
.
.
.
.
.

g 3 4
2
. m/s
4. Alternatively, calculate the relative
uncertainty g/g:

g
g
L
L
t
t
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
2 2
2
12

g
g
32%
Note that the expression for g/g is simpler than
that for g. Also, in the g/g expression, the
individual terms are dimensionless. This is
convenient if quantities are originally given in %,
or if the units are incompatible.
Now, in calculating g and g/g, we found:

g 10 4
2
. m/s
and

g
g
32%
So, the measurement should be reported as:

g 10 32
2
m/s %
This is an example of bad experiment or poor
results.
Uncertainty In Multi-Sample Measurements.
When a set of readings is taken in which the
values vary slightly from each other, the
experimenter is usually concerned with the mean
of all readings. If each reading is denoted by x
i
and there are n readings, then the arithmetic
mean value is given by:

x
x
n
i
i
n
1
(7)
Deviation. The deviation of each reading is
defined by:

d x x
i i
(8)
The arithmetic mean deviation is defined as:

d
n
d
i
i
n

1
0
1
Note that the arithmetic mean deviation is zero:
Standard Deviation. The standard deviation is
given by:

( ) x x
n
i
i
n
2
1
1
(9)
Due to random errors, experimental data is
dispersed in what is referred to as a bell
distribution, known also as a Gaussian or Normal
Distribution, and depicted in Figure 3.
x
i
f(x
i
)
FIGURE 3. Gaussian or Normal Distribution.
The Gaussian or Normal Distribution is what
we use to describe the distribution followed by
random errors. A graph of this distribution is
often referred to as the bell curve as it looks
like the outline of a bell. The peak of the
distribution occurs at the mean of the random
variable, and the standard deviation is a common
measure for how fat this bell curve is. Equation
10 is called the Probability Density Function for
any continuous random variable x.

f x e
x x
( )
( )

1
2
2
2
2

(10)
The mean and the standard deviation are all
the information necessary to completely describe
any normally-distributed random variable.
Integrating under the curve of Figure 3 over
various limits gives some interesting results.
Integrating under the curve of the normal
distribution from negative to positive
infinity, the area is 1.0 (i.e., 100 %). Thus the
probability for a reading to fall in the range
of is 100%.
Integrating over a range within from the
mean value, the resulting value is 0.6826. The
of is about 68%.
Integrating over a range within 2 from the
of 2 is about 95%.
Integrating over a range within 3 from the
of 3 is about 99%.
13
TABLE 2. Probability for Gaussian Distribution
(tabulated in any statistics book)
Probability value of the mean
50% 0.6754
68.3%
86.6% 1.5
95.4% 2
99.7% 3
Estimating Uncertainty. We can now use the
probability function to help in determining the
accuracy of data obtained in an experiment. We
use the uncertainty level of 95%, which means
that we have a 95% confidence interval. In other
words, if we state that the uncertainty is x, we
suggest that we are 95% sure that any reading x
i
will be within the range of x of the mean.
Thus, the probability of a sample chosen at
random of being within the range 2 of the
mean is about 95%. Uncertainty then is defined as
twice the standard deviation:
x 2
Example 3. The manufacturer of a particular
alloy claims a modulus of elasticity of 40 2 kPa.
How is that to be interpreted?
Solution: The general rule of thumb is that 2
kPa would represent a 95% confidence interval.
That is, if we randomly select many samples of
this manufacturers alloy we should find that
95% of the samples meet the stated limit of 40 2
kPa.
Now it is possible that we can find a sample
that has a modulus of elasticity of 37 kPa;
however, it means that it is very unlikely.
Example 4. If we assume that variations in the
product follow a normal distribution, and that
the modulus of elasticity is within the range 40
2 kPa, then what is the standard deviation, ?
Solution: The uncertainty 95% of confidence
interval 2. Thus
2 kPa = 2
So
= 1 kPa
Example 5. Assuming that the modulus of
elasticity is 40 2 kPa, estimate the probability
of finding a sample from this population with a
modulus of elasticity less than or equal to 37 kPa.
Solution: With = 1 kPa, we are seeking the
value of the integral under the bell shaped curve,
over the range of - to 3. Thus, the probability
that the modulus of elasticity is less than 37 kPa
is:
P(E < 37 kPa) =
100 - 99.7
2
= 0.15%
Statistically Based Rejection of Bad Data
Chauvenets Criterion
Occasionally, when a sample of n
measurements of a variable is obtained, there
may be one or more that appear to differ
markedly from the others. If some extraneous
influence or mistake in experimental technique
can be identified, these bad data or wild
points can simply be discarded. More difficult is
the common situation in which no explanation is
readily available. In such situations, the
experimenter may be tempted to discard the
values on the basis that something must surely
have gone wrong. However, this temptation must
be resisted, since such data may be significant
either in terms of the phenomena being studied or
in detecting flaws in the experimental technique.
On the other hand, one does not want an erroneous
value to bias the results. In this case, a
statistical criterion must be used to identify
points that can be considered for rejection. There
is no other justifiable method to throw away
data points.
One method that has gained wide acceptance
is Chauvenets criterion; this technique defines
an acceptable scatter, in a statistical sense,
around the mean value from a given sample of n
measurements. The criterion states that all data
points should be retained that fall within a band
around the mean that corresponds to a
probability of 1-1/(2n). In other words, data
points can be considered for rejection only if the
probability of obtaining their deviation from the
mean is less than 1/(2n). This is illustrated in
Figure 4.
14
x
i
f(x
i
)
Probability
1 - 1/(2n)
Reject
data
Reject
data
FIGURE 4. Rejection of bad data.
The probability 1-1/(2n) for retention of data
distributed about the mean can be related to a
maximum deviation d
max
away from the mean by
using a Gaussian probability table. For the given
probability, the non dimensional maximum
deviation
max
can be determined from the table,
where
max
=
|(x
i

x )|
max
s
x

=
d
max
s
x
and s
x
is the precision index of the sample.
All measurements that deviate from the
mean by more than d
max
/s
x
can be rejected. A new
mean value and a new precision index can then be
calculated from the remaining measurements. No
further application of the criterion to the sample
is allowed.
Using Chauvenets criterion, we say that the
values x
i
which are outside of the range

x C (11)
are clearly errors and should be discarded for the
analysis. Such values are called outliers. The
constant C may be obtained from Table 3. Note
that Chauvenets criterion may be applied only
once to a given sample of readings.
The methodology for identifying and
discarding outlier(s) is a follows:
1. After running an experiment, sort the
outcomes from lowest to highest value. The
suspect outliers will then be at the top and/or
the bottom of the list.
2. Calculate the mean value and the standard
deviation.
3. Using Chauvenets criterion, discard outliers.
4. Recalculate the mean value and the
standard deviation of the smaller sample
and stop. Do not repeat the process;
Chauvenets criterion may be applied only
once.
TABLE 3. Constants to use in Chauvenets
criterion, Equation 11.
Number,
n

d
max
s
x
= C
3 1.38
4 1.54
5 1.65
6 1.73
7 1.80
8 1.87
9 1.91
10 1.96
15 2.13
20 2.24
25 2.33
50 2.57
100 2.81
300 3.14
500 3.29
1,000 3.48
Example 5. Consider an experiment in which we
measure the mass of ten individual identical
objects. The scale readings (in grams) are as
shown in Table 4.
By visual examination of the results, we
might conclude that the 4.85 g reading is too high
compared to the others, and so it represents an
error in the measurement. We might tend to
disregard it. However, what if the reading was
2.50 or 2.51 g? We use Chauvenets criterion to
determine if any of the readings can be discarded.
TABLE 4. Data obtained in a series of

experiments.
Number, n reading in g
1 2.41
2 2.42
3 2.43
4 2.43
5 2.44
6 2.44
7 2.45
8 2.46
9 2.47
10 4.85
15
We apply the methodology described earlier.
The results of the calculations are shown in Table
5:
1. Values in the table are already sorted.
Column 1 shows the reading number, and
there are 10 readings of mass, as indicated in
column 2.
2. We calculate the mean and standard
deviation. The data in column 2 are added to
obtain a total of 26.8. Dividing this value by
10 readings gives 2.68, which is the mean
value of all the readings:
m
= 2.68 g
In column 3, we show the square of the
difference between each reading and the
mean value. Thus in row 1, we calculate
(x
x
1
)
2

= (2.68 2.41)
2
= 0.0729
We repeat this calculation for every data
point. We then add these to obtain the value
5.235 shown in the second to last row of
column 3. This value is then divided by (n 1)
= 9 data points, and the square root is taken.
The result is 0.763, which is the standard
deviation, as defined in Equation 9:

( ) x x
n
i
i
n
2
1
1
= 0.763 (9)
3. Next, we apply Chauvenets criterion; for 10
data points, n = 10 and Table 3 reads C = 1.96.
We calculate C = 1.96(0.763) = 1.50. The
range of acceptable values then is 2.68
1.50, or:
m
C m
i
m
+ C
1.18 g m
4.18 g
Any values outside the range of 1.18 and 4.18
are outliers and should be discarded.
4. Thus for the data of the example, the 4.85
value is an outlier and may be discarded. All
other points are valid. The last two columns
show the results of calculations made
without data point #10. The mean becomes
2.44, and the standard deviation is 0.019
(compare to 2.68, and 0.763, respectively).
Exercise. Define the following terms:
1. Error
2. Uncertainty
3. Accuracy
4. Precision
5. Random Error
6. Systematic Error
7. Confidence Interval
8. Outlier
TABLE 5. Calculations summary for the data of Table 4.
Number, n reading in g (x
x
i
)
2
remove #10 (x
x
i
)
2
1 2.41 0.0729 2.41 0.000835
2 2.42 0.0676 2.42 0.000357
3 2.43 0.0625 2.43 0.000079
4 2.43 0.0625 2.43 0.000079
5 2.44 0.0576 2.44 0.000001
6 2.44 0.0576 2.44 0.000001
7 2.45 0.0529 2.45 0.000123
8 2.46 0.0484 2.46 0.000446
9 2.47 0.0441 2.47 0.000968
10 4.85 4.7089
= 26.8 5.235 21.95 0.002889
2.68 0.763 2.44 0.019
\f(T,x
16
REPORT WRITING
All reports in the Heat Transfer Laboratory
require a formal laboratory report unless
specified otherwise. The report should be written
in such a way that anyone can duplicate the
experiment and obtain the same results as the
originator. The reports should be simple and
clearly written. Reports are due one week after
the experiment was performed, unless specified
otherwise.
The report should communicate several ideas
to the reader. First the report should be neatly
done. The experimenter is in effect trying to
convince the reader that the experiment was
performed in a straightforward manner with
great care and with full attention to detail. A
poorly written report might instead lead the
reader to think that just as little care went into
performing the experiment. Second, the report
should be well organized. The reader should be
able to easily follow each step discussed in the
text. Third, the report should contain accurate
results. This will require checking and rechecking
the calculations until accuracy can be guaranteed.
Fourth, the report should be free of spelling and
grammatical errors. Following is a summary of
the key elements in a well written, formal
laboratory report. Details regarding each of
these elements are also provided.
SUMMARY
TITLE PAGE
Experiment Number, Title of the Experiment, Name of the Author, Name of
Partners, Date the Experiment was Performed, Due date for this Report, The
University of Memphis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, proofreaders
signature.
ABSTRACT
Brief summary of the objective of the experiment, the procedures, the results,
conclusions and recommendations. Present or future tense.
INTRODUCTION
Description of the problem, references, objective. Past or present tense.
THEORY AND
ANALYSIS
Theory associated with this experiment, equation derivation. Past or present
tense.
PROCEDURE
Describes the equipment used, equipment setup, model and/or serial numbers,
experimental procedure. Past tense.
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
Summarize your outcome, graphs and tables, sample calculation. Past tense.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions, observations, trends, and recommendations. Past or present tense;
recommendations in future tense.
APPENDICES
Title page, references, original data sheet, calibration curves.
17
Sample Title Page
Experiment Number
TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT
Name of the Author
Name of Partner #1
Name of Partner #2
etc.
Date the Experiment was Performed
Due date for this Report
The University of Memphis
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ABSTRACT
This report was designed to contain the instructions on how to write a report, and to serve as an
example of the format and style expected in all reports. It was based on the style and format of
engineering reports used in the writing of professional engineering publications. The Title Page and
Abstract are the first two components of the report.
The Abstract summarizes the information in the report. It provides a brief summary of the objective
of the experiment, the procedures, the results, conclusions and recommendations. It should not reference
any tables, figures or appendices. A short abstract may appear on the title page as in this example. A
longer abstract would appear on the sheet following the Title Page.
The Abstract allows the reader to determine whether to read the report. It is written in the past
tense, except for the recommendations, which may be written in the present or future tense.
18
INTRODUCTION
This section tells the reader what the experiment
is about. It begins with a description of the
problem that is being investigated. It includes
the background and provides the reader with a
clear concise statement explaining the purpose of
the experiment. This is one of the most important
parts of the laboratory report because everything
included in the report must somehow relate to the
stated object. The object can be as short as one
sentence and it is usually written in the past
tense.
Subheadings. The beginning of this section
showed how a major heading (e.g., Introduction)
should appear in a report: all capital letters,
boldface type, and left justified. It may be
necessary to use subheadings, and the format for
these is shown at the beginning of this
paragraph. Note also, that the beginning of a
paragraph is not indented, but instead is
preceded by a blank line.
Write for the Reader. Consider that the report is
written for a technically competent person who is
unfamiliar with the specific subject matter, but
will be after he/she reads the report. Also
consider that the reader is not as closely
associated with the test as you are. Check
grammar and spelling. Check continuity of page,
figure, and table numbers. Have an associate who
did not perform the experiment with you, but who
has technical competency, proofread your report.
Report Preparation. Reports must be composed on
a word processor. Use white paper and black text.
Use only one side of a page. All margins should be
1 in. Do not right justify the text. Each section
does not need to begin on a new page.
Each page is to be numbered with an Arabic
numeral centered at the bottom of the page. Do
not number the title page. Begin numbering with
page 2.
Figures should be numbered sequentially using
Arabic numbers. Each figure is to have a
descriptive title. Figures should be drawn using a
computer and a drawing program, or use the
figures available with the lab manual. Figures
are to be located near the place in the text where
they are first referred to. Figures should be
centered left-to-right either on the page (single
column) or within the column (two or more
columns). The figure number and title should
appear centered just below the figure itself.
Tables should contain as much information as
possible. They are to be enclosed in a border. They
can be placed in the text or at the end of the
section where they are first referred to. Tables
are to be numbered consecutively with Arabic
numerals. An acceptable table format is as
follows:
TABLE 1. Reduced data for heat transferred past
a flat plate.
Trial
Velocity
V in m/s
Heat
transferred
q in W
Temperature T
in C
1 0.5 13.6 74.8
2 1.0 16.2 75.5
3 1.5 17.5 75.3
4 2.0 18.9 74.5
Note carefully the following features regarding
this table:
The first column is trial or run.
Each column heading is of a parameter,
followed by the symbol and the unit.
Each column heading is centered within the
column.
The table is centered left to right within the
page or column.
A border has been placed around the table,
and around each cell.
The font size is smaller than that used for the
text in the report.
TABLE 1 is in all capital letters, and the
actual title is in italics.
These features are referred to collectively as the
style of the report.
Graphs. In many instances, it is necessary to
compose a plot in order to graphically present the
results. Graphs must be drawn neatly following a
specific format. Figure R.1 shows an acceptable
graph prepared using a computer. There are many
computer programs that have graphing
capabilities. An acceptably drawn graph has
several features of note. These features are
summarized next to Figure R.1.
Graphs especially should have descriptive
titles. A graph of temperature versus time, for
example, should not have a title of:
FIGURE 1. Temperature versus time.
The reader can see by looking at the graph that
this is so. A better title would be:
FIGURE 1. Temperature variation with time for a
brass sphere cooling in air.
Note that FIGURE 1 is in all capital letters,
and the actual title is in italics.
19
Features of note
Border is drawn about the entire graph.
Axis labels defined with symbols and
units.
Grid drawn using major axis divisions.
Each line is identified using a legend.
Data points are identified with a
symbol: o on the Q
ac
line to denote data
points obtained by experiment.
The line representing the theoretical
results has no data points represented.
Nothing is drawn freehand.
Title is descriptive, rather than
something like Q vs. h.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Q
th
Q
ac
Q
h head loss in m
f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

i
n

m
3
/
s
FIGURE R.1. Theoretical and actual volume flow rate
through a venturi meter as a function of head loss.
Writing Style. Use simple words with exact
meanings. Use technical terms to express a precise
technical meaning. Do not use a large and unusual
term to add false importance to the report or to
yourself. Do not use slang words or expressions.
Use simple sentences that have a subject and
a predicate. Add adjectives as required. Avoid
extra long sentences. Never use I regardless of
what you were taught in any previous courses.
We is acceptable. Insert only one space between
a period and the beginning of the next sentence.
Do not bind the report in a folder. Staple the
pages together in the upper left-hand corner.
The introduction section should conclude with
a brief statement of what the objective of the
experiment is.
The Introduction is written in the past or
present tense.
The report can be written using 1 column or
two columns per page.
THEORY AND ANALYSIS
This section explains the theory associated with
this experiment. The theory should be discussed
in great detail and it should contain an
explanation of the theoretical model. For
example, if an experiment was performed with a
pendulum, then include a brief derivation of the
mathematical model of a pendulum. Put the
significant portions of the derivation in this
section. Cite references if appropriate. Include
simple sketches or diagrams to help the reader
visualize the physical phenomenon being
studied.
If there is little or no theory involved in this
experiment, include the theory with the
Introduction section.
All equations in the report should be indented
and numbered consecutively with Arabic
numerals. Each symbol in the equations should be
named and its dimensional unit given. An
example:
Newtons Second Law of Motion can be written
as:
F = ma (1)
where F is the unbalanced external force in N, m
is the mass of the block in kg, and a is the
acceleration in m/s
2
.
There are several inconspicuous but extremely
important details associated with this example,
specifically in the way equations and units are
written. Note that the letters used in the
equation are in italics. Every reference to force,
for instance, is in italics. The units used for each
variable are in normal type (e.g., non italics).
Numerical subscripts and superscripts are in
normal type as well. However, subscripts and
superscripts that are variables are italicized.
When a number is written with a unit, a space
should separate the two. For example, 5 N, or
17.3 kPa. Numbers are written in normal type.
These features are very important in report
writing. It is these features that will make a
20
well done technical report appear professional in
every way.
The theory section in its entirety is written in
the past or present tense.
PROCEDURE
This section describes the equipment used in the
experiment and the test procedures. The
equipment setup should be shown in a figure. The
test equipment and instrumentation used should
be listed with model and/or serial numbers, and
the expected instrument precision. Figures of
specific components should be provided if
necessary to help the reader to better understand
the test procedure.
Briefly describe the steps of the
experimental procedure in the order in which
they were conducted. Include sufficient detail in
this section such that the reader could repeat the
experiment.
The procedure is written in the past tense.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The section should discuss the results. Summarize
your outcome in the topic sentence, then support
that summary with the results. Use graphs and
tables to concisely present the results. Do not
draw conclusions in this section; only list and
discuss results. This is also the section where a
comparison of results with referenced values
should be presented.
A sample calculation should also be
provided. Start with raw data obtained while
performing the experiment, and show the
calculations involved in finding one of the
numbers in this section.
The Results and Discussion section should be
written in the past tense.
CONCLUSIONS
This section is a clear and concise qualitative and
quantitative summary of the experiment and
results. It includes conclusions, observations,
trends, and recommendations. Recommendations
are especially valuable if the experiment failed
or was impaired. Do not refer to tables or figures
in this section. Coordinate the material in this
section with the Introduction section. If there was
a clear objective in this experiment, state
whether the objective was reached. Make
recommendations regarding the experiment.
Do not use sentences such as We learned a lot
in this experiment. Remember that your
perspective is that of an engineer writing a
technical report to others who are technically
minded. It is not that of a student writing to a lab
report grader.
The conclusions should be written in the past
or present tense, except for the recommendations
which are in the future tense.
APPENDICES
The Appendix section contains its own title page,
with a list of what the reader will find inside.
References. This portion of the appendix lists
references used in the preparation of the report.
You must cite the source publication for the work
of all others which you include. This gives them
due credit for their work, and shows the research
effort you put into your report. Do not list the lab
manual as a reference. An example of an
alphabetical Reference list follows:
Bannister, L. (1991). University Style Manual,
Fourth edition, Los Angeles: Loyola
Marymount University, 3639 and 5861.
Kovarik, M. (1989). Optimal Heat Exchangers,
Journal of Heat Transfer, 111, 287293.
Main, B. W. and A. C. Ward. (1992). What do
Design Engineers Really Know About
Safety? Mechanical Engineer, 114, 8, 4451.
Resnick, R. and D. Halliday. (1966). Physics.
New York: John Wiley.
Original Data Sheet. The data sheet completed
when the experiment was conducted is included
here.
Calibration Curves. If provided by the instructor
or the manufacturer of the lab equipment,
calibration curves for each meter used should be
included in this section.
SHORT FORM REPORT FORMAT
Once in a while the experiment requires not a
formal report but an informal report. An informal
report includes the Title Page, Experiment
Objective, Procedure, Results, and Conclusions.
Other portions may be added at the discretion of
the instructor or the writer.
21
EXPERIMENT 1
THERMOCOUPLES & INSTRUMENTATION
Thermocouples are used extensively in this
course, and so it is prudent to learn how they are
made, how they work, and how to use them to
make measurements of temperature.
A thermocouple is described as a device that
uses an electrical potential to obtain a
measurement of temperature. Using what is
known as a thermoelectric circuit, it is possible to
measure temperature by measuring the voltage
across an open circuit. However, it should be
remembered that we are actually measuring a
temperature difference with the open circuit
voltage.
Temperature sensors that work on the open
circuit voltage principle are called
thermocouples. A thermocouple consists of two
wires made of two dissimilar metals and melted
or welded together at one end, called the junction.
Consider the simple circuit sketched in Figure
1.1. Shown are two dissimilar metals, A and B,
that are melted together at both ends to form two
junctions. If one of the junctions is heated, a
temperature difference T
1
- T
2
will exist, and this
will cause a current to flow through the wires.
This phenomena is referred to as the Seebeck
effect. If the thermocouple is connected to an
external circuit and a current passes through the
wires, then the voltage generated will be altered
slightly. This is known as the Peltier effect. If a
temperature gradient exists along either or both
wires, the voltage again will be altered slightly.
This is called the Thomson effect.
i
i
T
1
T
2
q
metal A
metal B
FIGURE 1.1. Induced current in a circuit made of
two dissimilar metals.
If the circuit of Figure 1.1 is broken, as in
Figure 1.2, then there will exist an open circuit
voltage E
AB
, the magnitude of which is a function
of the junction temperature T
2
. This voltage is
called the Seebeck voltage and is given by
E
AB
(T
2
) =
AB
T
2
where
AB
is called the Seebeck coefficient,
whose value depends on the two metals. The
notation indicates that the voltage E
AB
is a
function of the junction temperature T
2
. The
variation of the Seebeck coefficient with
temperature is given in Figure 1.3.
T
2
q
metal A
metal B
E
AB
+
FIGURE 1.2. Open circuit voltage in a

thermocouple.
Linear region
Temperature in C
S
e
e
b
e
c
k

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

i
n

V
/
C
FIGURE 1.3. Seebeck coefficient variation with
temperature for different types of
thermocouples. (From Omega.com.)
The objective is to measure the voltage E
AB
,
and relate it to the junction temperature T
2
. So we
connect the thermocouple to a voltmeter, as in
Figure 1.4. We see that Metal A is now connected
to another metal (copper, for example, as might
be found in the meter), and so is Metal B. When
connected to the voltmeter, two new
thermocouples have been created: A-Cu, and B-
Cu. Although our desire is to measure E
AB
, the
voltmeter will read a value E which is given by:
22
T
2
T
3
T
3
T
1
T
1
q
metal A
metal B
E
AB
+
voltmeter
E
Cu
Cu
FIGURE 1.4. Attempt at reading the Seebeck
voltage with a voltmeter.
E = E
CuA
(T
1
) + E
AB
(T
2
) + E
BCu
(T
1
)
E =
CuA
T
1
+
AB
T
2
+
BCu
T
1
Note that these equations reflect a clockwise
direction in writing the subscripts of the voltages.
Also, remember that we want only the voltage
that corresponds to the temperature of the
junction T
2
, which is E
AB
.
We can solve this problem by the addition of
a second thermocouple that we insert into an
environment of known temperature which we
refer to as the reference temperature. This
reference temperature can be that of an ice bath,
as illustrated in Figure 1.5. Now when writing
the equation for voltage and paying attention to
the + to direction, we get
T
2
T
3
T
3
T
1
T
1
q
metal A
metal A
metal B
E
AB
+
voltmeter
E
Cu
Cu
reference junction
flask
cork
thermometer
ice bath
(water/crushed
ice mix)
FIGURE 1.5. Measurement of temperature T
2
with
respect to a reference temperature.
E = E
CuA
(T
1
) + E
AB
(T
2
) + E
BA
(T
ref
) + E
ACu
(T
1
)
E =
CuA
T
1
+
AB
T
2

BA
T
ref

CuA
T
1
or
E =
AB
(T
2
T
ref
)
If the reference temperature is known from
calibration results, then T
2
can be measured
knowing E. The reference temperature can be that
of an ice bath, or of the ambient.
The effect of the reference temperature
environment can be replaced with either software
or hardware compensation. Thus the need for a
physical device like an ice bath can be
eliminated, and we are able to use the setup of
Figure 1.2 to obtain a measurement of
temperature. The only difference is that the
voltmeter is replaced with a digital
thermometer, which is internally compensated
for a reference temperature.
There are a number of types of thermocouples
manufactured to close tolerances to give accurate,
reliable and repeatable results. The types are
usually designated with a letter which refers to
the two dissimilar metals used. The standards
are established and recorded by ANSI. Some of
the common types are listed in Table 1.1. The
variation of temperature with voltage for
different types of thermocouples is shown in
Figure 1.6.
TABLE 1.1. Common thermocouple types and
metals used.
ANSI
Type
Metals
+
E Chromel Constantan
J Iron Constantan
K Chromel Alumel
R Platinum Platinum/13% Rhodium
S Platinum Platinum/10% Rhodium
T Copper Constantan
Temperature in C
M
i
l
l
i
v
o
l
t
s
FIGURE 1.6. Variation of voltage reading with
temperature for different types of
thermocouples. (From Omega.com.)
23
The different types of thermocouples are
manufactured using a color code on the insulation
for the wires. The color code used for Types J, K,
and T appear in Table 1.2. Note that the red
insulated wire is always connected to the
negative terminal of the digital thermometer.
Summary
Thermocouples produce a voltage that is
proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot junction and the reference
junction.
Because thermocouples measure relative
temperature differences, cold junction
compensation is required if the system is to
report absolute temperatures.
Thermocouples have a small Seebeck voltage
coefficient, typically on the order of fifty
microvolts per degree Celsius over the range
0C < T
abs
< 150C
Thermocouples are non-linear across their
temperature range. Linearization, if needed,
is best done in software.
Experiment
The instructor will demonstrate the making of a
thermocouple, and its use in measuring
temperature.
The instructor will use a portable welding
device to make a thermocouple. Carefully
observe the procedure, and note the appearance of
the junction.
1. Using a digital thermometer as a readout
device, connect a thermocouple to the posts as
in Figure 1.1 and measure room temperature.
2. Measure the temperature of someone in the
room.
3. Reverse the leads and determine how the
output is affected by again measuring room
temperature and the temperature of the same
individual.
4. Compare the results.
Questions
What metals are used in the alloys Constantan,
Chromel, and Alumel? Why are these metals
used? How accurate are the temperature
measurements using thermocouples? What is a
thermistor?
For Your Report
Describe in your own words what a thermocouple
consists of, and how a thermocouple is made.
Describe the procedure demonstrated by the
instructor, and the results that were obtained.
TABLE 1.2. Thermocouple Color Code
Thermocouple
ANSI
Designation
Positive
Wire
Negative
Wire Outside
Temperature
Range F
Iron-
Constantan J White Red Brown 32 to 1382
Copper-
Constantan T Blue Red Brown 32 to 662
Chromel-
Alumel K Yellow Red Brown 32 to 2282
24
EXPERIMENT 2
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL
In order to make accurate predictions of heat
transfer rates through materials, it is necessary
to first know the value of the thermal
conductivity of the material itself. Thermal
conductivity can be measured using standard
methods, devices and techniques. In this
experiment, we will measure thermal
conductivity of a metal, and in addition,
calculate an overall heat transfer coefficient for
three metals in series.
Figure 2.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used in
this experiment. It consists of three separable
sections. The center section is removable. The left
end section contains a brass rod, and an electrical
heater. The heat input to the heater can be
controlled and measured. The right end section is
also made of brass, and contains a hollowed out
cavity with water tubes attached. Thus heat
flows through from the heater through the left
end section, then through the center section, and
finally through the right end section to the
water.
The entire apparatus is insulated so that one
dimensional heat conduction is well
approximated. The end sections contain
instrumentation for measuring temperature. The
rods in the end sections have a diameter of 25 mm
while the distance between adjacent temperature
measurements is 10 mm. The center section is 30
mm long.
Temperature versus length readings can be
obtained with this apparatus. Several
experiments can be performed depending on what
is used in the center section.
Procedure
Install the center section that is not
instrumented for temperature measurement. The
heater control is turned on to some value on the
rheostat. Water is circulated through the cavity.
Once steady state is reached, record temperature
versus distance. The steady state data can be used
to verify the accuracy of Fouriers Law, and to
calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is most
easily verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
configuration of this experiment. In equation
form, Fouriers Law is
q = kA
T
x
(2.1)
where q is the heat flowing through the rod of
dimensions FL/T (BTU/hr or W), k is the
thermal conductivity of the material of
dimensions FL/(TLt) [BTU/(hrftR) or
W/(mK)], A is the cross sectional area of
dimensions L
2
(ft
2
or m
2
), and T/x is the
temperature gradient of dimensions t/L (R/ft or
K/m). Because temperature decreases with
increasing distance, the gradient T/x is
negative, and T/x is actually positive.
Temperature is measured at discrete points
along the rod in this experiment. It is therefore
appropriate to rewrite Equation 2.1 in a different
form:
brass rod brass rod
t
temperature
measurement
water cooling
chamber
center section
electrical heater
water in water out
A
A
insulation
25 mm
diameter
section A-A
FIGURE 2.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to verify Fouriers Law of Conduction.
25
q = kA
T
x
(2.2)
where T is the temperature difference between
any two thermocouples (adjacent or not) and x is
the distance between the two thermocouples of
interest.
For one dimensional heat flow, we can write
the following:
q
A
= k
L
T
1
T
IL
x
L
= k
T
IL
T
IR
x
= k
R
T
IR
T
6
x
R
(2.3)
where T
1
is the temperature at the warmest point
on the rod at the left end, T
IL
is the interface
temperature between the left end rod and the
center rod, T
IR
is the interface temperature
between the center rod and the right end rod, T
6
is
the temperature at the coolest point of the rod on
the right, and the xs correspond to the
appropriate distances. The interface
temperatures are sketched in Figure 2.2. Thermal
conductivity k values correspond to the
appropriate materials. The first and third
materials are brass. The center section is stainless
steel.
By manipulation of Equation 2.2 and 2.3, it is
possible to express the heat transferred along the
rods in terms of a heat transfer coefficient, U, as
q
A
= U(T
1
T
6
) (2.4)
where
1
U
=
x
L
k
L
+
x
k
+
x
R
k
R
(2.5)
The preceding equations do not include the effect
of contact resistance.
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the
rods. Determine from your plot the interface
temperatures (see figure below). Using published
thermal conductivity values for brass, and
Equation 2.3, find the thermal conductivity of
stainless steel and compare your results to
published values. Do not include the effects of
contact resistance. Also calculate the overall
heat transfer coefficient.
brass rod brass rod
temperature
measurement
T
z
T
IL
T
IR
interface
x
stainless
steel
T
1
T
6
FIGURE 2.2. Determination of interface temperatures from the measured temperature values.
26
EXPERIMENT 3
EFFECT OF AREA ON ONE DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION
In some geometries, one dimensional heat
conduction occurs through a material with an
area that is not constant. In such cases, it is still
necessary to be able to make accurate predictions
of heat transfer rates through the material. We
will investigate the effect of variable area on one
dimensional conduction in this experiment.
Thermal conductivity of the material will be
known.
water.
mm long.
Procedure
Install the center section which has a smaller
cross sectional diameter than the end sections.
This center section is not instrumented for
temperature measurement. The heater control is
turned on to some value on the rheostat. Water is
circulated through the cavity. Once steady state
is reached, record temperature versus distance.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is easily
verified (or tested) in the one dimensional
q = kA
T
x
(3.1)
dimensions L
2
(ft
2
or m
2
), and T/x is the
form:
brass rod brass rod
t
temperature
measurement
water cooling
chamber
center section
electrical heater
water in water out
A
A
insulation
25 mm
diameter
section A-A
FIGURE 3.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to measure the effect of area on one dimensional
conduction.
27
q = kA
T
x
(3.2)
interest.
For one dimensional heat flow, we can write
the following:
q
A
= k
L
T
1
T
IL
x
L
= k
T
IL
T
IR
x
= k
R
T
IR
T
6
x
R
(3.3)
where T
1
is the temperature at the warmest point
on the rod at the left end, T
IL
is the interface
temperature between the left end rod and the
center rod, T
IR
is the interface temperature
between the center rod and the right end rod, T
6
is
the temperature at the coolest point of the rod on
the right, and the xs correspond to the
appropriate distances. Thermal conductivity k
values correspond to the appropriate materials.
The first and third materials are brass. The
center section is also brass, with dimensions of 13
mm diameter by 30 mm long.
By manipulation of Equation 3.2 and 3.3, it is
possible to write an equation in terms of area and
temperature gradient:
A
L

(
j
,
\
T
x
L
= A
(
j
,
\
T
x
= A
R

(
j
,
\
T
x
R
(3.4)
Note that the preceding equations do not include
the effects of contact resistance.
Results
Plot temperature versus distance along the rods.
Using published thermal conductivity values for
brass (if you need them), verify whether
Equation 3.4 is correct. Do not include the effects
of thermal contact resistance in your calculations.
28
EXPERIMENT 4
MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF AN INSULATOR
In order to make accurate predictions of heat
transfer rates through materials, it is necessary
to first know the value of the thermal
conductivity of the material itself. Thermal
conductivity can be measured using standard
methods, devices and techniques. In this
experiment, we will measure thermal
conductivity of an insulator.
this experiment. It consists of two separable
sections, between which is placed the insulator of
interest. The left end section contains a brass rod,
and an electrical heater. The heat input to the
heater can be controlled and measured. The right
end section is also made of brass, and contains a
hollowed out cavity with water tubes attached.
Thus heat flows through from the heater through
the left end section, then through the center
section, and finally through the right end section
to the water.
measurements is 10 mm.
Procedure
Install an insulating material between the
two end sections. The heater control is turned on to
some value on the rheostat (ensure that the
temperature at the hottest point does not exceed
100C). Water is circulated through the cavity.
Once steady state is reached, record temperature
versus distance. The steady state data can be used
to calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
q = kA
T
x
(4.1)
dimensions L
2
(ft
2
or m
2
), and T/x is the
form:
brass rod
brass rod
temperature
measurement
water cooling
chamber
insulating
material
electrical heater
water in water out
A
A
insulation
25 mm
diameter
section A-A
t
FIGURE 4.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to measure thermal conductivity.
29
q = kA
T
x
(4.2)
interest.
We can apply Equation 4.2 across the
insulating material to obtain:
k =
q
A

(
j
,
\
x
T
(4.3)
Thus, x is the thickness of the insulating
material while it is clamped in position, and T
is the difference between the interface
temperatures; i.e., the temperature difference
across the insulating material.
Thermal conductivity should be expressed in
the appropriate units.
Results
rods. Determine from your plot the interface
temperatures. Use them with Equation 4.3 to
determine thermal conductivity. If published
values of the thermal conductivity are available
compare your results to them. Do not include the
effects of thermal contact resistance.
30
EXPERIMENT 5
DETERMINATION OF CONTACT RESISTANCE
Energy in the form of heat travels from a
region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature. When one dimensional flow exists,
the heat transfer rate can be described by
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction. Fouriers Law
is an experimentally observed law which
predicts a linear temperature distribution in one
dimension for a constant heat flux. Its
experimental verification is the subject of this
experiment.
water.
mm long.
Procedure
Install the center section that is instrumented
for temperature measurement. The heater control
is turned on to some value on the rheostat. Water
is circulated through the cavity. Once steady
state is reached, record temperature versus
distance. The steady state data can be used to
verify the accuracy of Fouriers Law, and to
calculate the thermal conductivity of the
material.
Analysis
q = kA
T
x
(5.1)
dimensions L
2
(ft
2
or m
2
), and T/x is the
form:
brass rod brass rod
t
temperature
measurement
water cooling
chamber
center section
electrical heater
water in water out
A
A
insulation
25 mm
diameter
section A-A
FIGURE 5.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to verify Fouriers Law of Conduction.
31
q = kA
T
x
(5.2)
interest. If in fact Fouriers Law is accurate, then
T/x is a constant for any number of pairs of
thermocouples within the same material.
Referring to Equation 5.2, the cross sectional
area A is calculated knowing the diameter, and
the gradient T/x is calculated from the
temperature versus distance data. With these
parameters known, the thermal conductivity k is
easily calculated using Equation 5.2.
Analysis
Figure 5.2 is a sketch of temperature versus
distance for two materials touching each other at
a location labeled interface. Data points are
graphed, and a best line is drawn through them
for both materials. The lines are extrapolated to
the interface. Data for the material on the left
indicates that the interface temperature is T
i.
,
while data for the other material indicates an
interface temperature of T
ir
. The difference in
these two temperatures is due to what is called
the contact resistance to heat transfer.
The contact resistance R
tc
is found from the
one dimensional conduction equation:
q
A
=
T
il
- T
ir
R
tc
(5.3)
Results
The apparatus used in this experiment has 3
materials in series, and so there are two
interfaces. Plot temperature versus distance along
the rods. Determine the associated temperatures
for both interfaces, and calculate the contact
resistances. Compare to values found in a
textbook.
T
z
data point
extrapolated
profiles
T
il
T
ir
interface
FIGURE 5.2. A sketch of temperature versus
distance.
Questions
Does thermal conductivity vary with
temperature? If so, should T/x vary instead of
being constant? If the rod itself is tapered, then
what should be constant in addition to or instead
of T/x?
Are the values for both contact resistances
equal? Should they be?
32
EXPERIMENT 6
RADIAL ONE DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION
Conduction in the radial direction is made to
occur in a number of geometries. In such cases, it is
important to be able to make accurate predictions
of the heat transfer rate. In this experiment, we
will investigate the temperature profile and
heat transfer rate for a radial system.
this experiment. It consists of a 55 mm diameter
disk 3 mm in thickness, which has a hole in its
center that is 4 mm in diameter. The disk has an
electrical heater attached to its center, and
contains a circumferential water channel near its
outer edge. With the heater on and cooling water
flowing through the channel, heat flows
radially through the disk. The disk and heater
are well insulated to prevent heat losses in other
directions. Provision is made to measure
temperature at selected, evenly spaced locations
along the disk.
temperature
measurement
disk
insulation
electrical
heater
circumferential
water channel
55 mm
4 mm
FIGURE 6.1. A schematic of the apparatus used to
investigate radial, one dimensional conduction.
Procedure
Turn the heater and the cooling water on and
allow sufficient time to elapse for steady state to
be reached. Take readings of temperature at all
radial locations. Measure the distance between
adjacent thermocouples.
Analysis
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction is verified
(or tested) in the radial, one dimensional
q = kA
T
r
(6.1)
where q is the heat flowing through the disk, of
W/(mK)], A is the cross sectional area normal to
the heat flow, of dimensions L
2
(ft
2
or m
2
), and
T/x is the temperature gradient of dimensions
t/L (R/ft or K/m). Because temperature
decreases with increasing distance from the heat
source, the gradient T/r is negative, and
(T/r) is actually positive.
The cross-sectional area is given by
A = 2rL
where r is the radial coordinate (R
1
< r < R
2
), and
L is the disk thickness. Substituting into Equation
6.1 and separating variables for integration gives

T
1
T
2

dT =

R
1
R
2

1
2kL

q
r
dr
r
where the subscripts 1 and 2 are at any two
different points in the disk. Integrating gives
T
2
T
1
=
q
r
2kL
ln
R
2
R
1
or T
1
T
2
=
q
r
2kL
ln
R
2
R
1
(6.2)
Results
disk. Use the data with Equation 6.2 to calculate
the rate of radial heat conduction. Compare the
results with the heat input read from the watt
meter. Are you expecting to get a straight line
graph?
33
EXPERIMENT 7
HEAT TRANSFER FROM A FIN
Conduction is the primary mode of heat
transfer through solids. When a heated solid is
exposed to a lower temperature fluid, heat is
transferred from the solid to the fluid by
convection. The amount of heat transferred at the
surface is calculated by means of a convection
coefficient h. Measuring the convection
coefficient for a fin is the subject of this
experiment.
Figure 7.1 is a sketch of a fin, also known as
an extended surface. Fins are used to increase the
surface area of a solid. When the surface area
A
s
is increased, the rate of heat transfer q is
increased because q is directly proportional to A
s
.
In the apparatus of this experiment, there
are three fins attached to a chamber into which
steam is admitted. The steam will heat the end
of each fin. Heat will be conducted axially along
each fin and will be transferred by natural
convection to the air. Thermocouples are
embedded at intervals along each fin so that
temperature is known at selected points. It is at
these points where the convection coefficient will
be determined.
Introduction
Fins are usually characterized with a ratio of
parameters denoted as m which is defined as
m =

hP
k A
where h is the convection coefficient [W/(m
2
K)
or BTU/(hrft
2
R)], P is the perimeter of the fin
[m or ft], k is the thermal conductivity of fin
material [W/(mK) or BTU/(hrftR)], and A is
the cross sectional area of the fin [m
2
or ft
2
]. It can
be shown that m has units of 1/m or 1/ft.
By making suitable assumptions regarding
the fins of this experiment, a differential
equation can be derived. Boundary conditions
must then be written. In all cases, the
temperature at the steam end (to correspond to a
wall temperature) is denoted as T
w
. At the other
end of each fin, we could have one of three
variations:
1. The fin extends to infinity where the fin
temperature equals the air temperature.
2. The fin tip is insulated.
3. The fin tip is uninsulated.
steam chest
steam inlet
outlet
fin
T
z
L
z
FIGURE 7.1. Schematic of one of the three fins of the apparatus, and a corresponding steady
state temperature profile.
34
Theory
Consider a pin fin of diameter of D and a
length L as shown in Figure 7.1. The fin is in an
environment where the temperature is T
, and
the convection coefficient is h, which is an
average value assumed constant over the entire
fin surface. At the wall, the temperature is T
w
.
In this case, the wall temperature is taken to be
equal to that of the thermocouple nearest the
steam chamber. Also shown in the figure is the z
coordinate. The differential equation for
temperature in the fin is modeled with:
d
2
T
dz
2

hP
k A
(T T
) = 0 (7.1)
Case 1: The case considered here is that in
which the fin is considered infinite in length.
The boundary conditions therefore are:
BC 1. z = 0 T = T
w
BC 2. z T T
Solving this problem is simplified with a

suitable change in variables. Defining a
dimensionless ratio of temperature differences
as
=
T T
T
w
T
and introducing the notation

m
2
=
hP
k A
the differential equation and boundary
conditions become
d
2
dz
2
m
2
= 0 (7.2)
z = 0 = 1
z 0
Solving the differential equation and applying
the boundary conditions gives the exact solution
as
=
T T
T
w
T
= exp( mz) (7.3)

The heat transfer rate into the fin at the wall is
given by
q
z
= kA

dT
d z

0
Evaluating dT/dz from Equation 7.3 and
substituting gives
q
z
= kA (T
w
T
)( m) (exp ( mz))
z

= 0
At z = 0, the preceding equation becomes after
rearrangement,
q
z
kAm(T
w
T
)
= 1 (7.4)
which is referred to as the dimensionless heat
transfer rate. The fin efficiency
e
and
effectiveness
f
are, respectively
e
=
1
mL
(7.5)
f
= (kP/hA)
1/2
(7.6)
where
e
=
actual heat transferred from wall with fin attached
heat transferred if entire fin is at wall temperature
and
f
=
heat flux from wall after adding fin
heat flux from wall before adding fin
which the fin tip is insulated. The differential
equation and boundary conditions are:
d
2
T
dz
2

hP
k A
(T T
) = 0 (7.1)
BC 1. z = 0 T = T
w
BC 2. z = L
dT
d z
= 0
Note that the differential equation is the same
as in the previous case, and what differentiates
these two problems the second boundary
condition. The solution to this problem is given
in Table 7.1.
which the fin tip is uninsulated and heat is
35
transferred from the tip area. The differential
equation and boundary conditions are:
d
2
T
dz
2

hP
k A
(T T
) = 0 (7.1)
BC 1. z = 0 T = T
w
BC 2. z = L k
dT
d z
= h(T T
)
Again, the differential equation is the same as
before. The difference is the second boundary
condition. The solution to this problem is
lengthy and does not appear in Table 7.1.
Experiment and Analysis
Steam is admitted into the end chamber and
each fin receives heat. Monitor temperature
readings at 20 minute intervals to determine
when steady state is reached. The temperature
readings at steady state are those of
significance; the rest may be discarded. Ambient
temperature and pressure, and fin dimensions
should all be measured and recorded. For the fin
assigned,
1. Construct a graph of temperature T versus z.
2. Calculate values of
T T
T
w
T
, m and using the

equations that are appropriate for the fin
used in the experiment. Do not use the Case 3
equations (which will be found in any heat
transfer textbook) unless they indeed do
apply.
3. Use values of m to determine the convection
coefficient h for each location where
temperature T is measured. Graph
convection coefficient (vertical axis) as a
function of temperature.
4. Determine the mean value of the convection
coefficient and the standard deviation. Can
any of the data points be eliminated by
using Chauvenets criterion?
5. Calculate the efficiency and the
effectiveness of the fin.
6. For the report, state the differential
equation for fins and write the boundary
conditions as they would apply to the fin(s)
of this experiment.
Table 7.1. Comparison of results of solutions. m
2
=
hP
k A
Item Symbol
Case 1
Infinite Fin
Case 2
Insulated Tip
Temperature Profile
=
T T
T
w
T
= exp( mz)
cosh [mL(1 z/L)]
cosh (mL)
Dimensionless Heat
Transfer Rate
q
z
kAm(T
w
T
)
=
1 tanh (mL)
Efficiency
e
=

1
mL
tanh (mL)
mL
Effectiveness
f

(kP/hA)
1/2
1 tanh (mL)
36
Questions
What values are expected for the convection
coefficient h? Is the convection coefficient a
constant as is so often assumed? How does the
convection coefficient vary with temperature?
Example
Data were obtained on the system of Figure
7.1 for a copper rod that is 1 cm in diameter and 1
m long. At a distance z of 30 cm, the temperature
was measured to be 50C. The wall and ambient
temperatures were measured to be 95C and 20C,
respectively. Calculate the convection
coefficient, the effectiveness and the efficiency.
Assumptions
1. Heat is transferred along the rod by
conduction only.
2. One dimensional conduction exists along the
rod.
3. Heat is transferred only by convection to the
surrounding air; radiation to the surroundings
is neglected.
4. Properties of the copper are constant.
5. The system is at steady state.
Fin Geometry Factors and Properties
D = 0.01 m
A = D
2
/4 = (0.01)
2
/4 = 7.85 x 10
-5
P = D = (0.01) = 3.14 x 10
-2
z = 0.3 m
L = 1 m
k
Cu
= 399 W/(mK) at 20C
Calculations for Case 1
T T
T
w
T
=
50 20
95 20
= 0.4 = exp ( mz)
or m(0.3 m) = ln (0.4) = 0.916
Therefore,
m =

hP
k A
= 3.05
Solving for the convection coefficient gives
h =
k A
P
(3.05)
2
=
399(7.85 x 10
-5
)
3.14 x 10
-2
(3.05)
2
h = 9.29 W/(m
2
K)
The fin efficiency is
e
=
tanh (mL)
mL
=
tanh (3.05(1))
3.05(1)
e
= 0.326
The fin effectiveness is
f
=

kP
h A
tanh (mL)
=

399(3.14 x 10
-2
)
9.29(7.85 x 10
-5
)
tanh (3.05(1))
f
= 130
The interpretation of these results is left to the
reader.
37
EXPERIMENT 8
DETERMINATION OF CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR
USING THE ANALOG FIELD PLOTTER
In many two dimensional geometries for
which a heat transfer analysis is to be
performed, it is sometimes necessary to use a
technique for solution other than an analytical
one. One such method involves the use of the
conduction shape factor, which is generated from
a field plot for the geometry. An analog field
plotter is an electronic aid used to help generate a
field plot, which is the subject of this
experiment.
Theory
For heat transfer in a two dimensional
material having constant properties, the
applicable differential equation for temperature
is
2
T
x
2
+
2
T
y
2
= 0 (8.1)
subject to appropriate boundary conditions. For a
simple geometry with manageable boundary
conditions, the above equation can be solved by a
separation of variables method. For a complex
geometry, the above equation might not be
solvable and so an alternative method is
necessary to obtain a solution.
In cases where Equation 8.1 cannot be solved,
it is rationalized that a temperature distribution
within the material is not really needed. If a
temperature distribution is found, we would use it
primarily to find the heat transfer rate anyway.
So if there is a method we could use from the
beginning to find the heat transfer rate, we would
be content with it being the solution to the
problem.
For steady two dimensional electrical
conduction within a conductive material having
constant properties, the applicable differential
equation for the electric potential is
2
E
x
2
+
2
E
y
2
= 0 (8.2)
When Equations 8.1 and 8.2 are solved subject to
analogous boundary conditions, the solutions
obtained will have the same form. Lines of
constant voltage within the material will
correspond to lines of constant temperature.
A device known as an analog field plotter can
be used to generate lines of equal potential in a
two dimensional geometry of virtually any
shape. The field plotter consists of a drawing
board onto which electrical conducting paper is
placed, a low voltage-difference DC source and
associated wiring. Figure 8.1 is a schematic of the
operation of an analog field plotter. The
objective in solving a heat transfer problem in a
two dimensional geometry now becomes one of
generating equipotential lines in the same
geometry.
Insulated
boundary or
line of symmetry
Null detector
Stylus or
probe
Wired and
painted boundary
(isothermal)
E or T
2 2
E or T
1 1
E - E = T - T
1 2
2 1
2
E = E - E
FIGURE 8.1. Schematic of the operation of an
analog field plotter in generating points.
Procedure
The procedure involved in using a field
plotter first requires construction of the two
dimensional geometry with a sheet of paper that
conducts electricity (several makes are
available). The conductive paper is held down on
a drawing board with thumbtacks at the corners.
Metal wire is attached to thumbtacks
appropriately so that the wire is in contact with
the paper along the necessary boundaries. Silver
conducting paint is then brushed on over the wires
and the paper. Generally, isothermal boundaries
in the geometry are wired and painted; insulated
boundaries are left alone. As shown in Figure 8.1,
a voltage potential is imposed on the region
across which a temperature difference exists. A
38
null detector is then set at a desired value of
potential difference E = E - E
2
, and points
corresponding to the set difference are located in
the region by a probe. Points having an equal
potential difference E are then connected to
obtain lines of constant voltage. These lines are
analogous to lines of equal temperature, called
isotherms.
Once isotherms are obtained, the field
plotter is then used to obtain heat flow lines, also
known as adiabats. The same geometry is laid
out, except in this case the insulated boundaries
are wired and painted while the isothermal
boundaries are left alone. (See Figure 8.2.)
( a) (b)
FIGURE 8.2. Wired and painted boundaries for
use with analog field plotter in obtaining (a)
isotherms and (b) adiabats for the geometry
of Figure 8.1.
Results
When the adiabats and isotherms are known,
they are combined into one drawing which is used
to help generate a field plot. The field plot
consists of isotherms and adiabats drawn in
freehand in the geometry of interest. The actual
sketching is aided by paying strict attention to
some key concepts, namely:
Heat flow lines and constant temperature
lines are perpendicular to each other.
Heat flow lines are parallel or coincident to
insulated surfaces or lines of symmetry.
Isotherms intersect an insulated surface or
line of symmetry at a right angle.
Ensuring that the above rules are incorporated
into the sketch is a matter of trial and error.
However, once the field plot (or flux plot or flow
net) is complete and the above rules are satisfied,
the heat transferred from one boundary to
another can be approximated. The accuracy of the
results depends on how fine a mesh is used and on
the skill of the analyst. Note that two analysts
can use differing meshes and still obtain results
that are in good agreement. The results obtained
with the field plotter merely give an indication
of the direction of the isotherms and heat flow
lines within the system.
The flux plot contains what are known as
curvilinear squares. Counting the squares allows
for finding what is called a conduction shape
factor. The flux plot contains heat flow lanes
which are bounded by adjacent adiabats. The
number of squares within each heat flow lane and
the number of heat flow lanes are to be counted.
The conduction shape factor S is then found with
S =
ML
N
(8.3)
where M is the number of heat flow lanes, L is the
depth of the system into the page and N is the
number of curvilinear squares per lane. The heat
transferred is then easily found with
q = kS(T
1
T
2
) (8.4)
The above discussion is now illustrated by an
example.
Example
Consider that we have a two dimensional
geometry, illustrated isometrically in Figure 8.3,
for which we are to find the heat transfer rate.
Heat will be transferred from the surface at
temperature T
1
to the surface at T
2
in an amount
given by Equation 8.4. It is assumed that the
temperatures and the thermal conductivity are
known. All we need in order to calculate the heat
transferred is the conduction shape factor for the
geometry. This particular geometry was selected
because its shape factor is known from analytical
methods to be
S =
2L
ln (0.54W/R)
(8.5)
In studying the cross section, lines of symmetry
were identified and as a result, only one fourth of
the cross section is used for analysis. Two
identical pieces corresponding to the geometry
are cut out of conducting paper. The field plotter
is used to generate lines of constant temperature
and adiabats. The results are shown in Figure 8.4.
Superimposed results are shown in Figure 8.5,
which is the desired field plot. In producing
Figure 8.5, an effort was made to ensure that the
curvilinear squares were approximately square.
39
W
L
W
radius R
FIGURE 8.3. Schematic of the system of the
Example Problem.
The resulting field plot of Figure 8.5 shows that
there are 10 heat flow lanes in one fourth of the
geometry. Therefore, M = 10(4) = 40. Also, there
are 7 curvilinear squares within each heat flow
lane and so N = 7. The conduction shape factor per
unit length is then found to be
S
L
=
M
N
=
40
7
or
S
L
= 5.71
Note that integral values were selected for M and
N. It is acceptable if the opinion of the analyst is
that N = 6.75. Fractions of a square can be used.
By substituting W = 8.4 and R = 1.3 into Equation
5, we obtain
S
L
=
2
ln (0.54W/R)
=
2
ln (0.54(8.4)/1.3)
or
S
L
= 5.02
The % error between 5.02 and 5.71 is 14%.
Experiment
For the cross section assigned, use the analog
field plotter to obtain isotherms and adiabats.
Superimpose the graphs to obtain a rough plot.
Use the rough plot to generate a sketched and
refined flux plot. The final plot is to be done
freehand. Determine the number of heat flow
lanes and the number of curvilinear squares per
lane, and calculate the conduction shape factor.
Each group member is to compose a different plot
and the results should be compared to each other
and if available to an analytical result. Comment
on the accuracy of the method.
FIGURE 8.4a. Lines of constant temperature for
the geometry of Figure 8.3, generated with
an analog field plotter.
FIGURE 8.4b. Adiabats for the geometry of Figure
8.3 generated with an analog field plotter.
FIGURE 8.5. Sketched field plot for the geometry
of Figure 8.3.
40
EXPERIMENT 9
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS TO UNSTEADY
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS
Prior to the existence of computers and
calculators, graphical methods were used
extensively to solve engineering problems. In some
cases, a graphical solution was the only way to
solve the problem. Graphical methods in heat
transfer require little mathematics and can
afford acceptable accuracy. They permit the
designer the luxury of having an overall view of
how temperature varies with time through an
object for unsteady problems. In addition,
mistakes can easily be found and corrected. The
Schmidt Plot was one of the very first graphical
solution methods devised. A modernized
graphical solution method known as the Saulev
Method will be used in this experiment.
The one dimensional unsteady conduction
equation in heat transfer can be solved
graphically in a step-by-step manner. The
procedure involves:
1. Describing the problem with the
differential equation and appropriate boundary
conditions.
2. Rewriting the differential equation in an
algebraic form.
3. Solving the problem by graphically
following the algebraic equation.
The method is easier to illustrate than to explain
and so an example problem will be solved.
Example Problem
A brick wall 5 cm thick is part of the chimney
section of an incinerator. When in operation, the
temperature of the exhaust gases inside the
chimney are 460C, and the outside wall surface
of the chimney is not to exceed 100C. Initially,
the entire chimney is at 20C. Determine the time
required to meet this condition if the brick
properties are:
C
p
= 840 J/(kgK)
sp. gr. = 1.8
k = 0.5 W/(mK)
and the convection coefficient h
c
= 50 W/(m
2
K).
Solution: We must first make a number of
assumptions in order to solve this problem. These
include:
1. The exhaust gas temperature of 460C is
uniform and constant.
2. The flow of heat is one dimensional.
3. The convection coefficient is constant.
4. Material properties are constant.
5. Radiative effects are negligible.
The differential equation that describes the flow
of heat through the chimney is
T
t
=
2
T
x
2
=
k
C
p
(9.1)
The boundary condition at the inside face is
x = 0
q
A
= k
T
x
= h
c
(T
T
w
)
The boundary condition at the outside face was
not given in the problem statement so we assume a
worst case condition which is that the outside
face is insulated:
x = L
q
A
= k
T
x
= 0
The condition on time is that
t < 0 T
w
= 20C
t > 0 T
= 460C
We are seeking the time required for the right
face under these conditions to be heated from 20
to 100C.
To make the problem suitable for graphical
solution, the differential equation must be
converted to an algebraic form or finite
differenced. Of the several methods available,
we use the Saulev formulation. Equation 1 in
finite difference form is
T
m
p+1
T
m
p
t
=
T
m+1
p
T
m
p
T
m
p+1
+ T
m-1
p+1
(x)
2
(9.2)
in which the m subscript refers to an x position,
and the p superscript refers to time. Thus an m
subscript indicates the position of current interest,
m + 1 indicates a position that is one x further
than m away from the origin, and m - 1 is one x
closer to the origin. Also, p indicates the present
time, and p + 1 indicates a time that is one t into
41
the future. Equation 9.2 can be rearranged to give
T
p+1
m
=
t
(x)
2
(T
p
m+1
T
p
m
T
p+1
m
+ T
p+1
m-1
T
p
m
)
(9.3)
Many finite difference equations like the one
above depend heavily on the value of the Fourier
Number t/(x)
2
for their stability.
Fortunately Equation 9.3 is unconditionally stable
so we can select virtually any reasonable value
and obtain good results. Equation 3 simplifies
greatly if we use t/(x)
2
= 1, yielding
T
p+1
m
=
T
m+1
p
+ T
m-1
p+1
2
(9.4)
Equation 9.4 states that we use adjacent
temperatures at m - 1 and m + 1 to find the
temperature at m. The temperature at m + 1 is at
the present time and the temperature at m - 1 is
at the future time. So when a new temperature at
m - 1 is found graphically (or numerically), it is
used immediately to find the temperature at m.
Next, we must rewrite the boundary
conditions in finite difference notation. It must be
remembered that in the graphical method, we
will solve the problem by constructing a graph of
temperature T versus the space variable x for
various times. Therefore we rewrite the first
boundary condition by solving it for T/x, the
slope at the boundary. The first boundary
condition thus becomes:
x = 0

T
x

m
p
=
h
c
k
(T
p
T
p
w
) =
(T
p
T
w
p
)
k / h
c
(9.5)
This equation states that at the convective
boundary, the slope T/x will equal the ratio of
free stream minus wall temperatures to k/h
c
. The
second boundary condition becomes
x = L
T
x
= 0 (9.6)
So at the insulated boundary, the slope is 0.
Equations 9.4, 9.5 and 9.6 are sufficient to solve
the problem graphically. Figure 9.1 shows two
drawings of the system. The first drawing shows
the brick wall arbitrarily divided into five 1 cm
wide intervals. (It could be divided into 2, 10 or
100 intervals.) The boundary of each interval is
labeled, beginning at 0 on the left and increasing
to 5. The temperature axis drawn to scale is
shown also. To the left of the m = 0 line is a
starting point for all temperature profiles. The
exhaust gas temperature of 460C is located a
distance of k/h
c
= 0.5/50 = 0.01 m = 1 cm from the
left face. At time zero, the temperature of the
exhaust gases is 460C and the wall temperature
is 20C.
The second drawing shows the time t = 0
profile and four subsequent profiles. We begin by
aligning the 460C point with the temperature at
m = 1 and draw a straight line until the m = 0 line
is intersected. Next we align this new
temperature at m = 0 with the temperature at m =
2 and draw a straight line until the m = 1 line is
intersected. This process is continued to complete
the t = 1 profile. To complete the t = 2 profile, we
begin with the 460C value again. This process is
the graphical solution method described by the
above equations.
By inspection, we see that after 4 time
intervals (or t = 4t), the right face has exceeded
100C. To obtain better accuracy, we would have
to use more than five intervals on x. We now use
the Fourier number selected to determine the
solution to the problem:

t
(x)
2
= 1
By substitution

k
C
p

t
(x)
2
=
0.5
1 800(840)

t
(0.01)
2
= 1
Solving gives
t = 302.4 s = 5 min
The time required for the right face to reach
100C is 4t or
4t = 20 min
For the report, derive the finite differenced
differential equation. The instructor will provide
an unsteady problem to solve.
42
0
1 2 3 4 5 =
m
= 0 t
x
T
0
1 2 3 4 5 =
m
t
x
T
4
3
2
1
0 =
1 cm
100
200
300
400
0
100
200
300
400
0
FIGURE 9.1. Saulev Plot of the Example
Problem.
Problems
1. A large slab of cast iron 12 in. thick is initially
at 400F. Suddenly its left face is reduced to
40F while its right face is kept at 400F.
Using the graphical method, determine the
temperature at the midplane after 15 min
have elapsed.
2. A large of slab of copper 10 cm wide is
initially at a uniform temperature of 25C.
Suddenly, the temperature of its left and right
faces are increased to 200C. How much time
elapses before the midplane temperature
reaches 140C.
3. It is desired to construct a fireproof wall for a
safe. The wall consists of two 12 gage pieces of
sheet metal with insulation sandwiched
between them. The criterion for protection is
that if the temperature of the outside piece of
sheet metal is suddenly raised to 1000F, then
no less than 2 hr should elapse before the
temperature of the inside piece of sheet metal
rises to 200F from an initial and uniform
temperature of 75F. Determine the required
thickness of insulation if it is asbestos.
4. A stainless steel wall serves as part of a steam
conveying line. It is 120 mm thick and at an
initial temperature of 18C. Its left face is
exposed to a high speed stream of steam at a
temperature of 250C, with a convection
coefficient of 500 W/(m
2
K). The right face is
exposed to a stream of water at 15C with a
convection coefficient of 250 W/(m
2
K).
Determine the left and right surface
temperatures when the midplane temperature
reaches 75C.
5. A stainless steel (type 304) wall is 8 in. thick
and is part of the chimney section of a furnace.
When the furnace is in operation, the
temperature of the inside wall surface is
600F, while the outside wall temperature is
95F. the profile within the wall is at steady
state. The chimney section is to be cleaned, so
the furnace is shut down and cooling fans are
used to move 75F air upward through the
chimney. The right face stays at 95F during
the cooling process. Determine the time it
takes for the stainless steel slab to cool to the
point where the temperature at any point
within the wall is less than 200F. Use a
convection coefficient of 85 BTU/(hrft
2
R).
6. An infinite plate twelve inches thick and of
thermal diffusivity
5
/9 ft
2
/hr is initially at a
uniform temperature of 0F. At time zero, its
surface temperatures at x = 0 and L are
suddenly raised to and maintained at 400F for
all time > 0. Determine the temperature at the
midpoint of the plate after 15 minutes have
elapsed.
7. An infinite plate 30 cm wide is initially at a
uniform temperature of 25C and has a
thermal conductivity of 34 W/(mK). One face
of the plate is suddenly exposed to 500C air
and the surface conductance on that side is 680
W/(m
2
K). Determine the time required for
the other face to reach 100C assuming it is
insulated.
8. An infinite plate 10 in. thick is at a uniform
temperature of 500F. Air at 75F is directed at
one side of the plate, while air at 100F is
directed at the other side. The thermal
conductivity of the plate is 20 BTU/hrftR
and the convection coefficient for both sides is
100 BTU/hrft
2
R. After 15 min. have
elapsed, what is the temperature at the
midpoint of the plate? Is this temperature the
lowest in the plate at this time?
43
EXPERIMENT 10
PREDICTING TEMPERATURE AT THE CENTER OF A CYLINDER
USING TRANSIENT CONDUCTION WITH CONVECTION
When a heated (or cooled) substance is
immersed in a bath having a different
temperature, heat transfer takes place. Heat is
conducted throughout the substance, and
convection occurs at the surface. There are
different ways to model this unsteady problem,
depending on the relative magnitudes of the
convection coefficient and the thermal
conductivity of the material. In this experiment,
unsteady temperature versus time is measured for
a material, and the convection coefficient is
calculated. The results are then used with
Heisler charts in order to predict the expected
temperature, and the results are compared.
Transient Heating of a Cylinder
Figure 10.1 is a sketch of the apparatus used
in this experiment, which consists of dual
concentric open top tanks filled with water. The
tank apparatus also contains an immersion heater
and a circulating pump. The heater is turned on a
to a pre-determined setting. The circulating pump
is turned on also, and the water temperature is
monitored. The water bath is ready when the
water temperature reaches steady state
(approximately 3 hours).
Water
Return
Immersion
Heater
Inner
Cylinder
Insulated
Tank
Test
Cylinder
Water
Flow
Support
Support
Motor
Pump
Motor
Shaft
Valve
FIGURE 10.1. Schematic of the apparatus used in
this experiment.
The test cylinder (with known properties),
initially at some temperature T
i
, is immersed in
the water bath. The cylinder temperature is
measured (using thermocouples and a digital
thermometer) every 10 seconds. The experiment
concludes when the cylinder has reached a
steady state temperature.
The temperature within the cylinder is
assumed to be uniform (to be checked later), and
so we assume that the lumped analysis applies.
In the lumped analysis method, temperature can
be predicted with
T T
T
i
T
= exp
(
j
,
\

hA
s
t
V c
(10.1)
where T is the measured temperature, T
is the
temperature of the surroundings (the water bath),
h is the convection coefficient, A
s
is the surface
area of the cylinder, V is the volume of the
cylinder, and c is its specific heat. All terms in
this equation are known except for convection
coefficient h which can therefore be calculated
for every instant that temperature is known.
Values for the convection coefficient are
determined for all times, and can be averaged
together if necessary.
Once the convection coefficient is determined,
the Biot number is calculated. The Biot number is
defined as
Bi =
hL
c
k
where the characteristic length L
c
is the ratio of
volume to surface area (= V /A
s
). If the Biot
number is less than 0.1, the lumped analysis
equation applies.
Calculations
The objective in this experiment is to use the
Heisler chart for an infinite cylinder and that for
a semi-infinite plate to predict the temperature
obtained by experiment. We could assume the
cylinder has an infinite length to diameter ratio,
but this would introduce some error into the
calculations.
At any recorded time, use the data to
calculate the value of dimensionless temperature,
(T
c
T
)/(T
i
T
), in which T
c
is the temperature
at the cylinder center. With the lumped analysis
assumption, we assume that the center
temperature T
c
is equal to the temperature T
anywhere within the cylinder. Use Equation 10.1
to find the value of the convection coefficient. We
44
will use the calculated value of the convection
coefficient in subsequent calculations, even if the
lumped analysis does not apply.
An exact solution for the problem of unsteady
heating (or cooling) of an infinite cylinder has
been obtained. Results are graphed in what is
known as a Heisler chart for the cylinder. A
dimensionless group called the Fourier number
appears on the horizontal axis, while
dimensionless temperature is on the vertical axis.
The Fourier number for the cylinder is
Fo =
t
R
2
A number of curves on the axes of the Heisler
chart correspond to the inverse of the Biot
number, 1/Bi. Note that the Biot number for this
graph (Bi = hR/k) is different from the Biot
number used in the lumped analysis method.
If we use only the Heisler chart for the
infinite cylinder in order to predict temperature,
we will encounter an error, because the cylinder of
this experiment is finite in length. In order to
make the necessary correction, we refer to a
Heisler chart for a semi-infinite plate. This
chart is, again, a graph of dimensionless
temperature versus the Fourier number, with the
inverse Biot number appearing on various lines of
the graph. The Fourier number for the semi-
infinite plate is given by
Fo =
t
L
2
while the Biot number is Bi = hL/k, where L in
these equations is half the plate thickness.
The infinite cylinder problem is one
dimensional and unsteady. The semi-infinite
plate problem is also one dimensional and
unsteady. The combination of these solutions can
be used to model the two dimensional, unsteady
cylinder of this experiment. It can be shown
theoretically that the product of the two
solutions gives us what we are seeking. A visual
representation of this is provided in Figure 10.2.
A number of cylinders are available for this
experiment, some are non circular in cross section,
and some are made of nonmetals. Also available
are various spheres. Conduct the experiment for
the object(s) assigned.
Sample Calculation
Data obtained on a steel cylinder (D = 2 in., L
= 8 in.) yielded the following data:
T
i
= 79F T
= 149F
at t = 100 s, T
c
= 138F
What temperature does the Heisler charts
predict? What is the % error?
Solution: We apply Equation 10.1, which is
T T
T
i
T
= exp
(
j
,
\

hA
s
t
V c
Calculations are:
T T
T
i
T
=
138 - 149
79 - 149
= 0.157
A
s
= 0.3927 ft
2
V = 0.01454 ft
3
finite cylinder
=
infinite cylinder x semi-infinite plate
R
R
2L
2L
FIGURE 10.2. Finite cylinder solution as product of infinite cylinder and semi-infinite plate solutions.
45
and
L
c
=
0.01454
0.3927
= 0.037 ft
For steel, k = 24.8 BTU/(hrftR), c = 0.113
BTU/(lbmR), and = 487 lbm/ft
3
. With these
properties, and the preceding calculations, we
substitute into Equation 10.1 and solve to find
h = 135.8 BTU/(hrft
2
R)
The Biot number for the lumped analysis
calculation is
Bi =
hL
c
k
=
135.8(0.037)
24.8
= 0.203
Thus the lumped analysis does not strictly apply,
but we assume that we can still use this result for
the convection coefficient.
In order to use the Heisler charts, we must
calculate two Fourier numbers and two inverse
Biot numbers. Thus for the cylinder,
1/Bi =
k
h R
=
24.8
135.8(0.0833)
= 2.2
Fo =
k
c

t
R
2
= 1.8
Using these values, we obtain from the Heisler
chart for a cylinder, a dimensionless temperature
of
T
c
T
T
i
T
0.21 (infinite cylinder)

For the semi-infinite plate, remembering that
the length we need is half the actual length of
the cylinder, we find
1/Bi =
k
h L
=
24.8
135.8(4/12)
= 0.55
Fo =
k
c

t
L
2
= 0.113
Using these values, we obtain from the Heisler
chart for a semi-infinite plate, a dimensionless
temperature of
T
c
T
T
i
T
0.85 (semi-infinite plate)

So, for the finite cylinder of this example, we get
T
c
T
T
i
T
0.21(0.85) = 0.179 (finite cylinder)

The calculated temperature then is
T
c
= 149 + 0.179(79 - 149)
T
c
= 137F
The % error is
% error = 100 x
138 - 137
138
= 1.1%
This error can be attributed to several sources.
Experiment
For this experiment, obtain temperature versus
time for an object submerged in a water bath.
Determine a value for the convection coefficient
for all instants in time. Select 2 data points and
use the Heisler charts to determine how well
they predict the temperature of the cylinder.
Questions
1. Is the convection coefficient a constant? Is it
within an acceptable range for the
conditions of the experiment?
2. For the 2 data points you selected, what is
the error if we use only the infinite cylinder
solution without correction from the semi-
infinite plate solution?
2. What is the difference between the Biot
number for the lumped capacitance method
and the Biot number used in the Heisler
charts?
3. Reading the Heisler charts with a great deal
of accuracy is very difficult. What is your
estimate of the error involved in using the
graphs?
4. Radiation was not accounted for in the
analysis associated with this experiment.
Why not?
46
0.01
0.1
1
(
T
c

-

T
)
/
(
T
i

-

T
)
Fourier Number t / R
2
0.2
0.4
= 1/Bi = k/hR
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 26 24 30 28
2
3
10
8
Infinite Cylinder
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
2.5
4
6
12
14
16
20
25
18
0.01
0.1
1
(
T
c

-

T
)
/
(
T
i

-

T
)
Fourier Number t / L
2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1/Bi = k/hL
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
= 0
0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 26 24 30 28
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
10.0
8.0
Semi-infinite Plate
47
EXPERIMENT 11
NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER:
FLAT PLATE, FINNED PLATE, AND PIN FINS
Heat transfer by natural convection occurs in
many situations, and so it is important to
understand it and be able to successfully model it.
Studying natural convection for various
geometries is the subject of this experiment.
Apparatus
Consider a heated flat plate oriented
vertically and transferring heat by only one of its
surfaces to the surrounding air. Air near the plate
becomes warm and its density decreases. Buoyant
forces within the air act to move this less dense
air upward, and it is replaced with cooler air.
The motion of the air is due to the presence of the
heated plate, and so we call this a natural
convection problem.
in this experiment. It consists of a rectangular
duct that is held in the vertical direction. Flow
straighteners are at the bottom of the duct, and
an electrically operated fan is located at the top.
Air flow is upward through the system. Along
the front of the duct is a viewing window made of
clear plastic. Behind the viewing window is an
air flow
direction
duct
viewing
window
support
stand
base
plate
opening into which a
heated model can be
placed, as indicated in
Figure 11.2.
In this experiment,
the heated model is a
flat plate. When
installed, the flat plate
is heated by an internal
resistance heater, and
the energy to the heater
is controlled by a
rheostat. The back and
sides surrounding the
heated flat plate are
well insulated so that
all energy from the
rheostat is transferred to
the air by the front face
of the plate. Other
models that could be
used are a finned plate,
or a plate that has pin
fins attached.
this experiment.
Finned and Flat Plate
Models
viewing
window
heated
model
base
plate
flow
straighteners
within
fan and
motor
within
FIGURE 11.2. Heated models and duct.
The apparatus is instrumented with
thermocouples at selected locations. There is a
thermocouple located upstream of the viewing
window, and one placed within the heated model
that gives a reading of the surface temperature.
There is also provision for measuring the air
velocity within the duct.
Experiment
Insert the flat plate model into the duct and
turn the rheostat to a wattage of 5 W. (Note that
if the plate temperature exceeds 100C, a safety
switch will turn the heater off.) Allow the
system to reach steady state. Take readings of
ambient temperature T
, and plate surface

temperature T
w
. Repeat this procedure for
wattages of 2, 4, and 6 W. Measure the physical
dimensions of the flat plate.
Results
Construct a graph of power (vertical axis) as
a function of temperature difference, T
w
- T
. The
convection equation for heat transfer from a flat
plate to surrounding air is
q = h
c
A(T
w
- T
)
where A is the area of the plate in contact with
the air. Using this equation and the data
48
obtained, determine an average value for the
convection coefficient, h
c
.
With the convection coefficient known, a
dimensionless representation of the results can be
made. A dimensionless graph could apply to any
flat plate, not just to the one of this experiment.
The dimensionless ratios of significance for
this experiment are the Nusselt number Nu, the
Rayleigh number Ra and the Prandtl number Pr:
Nu =
h
c
L
k
Ra =
g(T T
)L
3
Pr =
whereL = plate length in vertical direction

k = thermal conductivity of air
g = gravitational acceleration
1/T

= coefficient of thermal
expansion
thermal diffusivity of air = k/c
= kinematic viscosity of air
Using the data obtained in this experiment,
calculate Nusselt number Nu, Rayleigh number
Ra and Prandtl number Pr. Graph Nusselt number
(vertical axis) versus Rayleigh number using the
data.
Other Geometries
This experiment can be repeated with a flat
plate that has longitudinal fins attached, as
shown in Figure 11.2, or with a flat plate that
has pin fins attached. Perform this experiment
for the heated model assigned. (Note: For these
shapes, a comparison of results with an equation
like 12.1 is not possible, because such equations
are unavailable for plate fins and pin fins.)
49
EXPERIMENT 12
FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
FROM A FLAT PLATE TO AIR
Heat transfer by forced convection is a
common problem, and so it is important to be able
to successfully model it. Modeling forced
convection for a flat plate transferring heat to air
is the subject of this experiment.
Apparatus
Consider a heated flat plate oriented
vertically and transferring heat by only one of its
surfaces to the surrounding air, which is being
forced past the plate by a fan. Air near the plate
receives energy and is moved away.
in this experiment. It consists of a rectangular
duct that is held in the vertical direction. Flow
straighteners are at the bottom of the duct, and
an electrically operated fan is located at the top.
air flow
direction
duct
viewing
window
support
stand
base
plate
Air flow is upward
through the system.
Along the front of the
duct is a viewing
window made of clear
plastic. Behind the
viewing window is an
opening into which a
heated flat plate model
can be placed, as
indicated in Figure 12.2.
In this experiment,
the flat plate is heated
by an internal resistance
heater, and the energy
to the heater is
controlled by a rheostat.
The back and sides of
the flat plate housing
are well insulated so
that all energy from the
rheostat is transferred to
the air by the front of
the plate.
this experiment.
The apparatus is instrumented with
thermocouples at selected locations. There is a
thermocouple located upstream of the viewing
window, and one placed inside the flat plate
housing that gives a reading of the surface
Flat Plate Model
viewing
window
heated
model
base
plate
flow
straighteners
within
fan and
motor
within
FIGURE 12.2. Heated model and duct.
temperature. There is also provision for
measuring the air velocity within the duct.
Experiment
Insert the flat plate model into the duct and
turn the rheostat to a preselected wattage, say 10
W. (Note that if the plate temperature exceeds
100C, a safety switch will turn the heater off.)
Turn the fan on and use the controller to get an air
velocity of 0.5 m/s. Allow the system to reach
steady state. Take readings of ambient
temperature T
, and plate surface temperature

T
w
. Repeat this procedure for air velocities of 1.0,
and 1.5 m/s. Measure the physical dimensions of
the flat plate.
Next, change the wattage of the heater to
another value, and repeat the experiment for air
velocities of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s. Repeat the
experiment again for a third heater wattage.
Results
Construct a graph of velocity (vertical axis)
as a function of temperature difference, T
w
- T
,
and label each line according to the wattage
selected. The convection equation for heat
transfer from a flat plate to surrounding air is
q = h
c
A(T
w
- T
)
where A is the area of the plate in contact with
50
the air. Using this equation and the data
obtained, determine an average value for the
convection coefficient, h
c
for each wattage.
With the convection coefficient known, a
dimensionless representation of the results can be
made. A dimensionless graph could apply to any
flat plate, not just to the one of this experiment.
The dimensionless ratios of significance for
this experiment are the Nusselt number Nu, the
Reynolds number Re and the Prandtl number Pr:
Nu =
h
c
L
k
Re =
VL
g
c
Pr =
whereL = plate length in vertical direction

k = thermal conductivity of air
= air density
V = air velocity
= absolute viscosity of air
thermal diffusivity of air = k/c
= kinematic viscosity of air
Using the data obtained in this experiment,
calculate Nusselt number Nu, Reynolds number Re
and Prandtl number Pr. Graph Nusselt number
(vertical axis) versus Reynolds number using the
data.
Other Geometries
This experiment can be repeated with a flat
plate that has longitudinal fins attached, or
with a flat plate that has pin fins attached.
Perform this experiment for the heated model
assigned. (Note: For these other shapes, a
comparison of results with a textbook equation
might not possible, because such equations are
unavailable for fins and pin fins.)
51
EXPERIMENT 13
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER I
Conduction and convection are heat transfer
mechanisms involving a material medium
through which energy travels. However, energy
can also be transferred through a region in which
a perfect vacuum exists. This mechanism or mode
of energy transfer is commonly called
electromagnetic radiation. All radiation is
propagated at the speed of light in a vacuum.
The many types of electromagnetic radiation
include X rays, gamma rays, the visible spectrum,
radio waves, thermal radiation, and
microwaves. Our concern is solely with the
thermal component. Net heat transfer by
radiation is a result of a temperature difference,
but it should be remembered that radiation
energy propagates from a body (a source) with or
without the presence of a second body (or
receiver).
Apparatus
The apparatus used in this experiment is
manufactured specifically for making radiation
measurements, and is sketched in Figure 13.1. It
consists of several pieces. One is a track and scale
onto which various items can be attached.
Another is an instrument controller, which
contains a rheostat to control heat input to the
heat source, and digital readout instruments. In
this experiment, we will use only the heat source,
and not the light source.
instrument console
and controller
heater
transformer
heat source
light source
track and scale
FIGURE 13.1. A sketch of the apparatus used in this experiment.
Radiometer
Figure 13.2 shows the same apparatus with a
radiometer in place. A radiometer is used to
measure radiant energy emitted from a heated
surface. A device such as this can made of an
array of thermocouples connected in series to give
a high voltage output, compared to the output of
only one thermocouple. (The thermocouples could
also be connected in parallel to give a higher
current output.) A radiometer is any of a broad
class of temperature measuring devices, including
thermocouples (as used here), thermistors, and
resistance pyrometers.
heat source
track and scale
radiometer
L
FIGURE 13.2. Sketch of the apparatus with a
radiometer.
Several words of caution regarding the
radiometer are appropriate. It is a sensitive
instrument, and a cover is supplied for its open
end to keep out dust and dirt. Objects should not be
placed in the open end so that the finish and the
shield will not become scratched or damaged.
Because of its sensitivity, the performance of
the radiometer can be significantly affected by
local heat sources or air currents about its open
end. If the radiometer is exposed for long periods
of time to a radiant heat source, a zero shift in its
readout will occur. So between readings, the
polished disc is to be placed over the open end.
The radiometer reads directly in W/m
2
.
Using the Sensor. The technique for using the
radiometer or sensor to obtain readings from the
heat source is to allow the heater to reach a
steady temperature with the radiometer in
position, and the polished disc in place. When
steady state has been reached, the polished disc
is removed without touching the sensor if
possible. The reading will increase rapidly,
52
eventually reaching a steady value. The elapsed
time could take up to two minutes. Once a reading
has been taken, replace the polished disc over
the open end to prevent excessive heating of the
sensor, and subsequent erroneous readings.
The radiometer is mounted on a post that in
turn is attached to a slide mechanism, which
allows the radiometer to be moved close to or
away from the heat source. The slide mechanism
is scribed with a line that is used with the track
scale to measure position. The sensor is 2 cm closer
to the heat source than the scribed line indicates.
Thus all length readings taken from the scale
must have 2 cm subtracted from them.
Incident and Emitted Radiation
The digital readout indicates the intensity of
radiation received by the radiometer in W/m
2
.
This value is different from that which was
emitted by the heat source at which the
radiometer was aimed. Therefore, readings must
be modified to account for this difference.
We will use the concept of configuration or
view factor to make corrections. The heat source
itself is a flat plate, and the radiometer sensor is
much smaller in area. The actual setup between
the heat source and sensor is sketched in Figure
13.3, in which the sensor is denoted as dA
1
.
The view factor is defined as the fraction of
energy that leaves the heat source that is
intercepted by the sensor. So a reading at the
sensor (dA
1
in Figure 13.3) must be modified in
order to determine the heat that is emitted by
the source. We do not have results for the system
of Figure 13.3, but we can obtain them from a view
factor geometry that we do have. Figure 13.4
shows a view factor between a plane A
2
and a
small area dA
1
. The small area is aligned with
dA
1
FIGURE 13.3. Actual setup between heat source
and sensor.
one of the corners of the plane. We can apply this
result 4 times to the system of Figure 13.3 to
obtain the view factor for the apparatus of this
experiment. This number will be needed for all
experiments in which the radiometer is used. We
have by definition
q
incident
= q
emitted
AF
d12
so that the energy emitted at the plate surface is
q
emitted
A
=
(
j
,
\
radiometer
reading

1
F
d12
(13.1)
where A is the area of the emitter.
Inverse Square Law
The transfer of radiant energy is a function of
the distance between source and receiver. The
energy received is inversely proportional to the
dA
1
A
2
a
c
b
Defining x = a/c, y = b/c, we have
F
d12
=
1
2

,
]
]
x
1 + x
2
tan
-1
(
j
,
\
y
1 + x
2
+
y
1 + y
2
tan
-1
(
j
,
\
x
1 + y
2
FIGURE 13.4. View factor between a differential area and a
pl ane.
53
square of the distance between the two. This is
known as the Inverse Square Law, which will be
verified in this experiment.
This experiment is conducted with the heat
source (a flat plate) and the radiometer. Figure
13.2 shows the setup. The objective is to show
that the intensity of radiation on a surface is
inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the source and the receiver:
q
1
L
2
(13.2)
where q is the energy per unit area.
The procedure is as follows:
Turn the power selector switch to some value.
Set the radiometer anywhere on the scale.
Allow approximately 15 minutes for steady
state to be reached.
Remove the cover from the sensor and allow
the reading to stabilize.
Record the incident radiation and the
distance between the source and the sensor.
Repeat the procedure for other distances, all
taken at the same power setting.
Results. Note that the length measurements
must be corrected for this part of the experiment,
but the reading from the radiometer must not
have the view factor applied.
1. Construct a graph of intensity of radiation q
versus distance L. Is this graph linear?
2. Construct also a log-log graph of q versus L.
Is this graph linear, and if so what is its
slope? Has Equation 14.2 been verified?
Using the same data, calculations can be
made to determine the validity of the view
factor calculations. The length measurements
must be corrected, and the reading from the
radiometer must have the view factor equation
applied. With these calculations,
3. Determine the value of the emitted radiation
for every distance used. Should the emitted
radiation be the same for all distances?
54
EXPERIMENT 14
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER II
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In order to model radiation heat transfer, it is
useful to define a surface or substance that emits
radiation ideally. An ideal radiator is known as
a black body, and it will emit energy at a rate
that is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature:
q
A
T
4
With a proportionality constant, the preceding
equation becomes
q = AT
4
(14.3)
where is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
and has the value of
= 5.67 x 10
-8
W/(m
2
K
4
)
= 0.1714 x 10
-8
BTU/(hrft
2
R
4
)
Temperature in Equation 14.3 must be expressed in
absolute units.
In the case of most real materials, surfaces do
not emit electromagnetic radiation ideally; that
is, they are not ideal radiators as black bodies
are. To account for the gray nature of real
surfaces, we introduce a dimensionless factor ,
called the emissivity. Emissivity values for
various surfaces varies with finish (e.g.,
polished versus painted). Modifying Equation
14.3 to account for gray-body behavior yields
q = AT
4
The emissivity is 1 for an ideal radiator, and less
than 1 for a gray surface. This equation is known
as the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
When a real body exchanges heat by
radiation only with a black body, the net heat
exchanged is proportional to the difference in T
4
.
For such a system, the net heat exchanged is
q = A
1
1
(T
1
4
T
2
4
) (14.4)
where the 1 subscript refers to the source, and
2 refers to the receiver. The objective of this
experiment is to verify Equation 14.4; i.e., that
heat transferred by radiation varies with a
difference in the fourth power of temperature.
The setup for this part of the experiment is
shown in Figure 14.5. A black plate is located on
the track/scale at a distance L
1
from the source.
The distance from the radiometer to the black
plate is L
2
. The heater radiates in all directions,
and some of this energy is absorbed by the black
plate. The black plate radiates in all directions,
and the radiometer intercepts a fraction of this
energy.
Let L
1
= 5 cm, and L
2
4L
1
.
Record temperature of the black plate and
radiometer reading for ambient conditions.
Set the power control to its maximum value.
When conditions become steady, record black
plate temperature and radiometer reading.
Move the power control to another setting and
repeat the procedure to obtain 4 more sets of
readings.
Install the polished disc over the sensor
between readings.
heat source
track and scale
radiometer
L
1
L
2
black
plate
FIGURE 14.5. Setup for verification of the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
Results. For the conditions of this experiment,
Equation 14.4 applies to the black plate, where
1
= 1.0, and T
2
is the ambient temperature. Equation
14.4 is solved for intensity to give
q
A
= (T
1
4
T
2
4
) (14.5)
Use the temperatures obtained with Equation
14.5 to calculate values of q/A. The results give
values of the energy emitted by the black plate.
Make appropriate corrections to the readings
from the radiometer, and compare the results to
those obtained with Equation 14.5. Calculate %
errors and account for all error sources.
Referring to Equation 14.4, and substituting
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in SI units we get
q = 5.67 x 10
-8
A
1
1
(T
1
4
T
2
4
)
It is sometimes convenient to group the power
55
term with the temperatures as in
q
A
1
= 5.67[(T
1
/100)
4
(T
2
/100)
4
] (14.6)
For the results, produce a graph of [(T
1
/100)
4
(T
2
/100)
4
] as a function of corrected radiometer
reading. (Temperature must be expressed in
absolute units.) The area of the source and its
emissivity are constants. So in essence, we are
graphing (T
1
4
T
2
4
) versus q. Should the graph be
linear? Would a semilog or a log-log graph
produce a linear result?
56
EXPERIMENT 15
EMISSIVITY OF BLACK AND GRAY SURFACES
receiver).
Apparatus
The apparatus used in this experiment is
manufactured specifically for making radiation
measurements, and is sketched in Figure 15.1. It
consists of several pieces. One is a track and scale
onto which various items can be attached.
Another is an instrument controller, which
contains a rheostat to control heat input to the
heat source, and digital readout instruments. In
this experiment, we will use only the heat source,
and not the light source.
instrument console
and controller
heater
transformer
heat source
light source
track and scale
FIGURE 15.1. A sketch of the apparatus used in this experiment.
Radiometer
Figure 15.2 shows the same apparatus with a
radiometer in place. A radiometer is used to
measure radiant energy emitted from a heated
surface. A device such as this can made of an
array of thermocouples connected in series to give
a high voltage output, compared to the output of
only one thermocouple. (The thermocouples could
also be connected in parallel to give a higher
current output.) A radiometer is any of a broad
class of temperature measuring devices, including
thermocouples (as used here), thermistors,
resistance pyrometers, and radiation pyrometers.
heat source
track and scale
radiometer
L
FIGURE 15.2. Sketch of the apparatus with a
radiometer.
Several words of caution regarding the
radiometer are appropriate. It is a sensitive
instrument, and a cover is supplied for its open
end to keep out dust and dirt. Objects should not be
placed in the open end so that the finish and the
shield will not become scratched or damaged.
Because of its sensitivity, the performance of
the radiometer can be significantly affected by
local heat sources or air currents about its open
end. If the radiometer is exposed for long periods
of time to a radiant heat source, a zero shift in its
readout will occur. So between readings, the
polished disc is to be placed over the open end.
The radiometer reads directly in W/m
2
.
Using the Sensor. The technique for using the
radiometer or sensor to obtain readings from the
heat source is to allow the heater to reach a
steady temperature with the radiometer in
position, and the polished disc in place. When
steady state has been reached, the polished disc
is removed without touching the sensor if
possible. The reading will increase rapidly,
57
eventually reaching a steady value. The elapsed
time could take up to two minutes. Once a reading
has been taken, replace the polished disc over
the open end to prevent excessive heating of the
sensor, and subsequent erroneous readings.
The radiometer is mounted on a post that in
turn is attached to a slide mechanism, which
allows the radiometer to be moved close to or
away from the heat source. The slide mechanism
is scribed with a line that is used with the track
scale to measure position. The sensor is 2 cm closer
to the heat source than the scribed line indicates.
Thus all length readings taken from the scale
must have 2 cm subtracted from them.
Incident and Emitted Radiation
The digital readout indicates the intensity of
radiation received by the radiometer in W/m
2
.
This value is different from that which was
emitted by the heat source at which the
radiometer was aimed. Therefore, readings must
be modified to account for this difference.
We will use the concept of configuration or
view factor to make corrections. The heat source
itself is a flat plate, and the radiometer sensor is
much smaller in area. The actual setup between
the heat source and sensor is sketched in Figure
15.3.
The view factor is defined as the fraction of
energy that leaves the heat source that is
intercepted by the sensor. So a reading at the
sensor (dA
1
in Figure 15.3) must be modified in
order to determine the heat that is radiated by
the source. We do not have results for the system
of Figure 15.3, but we can obtain them from a view
factor geometry that we do have. Figure 15.4
shows a view factor between a plane A
2
and a
small area dA
1
. The small area is aligned with
one of the corners of the plane. We can apply this
dA
1
FIGURE 15.3. Actual setup between heat source
and sensor.
result 4 times to the system of Figure 15.3 to
obtain the view factor for the apparatus of this
experiment. This number will be needed for all
experiments in which the radiometer is used. We
have by definition
q
incident
= q
emitted
AF
d12
so that the energy emitted at the plate surface is
q
emitted
A
=
(
j
,
\
radiometer
reading

1
F
d12
(15.1)
where A is the area of the emitter.
Background
Radiant energy is characterized by
electromagnetic waves that travel at the speed
of light. According to wave theory, radiation can
be thought of as many waves, all oscillating at
different wavelengths and frequencies. The
radiation properties considered in this
dA
1
A
2
a
c
b
Defining x = a/c, y = b/c, we have
F
d12
=
1
2

,
]
]
x
1 + x
2
tan
-1
(
j
,
\
y
1 + x
2
+
y
1 + y
2
tan
-1
(
j
,
\
x
1 + y
2
FIGURE 15.4. View factor between a differential area and a
pl ane.
58
experiment are generally functions of the
properties of the surface of a material, or its
opacity. We measure emissivity in this
experiment for three different surfaces.
Radiative Properties
The surface of a substance highly influences
its radiation characteristics, and the amount of
radiant energy the surface emits, absorbs,
reflects, and transmits. Polished gold, for
example, has an emissivity of (measured normal
to the surface) of 0.025. An unpolished gold
surface, on the other hand, has a normal
emissivity of 0.47. It is important to realize that
such differences exist, and that surface treatment
is a significant factor in how the material
behaves in radiative heat transfer studies.
Emissivity is a property that describes how
radiant energy interacts with the surface of a
material. Other properties that are important
are reflectivity, absorptivity, and
transmissivity. As implied by these names,
reflectivity is the fraction of incident radiant
energy reflected by the surface; absorptivity is
the fraction of incident radiant energy absorbed
by the surface; and, transmissivity is the fraction
of incident radiant energy transmitted through a
layer of the material.
The radiative properties discussed in the
preceding paragraphs are in general functions of
wavelength. Properties that describe surface
behavior as a function of wavelength are called
monochromatic or spectral properties. In
addition, radiative properties can be a function of
direction. Such properties are referred to as
directional properties. In the analysis of
radiation heat transfer, accounting for the exact
behavior of a surface or material can be complex
enough to make a solution elusive. A simplified
approach must therefore be formulated. This
involves the use of radiative properties that are
averages over all wavelengths and all directions.
These properties are called total or
hemispherical properties. Use of total properties
is accurate enough in a majority of cases for most
engineering problems.
Measurement of Emissivity
For a system in which radiation is being
accounted for, the net heat exchanged is given by
q = A
1
1
(T
1
4
T
2
4
) (15.2)
2 refers to the receiver. The objective of this
experiment is to use this equation to measure the
emissivity of various surfaces.
Figure 15.5 is a sketch of the apparatus used.
Shown is the track and scale with a black plate
mounted a distance L
1
from the heat source, and
the radiometer located a distance L
2
from the
black plate. Energy is radiated from the heat
source, a portion of which is intercepted by the
black plate. The black plate is warmed, and it
radiates energy in all directions. The radiometer
intercepts a portion of this energy.
heat source
track and scale
radiometer
L
1
L
2
black
plate
FIGURE 15.5. Setup for measuring emissivity of a
black plate.
Procedure:
Locate the plate and radiometer at distances
of L
1
= 5 cm and L
2
2L
1
.
Obtain plate temperature and radiometer
reading at ambient conditions.
Move the heater power control to its
maximum setting.
When conditions become steady, record
surface temperature and radiometer reading.
Set the heater power control to a new setting,
and obtain 3 more sets of readings.
Install the silver disc over the radiometer
between readings.
Repeat the entire procedure for two other
plates.
Equation 15.2 can be rearranged to solve for
the emissivity:
1
=
q / A
(T
1
4
T
2
4
)
(15.3)
in which the numerator is the reading obtained
from the radiometer, T
1
is the plate surface
temperature, and T
2
is the ambient temperature.
Solve for emissivity for the 4 readings of the
black plate; average them to obtain an average
emissivity. Repeat the calculations for the other
plates. Note that the radiometer was placed
normal to the plates in all cases, and so it is not
uncommon to refer to the results as normal
emissivities.
59
EXPERIMENT 16
RADIATION VIEW FACTOR
receiver).
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
In order to model radiation heat transfer, it is
useful to define a surface or substance that emits
radiation ideally. An ideal radiator is known as
a black body, and it will emit energy at a rate
that is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature:
q
A
T
4
With a proportionality constant, the preceding
equation becomes
q = AT
4

where is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
and has the value of
= 5.67 x 10
-8
W/(m
2
K
4
)
= 0.1714 x 10
-8
BTU/(hrft
2
R
4
)
Temperature in the equation for heat transfer
must be expressed in absolute units.
In the case of most real materials, surfaces do
not emit electromagnetic radiation ideally; that
is, they are not ideal radiators as black bodies
are. To account for the gray nature of real
surfaces, we introduce a dimensionless factor ,
called the emissivity. Emissivity values for
various surfaces vary with finish (e.g., polished
versus painted). Modifying the heat transfer
equation to account for gray-body behavior yields
q = AT
4

The emissivity is 1 for an ideal radiator, and less
than 1 for a gray surface. This equation is known
as the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
When a real body exchanges heat by
radiation only with a black body, the net heat
exchanged is proportional to the difference in T
4
.
For such a system, the net heat exchanged is
q = A
1
1
(T
1
4
T
2
4
)
2 refers to the receiver.
View Factor
The view factor (also called the
configuration factor, the shape factor, or the
geometry factor) is a geometry term for a system
in which two surfaces exchange energy by
radiation. Radiation waves travel in straight
lines, and if one surface cannot see another,
then there is no direct radiation from the first
surface to the second. Thus position (or the
geometry) between source and receiver is
important in determining the radiative energy
transfer rate. The view factor expresses the
geometry of position that exists between source
and receiver. For a net heat exchange in which
we must account for geometry, the heat
transferred becomes
q = A
1
1
F
1-2
(T
1
4
T
2
4
)
where F
1-2
represents the geometry effects
inherent in the problem; i.e., how surface 1 views
surface 2. In essence, F
1-2
is the fraction of energy
leaving surface 1 that goes to surface 2.
In this experiment, we will determine the
view factor between a differential area and a
plane using what is known as the Nusselt Sphere
Method.
Theory
Consider that we are trying to obtain the
configuration factor between a differential area
dA
1
and the finite area A
2
, as shown in Figure
16.1. Initially, we identify a differential area
dA
2
on A
2
, and draw lines normal to both
differential areas. We also draw a line from dA
1
to dA
2
, and this line has a length S. The angles
1
60
and
2
are measured from S to the lines that are
normal to dA
1
and dA
2
, respectively. Next, we
construct lines from dA
1
to all points on the
boundary of dA
2
. These lines form a solid angle
denoted as d
1
, which is given by
dA
1
dA
2
dA
s
A
2
A
s
A
b
Normal to dA
2
r
S
dA
s
cos
1
1
1
2
1
d
FIGURE 16.1. Configuration factor between a
differential and a finite area.
d
1
=
dA
2
cos
2
S
2
(16.1)
The view factor between dA
1
and dA
2
is found as
F
dA1-dA2
=
cos
1
cos
2
dA
1
dA
2
S
2
(16.2)
Integrating over the area A
2
results in the
configuration factor that we are trying to
evaluate:
F
dA1-A2
=
A2

cos
1
cos
2
dA
2
S
2
(16.3a)
or in terms of solid angle, with Equation 16.1, we
get
F
dA1-A2
=
1
A2

cos
1
d
1
(16.3b)
where the integration limits on A
2
extend over
the portion that can be viewed by dA
1
. Now
suppose that we construct a hemisphere over the
area dA
1
, again referring to Figure 16.1. The
projection of dA
2
onto the surface of the
hemisphere is dA
s
which is given by
dA
s
= r
2
d
1
from the definition of solid angle. Combining
with Equation 16.3b gives
F
dA1-A2
=
1
r
2

As

cos
1
dA
s
(16.4)
where the integral is to be evaluated over A
s
.
The term dA
s
cos
1
is the projection of the area
dA
s
onto the base of the hemisphere, and if this
term is integrated over A
s
, we obtain the area A
b
.
As shown in Figure 16.1, the area A
b
is the
projection of A
s
onto the base of the hemisphere.
Equation 16.4 therefore becomes
F
dA1-A2
=
A
b
r
2
(16.5)
This equation states that the configuration factor
between dA
1
and A
2
equals the ratio of the
projection of A
2
onto the base of the hemisphere
(= A
b
) to the area of the base of the hemisphere:
F
dA1-A2
=
projection of A
s
onto the base of the hemisphere
area of a circle with radius of the hemisphere
A plan view of Figure 16.1 would reveal the two
areas. Measurements or calculations could then be
performed to find the view factor.
Graphical Solution to a
Specific Problem
The sphere method has a graphical
equivalent, as described here. The sphere method
can also be used with a photographic technique,
which is described later. Both methods are used
in this experiment. In some geometries, there are
theoretical solutions which have been developed
and catalogued. One such case is described here.
It has been investigated with the sphere method,
and the experimental results are to be compared
to those obtained by equation.
Figure 16.2 shows the plan and profile views
of a differential area located at the origin, and a
plane, selected to illustrate the method. We
will use results obtained from the sphere method
to obtain a graphical solution for the
configuration factor between the differential
area dA and the plane.
The graphical solution method first involves
drawing a hemisphere of radius r in both views.
The hemisphere is constructed with its center at
the area dA, and the radius of the hemisphere is
selected arbitrarily. The hemisphere can
encompass the entire plane, or pass through it or
61
exclude it. Next lines are constructed from the
origin to every point on the edges of the plane.
The lines connecting the origin with the edges of
the plane intersect the hemisphere and form an
area that we have identified in Figure 16.1 as A
s
.
Plan
Profile
dA
plane
FIGURE 16.2. Plan and profile views of a
differential area and a plane.
As mentioned previously, after drawing a
hemisphere, we then draw lines from the origin
to a number of points on the edges of the plane.
The lines will intersect the hemisphere on the
edge of the projection plane. In order to find a
point of intersection, the true length of the line
must be constructed in the profile view.
The true length of the line is found here by a
rotation of the line as illustrated in Figure 16.3.
We draw line 0-1 in both views. Line 0-1 is
0
1
2
2
3
3
1
1
0
1
Plan
Profile
dA
plane
FIGURE 16.3. Plan and profile views of a
differential area, a plane, and a hemisphere.
rotated in the plan view to the point labeled 1.
The line from 0 to 1 is drawn to locate point 2 in
the profile view. Point 2 is projected back to the
plan view and rotated back to line 0-1 to locate
point 3. Thus 3 is the point where the line 0-1
intersects the hemisphere.
This process of finding intersecting points is
repeated for many points on the periphery of the
plane until something like Figure 4 results.
Shown is the plan view of the completed
drawing, which includes the areas dA, the plane,
and projection of the plane onto the base of the
hemisphere. The view factor is the ratio of the
projected area to that of the circle whose radius
equals that of the hemisphere.
dA
plane
projection of plane onto
the plane of dA
FIGURE 16.4. Plan view of the completed
drawing.
Figure 5 again shows the solution but with a
grid imposed. The projected area can be
determined either by counting squares or by some
numerical technique.
FIGURE 16.5. Plan view of the completed
drawing with grid imposed for determining
ar e a.
62
Photographic Method
The photographic method is based on the
concepts discussed in the theory section.
Regarding the problem solved graphically in the
preceding section, we can use a reflecting
hemisphere which is placed over the area dA,
and view directly above dA. The reflection of the
plane in the surface of the hemisphere will
appear like that shown in Figure 16.4. So a
photograph taken in this way can be used to
obtain the areas, and the configuration factor can
then be calculated.
here. Shown is the relative mounting of all
pieces. The plane area is mounted on the frame,
and a camera is used to take a photograph in the
viewing direction.
Viewing
direction
Plane area
FIGURE 16.6. Sketch of the assembled apparatus.
Various plane areas are available, made of
16 gage sheet metal. These planes include two
disks, a square, two octagons, and an equilateral
triangle. All plane areas have been painted a
glossy white so they would reflect effectively.
Correction Factor
As mentioned earlier, the hemisphere used is
not quite a true hemisphere; it has been
truncated, as shown in Figure 16.7. The actual
known dimensions, referring to the figure, are
radius r
a
and height d
2
. In order to make
appropriate calculations, it is necessary to
determine the true radius r. For the dimensions of
Figure 16.7, we can write:
r
d
1
r
r
a
d
2
truncated
hemisphere
FIGURE 16.7. Sketch of the truncated
hemisphere used in this experiment.
r
2
= r
a
2
+ d
1
2
in which only r
a
is known. We can also write
d
1
+ d
2
= r
The preceding two equations contain two
unknowns (d
1
and r). Solving simultaneously, we
get
r =
r
a
2
+ d
2
2
2d
2
(16.6)
and d
1
= r - d
2
. For this experiment, measure r
a
and d
2
. Then calculate r and d
1
.
Comparison of Results for a Disk
A mathematical solution has been obtained
for the view factor when the plane area is a disk,
or when it is a square (or rectangle).
When the plane area is a disk oriented in a
certain way, an exact expression can be used to
find the view factor. Figure 16.8 shows a drawing
of two surfaces. One is a differential area dA
1
and the other is a disk A
2
. It is desired to find the
view factor F
dA1-A2
The exact solution to this
problem is given by:
F
dA1-A2
=
A
2

(
j
,
\
1 + B
2
+ A
2
(1 + B
2
+ A
2)2
4B
2
1
(16.7)
where A = a/c and B = b/c. A graph of this
equation is shown also in Figure 16.8.
Experiment
Two plane areas are to be used for this
experiment. One must be a disk and the other is to
be any of the remaining non circular planes (your
choice). Mount the planes on the frame at the
appropriate position. Take a photograph in the
63
viewing direction, and transfer the result to a
computer that can read photographs. Determine
the areas in any convenient way from the
photographs for both planes. Calculate the view
factors.
For the disk, use the information in the
preceding section to calculate the view factor by
equation. Compare the result to that obtained by
the photograph. Calculate % error.
For the non circular plane, use the graphical
method to determine the view factor. Compare
the result to that obtained from the photograph.
Calculate % error.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.01 0.1 1
F
a/c
d
A
1
-
A
2
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.2 0.4 0.6 2 4
1.0
b/c = 0.975
0.9
0.95
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
dA
1
A
2
c
b
a
FIGURE 16.8. A graph of Equation 16.7 for the view factor between a differential area and a disk.
64
EXPERIMENT 17
ANALYSIS OF A DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer
heat from one fluid to another. There are many
different types of heat exchangers including
shell-and-tube, cross flow, and double pipe. The
analysis of a double pipe heat exchanger is the
subject of this experiment.
The Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
A double pipe heat exchanger consists of two
concentric, different diameter tubes with fluid
flowing in each as indicated in Figures 17.1 and
17.2. If the two fluids travel in opposite
directions as illustrated in Figure 17.1, the
exchanger is a counter flow type. If the fluids
travel in the same direction as shown in Figure
17.2, parallel flow exists. The same apparatus is
used for either flow configuration. The objective
in using a heat exchanger is to be able to transfer
as much heat as possible for as small a cost as
necessary. In sizing or selecting a particular
exchanger, all that will be known are:
The tube sizes and areas (surface and cross
sectional areas)
The physical properties of the fluids
The inlet temperatures of the fluids
In order to predict the amount of heat that will
be exchanged, it is necessary to know the outlet
temperatures of both fluids. Predicting outlet
temperatures involves an in depth analysis if
those parameters above are all that are known.
Presenting an entire analysis here is too lengthy.
Consequently in this experiment, the equations
are given but not derived.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. There are two flow
circuits with water as the fluid in both of them.
One fluid circuit is for warm water and one for
cold water. The warm water is heated in a
heating tank by submersible heating elements. A
pump moves the heated water from the tank
through some piping to three double pipe heat
exchangers connected in series. From there, the
water returns through a valve and a flow meter to
the heating tank.
The cold water enters the apparatus and goes
through a flow meter to two directional control
valves. These valves operate with two
independent handles which are to be turned
simultaneously. In Figure 1, the valves direct the
flow toward the center of the apparatus to the
double pipe heat exchangers. From there, the
cold water is directed to a drain.
With the arrangement shown in Figure 17.3,
the cold water and the warm water are both
traveling in the opposite direction through all
three heat exchangers (counterflow).
tube fluid
outlet
annulus
fluid inlet
annulus
fluid outlet
tube fluid
inlet
t
1
t
2
T
1 T
2
L
t
2
t
1
T
1
T
2
length or distance
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
FIGURE 17.1. A double pipe heat exchanger set
up in counterflow and the corresponding
temperature profile.
L
tube fluid
outlet
annulus
fluid inlet
annulus
fluid outlet
tube fluid
inlet
t
1
t
2
T
1
T
2
t
1
t
2
T
1
T
2
length or distance
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
FIGURE 17.2. A double pipe heat exchanger set
up in parallel flow and the corresponding
temperature profile.
65
directional
control
valves
flowmeter
water flow
transducer
cold water
inlet
valve
valve
valve
valve
sight glass
heaters
hot water
drain
tank
drain
to drain
pump
heating tank
heat
exchangers
counterflow
t
7
t
8
t
9
t
10
T
6
T
4
T
5
T
3
t
m2
t
m1
FIGURE 17.3. Apparatus used in the double pipe heat exchanger experiment; counter flow.
Figure 17.4 shows the same apparatus, but the
directional control valves have been reversed.
The cold water is directed downward on the left
of the heat exchangers. As indicated, the flow
direction of the warm water is the same as it was
in the counter flow arrangement. In Figure 17.4,
however, the cold water direction has been
changed, and parallel flow has been set up
within the heat exchangers.
Following now is an analysis for double pipe
heat exchangers in which the outlet
temperatures are to be found. Calculations are
presented in a suggested format and order for a
specific example problem.
Analysis of Double Pipe Heat Exchangers
with Outlet Temperatures Unknown
Problem. Water at a temperature of 195F and a
mass flow rate of 5000 lbm/hr is to be used to heat
ethylene glycol. The ethylene glycol is available
at 85F with a mass flow rate of 12,000 lbm/hr. A
double pipe heat exchanger consisting of a 1
1
/4
standard type M copper tubing inside of 2
standard type M copper tubing. The exchanger is 6
ft long. Determine the outlet temperature of both
fluids using counterflow and again using parallel
flow.
Discussion. Water loses energy only to the
ethylene glycol and as heat is transferred, fluid
properties change with temperature changes.
Outlet temperatures are unknown so in order to
evaluate properties, we use either the inlet
temperatures or the average of both inlet
temperatures. The fluid with the higher flow
rate should be placed in the passage (annular or
tubular) having the greater cross sectional area.
In this way, pressure losses are minimized.
66
directional
control
valves
flowmeter
water flow
transducer cold water
inlet
valve
valve
valve
valve
sight glass
heaters
hot water
drain
tank
drain
to drain
pump
heating tank
heat
exchangers
parallel flow
t
7
t
8
t
9
t
10
T
6
T
4
T
5
T
3
t
m2
t
m1
FIGURE 17.4. Apparatus used in the double pipe heat exchanger experiment; parallel flow.
Assumptions 1. Steady state conditions exist.
2. Fluid properties remain constant and are evaluated at 140F [= (195 + 85)/2].
Nomenclature 1. T refers to the temperature of the warmer fluid.
2. t refers to the temperature of the cooler fluid.
3. h subscript refers to the warmer fluid, or hydraulic diameter
4. c subscript refers to the cooler fluid.
5. a subscript refers to the annular flow area or dimension.
6. p subscript refers to the tubular flow area or dimension.
7. 1 subscript refers to an inlet condition.
8. 2 subscript refers to an outlet condition.
9. e subscript refers to equivalent diameter.
Fluid Properties
Water m
h
= 5000 lbm/hr T
1
= 195F
140F = 0.985(62.4) lbm/ft
3
C
p
= 0.9994 BTU/lbmR
k
f
= 0.376 BTU/hrftR = 6.02 x 10
-3
ft
2
/hr
= 0.514 x 10
-5
ft
2
/s Pr = 3.02
67
Ethylene m
c
= 12,000 lbm/hr t
1
= 85F
Glycol = 1.087(62.4) lbm/ft
3
C
p
= 0.612 BTU/lbmR
140F k
f
= 0.150 BTU/hrftR = 3.61 x 10
-3
ft
2
/hr
= 5.11 x 10
-5
ft
2
/s Pr = 51
Tubing Sizes (See Figure 8.3 for a definition of these diameters.)
2 std M ID
a
= 0.1674 ft
1
1
/4 std M ID
p
= 0.1076 ft OD
p
= 1.375/12 = 0.1146 ft
Flow Areas A
p
= ID
p
2
/4 = 0.00909 ft
2
A
a
= (ID
a
2
- OD
p
2
)/4 = 0.0117 ft
2
Fluid Velocities [Because A
a
> A
p
, we route the ethylene glycol (the fluid with the higher flow rate)
through the annulus.]
Water V
p
= m
h
/A
p
= 2.48 ft/s
Ethylene V
a
= m
c
/A
a
= 4.20 ft/s
Glycol
Annulus Equivalent Diameters
Friction D
h
= ID
a
OD
p
= 0.0528 ft
Ht Transfer D
e
= (ID
a
2
OD
p
2
)/OD
p
= 0.1299 ft
Reynolds Numbers
Water Re
p
= V
p
ID
p
/ = 5.2 x 10
4
Ethylene Re
a
= V
a
D
e
/ = 1.07 x 10
4
Glycol
Nusselt Numbers (The recommended expressions are listed at the end.)
Water Nu
p
= 0.023(Re
p
)
4/5
Pr
0.3
= 190
Ethylene Nu
a
= 0.023(Re
a
)
4/5
Pr
0.4
= 185
Glycol
ID
a
/2
ID
p
/2
OD
p
/2
R
12
R
23
R
34
T
t
r
T
L
Physical dimensions of the heat exchangers; both tubes are copper.
OD
t
= 9.5 mm
ID
t
= 7.9 mm
L = 3 x 350 mm
ID
a
= 11.1 mm
FIGURE 17.5. Definition sketch of the diameters associated with
a double pipe heat exchanger cross section.
Convection Coefficients
Water h
p
= Nu
p
k
f
/OD
p
= 623 BTU/hrft
2
R
Ethylene h
a
= Nu
a
k
f
/D
e
= 214 BTU/hrft
2
R
Glycol
68
Exchanger Coefficient
1
U
o
=
1
h
p
+
1
h
a
U
o
= 159 BTU/hrft
2
R
Outlet Temperature Calculations (Exchanger length L = 6 ft)
R =
m
c
C
pc

m
h
C
ph
= 1.47 A
o
= OD
p
L = 2.16 ft
2
Counterflow T
2
=
T
1
(R 1) Rt
1
[1 exp(U
o
A
o
(R 1)/m
c
C
pc
)]
R exp[U
o
A
o
(R 1)/m
c
C
pc
] 1
t
2
= t
1
+
T
1
T
2
R
Parallel Flow T
2
=
{R + exp[U
o
A
o
(R + 1)/m
c
C
pc
]}T
1
+ Rt
1
{exp[U
o
A
o
(R + 1)/m
c
C
pc
] 1}
(R + 1)exp[U
o
A
o
(R + 1)/m
c
C
pc
]
t
2
= t
1
+
T
1
T
2
R
Water T
2
= 188F Counterflow
Ethylene
Glycol t
2
= 90F Counterflow
Water T
2
= 188F Parallel Flow
Ethylene
Glycol t
2
= 90F Parallel Flow
Heat Balance (as a check on the results)
Water q
h
= m
h
C
ph
(T
1
T
2
) = 3.5 x 10
4
BTU/hr
Ethylene q
c
= m
c
C
pc
(t
2
t
1
) = 3.67 x 10
4
BTU/hr (discrepancy due to roundoff error)
Glycol
The results show that no difference exists
between parallel flow and counterflow for this
example. This is not always the case, however.
Counterflow is usually the preferred flow
configuration.
For one predetermined flow rate of the
warmer and one of the cooler fluid, establish a
steady state operation of the heat exchangers in
counterflow. Take all temperature readings and
flow rate readings. Next, reverse the flow
direction of one of the fluids and establish steady
state again. Make sure that the flow rates in
parallel flow are identical to those used in
parallel flow so that a comparison can be made.
Construct graphs of temperature versus axial
distance for both double pipe heat exchangers
when each operates in counterflow and in
parallel flow (2 graphs). Prepare an analysis
like that given above for both configurations,
using as total length the length of both
exchangers. Compare the outlet temperature
predicted by the analysis to that measured on the
device. Identify sources of error.
Nusselt Number Equations
Seider-Tate Equation for laminar flow:
Nu =
hD
k
f
= 1.86
(
j
,
\
D Re Pr
L
1/3
Re =
VD
< 2 200
D = ID
p
if cross section is tubular
D = D
e
if cross section is annular
69
0.48 < Pr =
< 16 700
changes moderately with temperature
Properties evaluated at the average fluid
temperature [ = (inlet + outlet)/2]
Modified Dittus-Boelter Equation for
turbulent flow:
Nu =
hD
k
f
= 0.023(Re)
4/5
Pr
n
n = 0.4 if fluid is being heated
n = 0.3 if fluid is being cooled
Re =
VD
10 000
D = ID
p
D = D
e
0.7 Pr =
160
L/D 60
70
EXPERIMENT 18
PLATE AND FRAME HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger is a device used to
transfer heat from one fluid to another. There
are many different types of heat exchangers
including shell-and-tube, cross flow, and double
pipe. The analysis of a shell and tube heat
exchanger, and of a plate and frame heat
exchanger, is the subject of this experiment.
Figure 18.1 shows the apparatus used in
this experiment. The device contains a water
supply tank, a pump-motor combination, two
rotameters, two heat exchangers, and the
associated tubing with fittings.
There are three fluid streams flowing
through the apparatus. Steam produced by a
steam generator is piped to the shell of a 1-2
shell and tube heat exchanger. Steam condenses
on the outside surface of the tubes, and is
discharged into a drain. Another fluid stream
is tap water, which is passed through the
plate and frame heat exchanger, and then is
discharged to a drain.
A
B
C
D
E
F
motor
pump
supply tank
rotameter
tap water in
tap water out
(to drain)
steam in
condensate out
plate and frame
heat exchanger
shell and tube
heat exchanger
return line
pump inlet line
FIGURE 18.1. Schematic of the heat exchanger apparatus.
(Notes: pump inlet line is 3/4 nominal schedule 80 pipe;
pump outlet line is 1/2 standard copper tubing.)
Tap Water
Water (recirculating)
From steam generator
Thermocouple
71
The third fluid stream is water stored in the
supply tank, which is pumped throughout the
system. It is first routed through the shell and
tube heat exchanger, where the water is heated
by the condensing steam. The heated water is
then routed through the plate and frame heat
exchanger where it transfers heat to the tap
water.
There are two experiments that can be
performed with this apparatus. One experiment
is the analysis of the plate and frame heat
exchanger in which published equations are used
in an effort to predict the outlet temperatures of
both fluid streams under suitable operating
conditions. The second is similar to the first, but
performed for the shell and tube heat exchanger.
Both experiments can be performed
simultaneously. All fluid flows are established
for predetermined conditions, and temperatures
and flow rates are recorded. Data are then used
with the mathematical models to predict outlet
temperatures.
Procedure
Turn the steam generator on to its maximum
setting. The valve at B should be fully open.
The valve at D should be closed and the
valve at C should be open.
Turn the pump on and adjust the valve at A so
that the flow rate reading on the manometer
does not exceed the maximum reading. The
valve at F should be closed.
Turn the floor valve on to allow tap water to
circulate through the plate and frame heat
exchanger. The flow rate of tap water should
not exceed the maximum on the rotameter.
The valve at E should be fully open. The flow
rate of tap water is to be controlled by the
floor valve.
Allow the system to reach steady state.
Monitor the progress toward steady state by
observing the temperature of any
thermocouple.
When steady state is achieved, record all
fluid temperatures, and both flow rate
readings.
The Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger
A plate and frame heat exchanger consists of
several metal sheets with corrugated surfaces
that are clamped together. Figure 18.2 shows a
frontal view of a plate having a herringbone
pattern; other patterns are also in use (such as one
referred to as a washboard). In the herringbone
pattern, the angle made between adjacent ribs
and the vertical is called the chevron angle, .
Plates can be made with small chevron angles
(low plates), or large angles (high plates).
Performance of the heat exchanger is a function of
the chevron angle. High plates provide high
heat transfer rates with high pressures losses.
The converse is also true.
frontal view
profile view of
several plates
warmer
fluid
cooler
fluid
herringbone
pattern
gasket
material
t s
b
L
FIGURE 18.2. Frontal view of one plate, and
profile views of several plates showing a
countercurrent flow configuration.
(Countercurrent flow is represented.)
Plates have rubber gaskets glued to them in
the pattern shown in the figure, or in some
similar way. Also shown in Figure 18.2 is a
profile view that indicates how the two fluids
flow about adjacent plates. Figure 18.3 shows how
the plates are arranged and how two fluids are
routed as they pass through the heat exchanger
itself. As indicated in these two figures, each
sheet separates the cold and warm fluids which
can be made to flow in either a countercurrent
(Figure 18.2) or a parallel flow pattern (Figure
18.3).
Plate exchangers are well suited for liquid-
liquid flows under turbulent conditions. These
exchangers can also be used as condensing units
operating at moderate flow rates and pressures
(to 60 psia). Large volume flow rates in a
condenser application, however, are better
handled by shell and tube heat exchangers. The
greatest advantages of a plate and frame
exchanger is that it can be modified readily, and
is small in size. If an existing exchanger can not
transfer the required amount of heat, for
example, one or more plates can be added easily
on an as-needed basis.
72
FIGURE 18.3. Flow through a
plate & frame heat
exchanger. (Parallel
flow is represented.)
cooler
liquid
inlet
seals arranged differently on
adjacent plates to direct the flow
cooler
liquid
outlet
warmer
liquid
outlet
warmer
liquid
inlet
end plate
is sealed
Plate Construction and Materials
The surface of each plate is important
because it is the heat transfer area. Corrugating
the plates imparts a certain degree of stiffness
and provides contact points between adjacent
plates when they are clamped together.
Furthermore, a dimpled or corrugated surface on
each plate causes turbulent mixing to occur that
will enhance the heat transferred. Plate
thicknesses can be as small as 0.6 mm (0.024 in.).
Gaskets
There are at least two gaskets that separate
the fluids. If there is a gasket failure, the
leaking fluid is discharged to the atmosphere
and the two fluids seldom mix. Gasket materials
include natural rubber styrene, resin cured nitrile,
and silicone and butyl rubbers. Neoprene and
compressed asbestos are also used.
Frames
The sheet metal plates are clamped together
with nuts and long bolts in a frame that contains
pipe connections for both fluids. Frames are
usually free standing, and because of the way
they are constructed, the entire heat exchanger
can be taken apart in a very short time. Frames
are usually made of carbon steel, painted or
coated to protect against corrosion. Connections
are usually made of the same material as the
plates in order to prevent electrochemical
problems.
Analysis of Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers
with Outlet Temperatures Unknown
The analysis of plate and frame heat
exchangers follows the same format as that for
the double pipe heat exchanger. Following is a
suggested order of calculations for this heat
exchanger, including recommended equations.
Specifications for the heat exchanger of this
experiment appear within the calculation sheets.
Assumptions
1. Steady state conditions exist.
2. Fluid properties remain constant and are
evaluated at the average of inlet and outlet
temperatures for both fluid streams.
Nomenclature
1. T refers to the temperature of the warmer
fluid.
3. w subscript refers to the warmer fluid.
4. h subscript refers to hydraulic diameter.
73
Tap Water
Water (recirculating)
Thermocouple
tap water out
(to drain)
plate and frame
heat exchanger
return line
warm water inlet
cool water inlet
T
1
T
2
t
2
t
1
FIGURE 18.4. Schematic of flow parallel flow through a plate & frame heat exchanger.
A. Fluid Properties
m
w
= T
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
m
c
= t
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
B. Plate Dimensions and Properties
b = plate width = 0.1 m
L = plate height = 0.35 m
s = plate spacing = 0.004 8 m
t = plate thickness = 0.001 m
A
o
= plate surface area = bL =
A = flow area = sb =
D
h
= hydraulic diameter of flow passage = 2s =
N
s
= number of plates = 19
k = thermal conductivity of plate = 14.3 W/(mK)
plate material = stainless steel
C. Fluid Velocities
Odd number of plates
V =
m/A
(N
s
+ 1)/2
for both fluids
V
w
=
V
c
=
D. Reynolds Numbers
Re
w
= V
w
D
h
/ =
Re
c
= V
c
D
h
/ =
74
E. Nusselt Numbers
Modified Sieder-Tate Equation for laminar flow:
Nu =
hD
h
k
f
= 1.86
(
j
,
\
D
h
Re Pr
L
1/3
Re < 100 0.48 < Pr = / < 16 700
Modified Dittus-Boelter Equation for turbulent flow:
Nu =
hD
h
k
f
= 0.374 Re
0.668
Pr
1/3
Re > 100; Pr = / > 0;
Conditions:
temperature [= (inlet + outlet)/2]
Nu
w
=
Nu
c
=
F. Convection Coefficients
h
i
= Nu
w
k
f
/D
h
=
h
o
= Nu
c
k
f
/D
h
=
G. Exchanger Coefficient
1
U
o
=
1
h
i
+
t
k
+
1
h
o
U
o
=
H. Capacitances
(m
C
p
)
w
=
(m
C
p
)
c
=
(m
C
p
)
min
=
I. Number of Transfer Units, NTU, and Correction Factor
N =
U
o
A
o
N
s
(m
C
p
)
min
= F =1 - 0.016 6 N =
J. Outlet Temperature Calculations
R =
m
c
C
pc
m
w
C
pw
= E
counter
= exp[U
o
A
o
N
s
F(R - 1)/m
c
C
pc
] =
T
2
=
T
1
(R - 1) - Rt
1
(1 - E
counter
)
RE
counter
- 1
=
75
t
2
= (T
1
- T
2
)/R + t
1
=
K. Log Mean Temperature Difference
Counterflow LMTD =
(T
1
- t
2
) - (T
2
- t
1
)
ln [(T
1
- t
2
)/(T
2
- t
1
)]
=
L. Heat Balance for Fluids and for the Exchanger
q
w
=
m
w
C
pw
(T
1
- T
2
) = q
c
=
m
c
C
pc
(t
2
- t
1
) =
q = U
o
A
o
N
s
F

LMTD =
M. Pressure Drop Calculations
Darcy-Weisbach
Reynolds number range Friction factor
110 f =
280
Re
10100 f =
100
Re
0.589
> 100 f =
12
Re
0.183

f
w
= f
c
=
p
w
=
f
w
L
D
h

V
w
2
2g
c
+ 1.3
w
V
p
2
2g
c
=
p
c
=
f
c
L
D
h

c
V
c
2
2g
c
+ 1.3
c
V
p
2
2g
c
=
N. Comparison of Calculated to Measured Outlet Temperatures
Measured Calculated % Error
T
2
=
t
2
=
Experimental Method
A plate and frame heat exchanger is
mounted on a support system containing a tank
of water with immersion heaters and a pump.
The pump moves heated water through the
heat exchanger. (There are controls for the
heaters.) Cold tap water is also routed through
the exchanger. Thermocouples are located at
the inlet and outlet of each fluid stream.
Variable area meters are located in each flow
line also. Valves are present in the system in
order to control the flow rates
For one predetermined flow rate of the
warmer and one of the cooler fluid, establish a
steady state operation of the heat exchangers
in countercurrent flow. Take all temperature
readings and flow rate readings. Next, reverse
the flow direction of one of the fluids and
establish steady state again. Make sure that
the flow rates in parallel flow are identical to
those used in counter flow so that a comparison
can be made.
Prepare an analysis like that given above
for both configurations. Compare the outlet
temperature predicted by the analysis to that
measured on the device. Identify sources of
error.
76
EXPERIMENT 19
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
Problem The objective of this experiment is to use derived equations to predict the outlet
temperature of water as it is heated in a condenser, specifically, a shell and tube heat
exchanger. The water is heated by steam condensing on the outside of the tubes. The
heat exchanger is set up with the tube fluid (water to be heated) passing through
twice. Measured tube and shell data are provided in the appropriate places below.
Discussion Potential heat losses; other sources of difficulties
Assumptions 1. Steady-state conditions exist.
2. Fluid properties remain constant and are evaluated at a temperature of the average
of the inlet and outlet temperatures for the cooler water.
4. h subscript refers to hydraulic diameter.
6. s subscript refers to the shell flow area or dimension.
7. t subscript refers to the tubular flow area or dimension.
A. Fluid Properties
m
w
= T
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
m
c
= t
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
B. Tubing Sizes
ID
t
= 0.225 in. OD
t
= 0.257 in.
N
t
= no. of tubes = 56 N
p
= no. of passes = 2
C. Shell Data
D
s
= shell inside diameter = 3 in.
B = baffle spacing = unknown (and not needed)
N
b
= number of baffles = unknown
P
T
= tube pitch = 5/16 in.
C =
( )
clearance between
adjacent tubes
= P
T
OD
t
= 0.0555 in.
77
tubes shell
Tube layout
pattern. Adjacent
tubes near the
center form a
square pitch
layout. Near the
shell, the pitch is
altered slightly
from being square.
C
P
T
OD
t
ID
t
Square pitch
layout.
D. Flow Areas A
t
= N
t
(ID
t
2
)/4N
p
=
A
s
= D
s
CB/P
T
=
E. Fluid Velocities
V
t
=
m/A = G
t
=
m/A =
V
s
=
m/A = G
s
=
m/A =
F. Shell Equivalent Diameter
( )
square
pitch
D
e
=
4P
T

2
OD
t
2
OD
t
=
G. Reynolds Numbers
Re
t
= V
t
ID
t
/ =
Re
s
= V
s
D
e
/ =
H. Nusselt Numbers
Tube Side
Modified Sieder-Tate equation for Laminar Flow:
Nu
t
=
h
i
ID
t
k
f
= 1.86
(
j
,
\
ID
t
Re
t
Pr
L
1/3
valid for Re
t
< 2 200, and 0.48 < Pr = / < 16 700
Modified Dittus-Boelter equation for Turbulent Flow:
Nu
t
=
h
i
ID
t
k
f
= 0.023Re
t
4/5
Pr
n
where n = 0.4 if fluid is being heated
valid for Re
t
> 10 000; 0.7 < Pr = / < 160; L/D > 60
Conditions for both equations: changes moderately with temperature
Properties evaluated at the average fluid temperature [= (inlet + outlet)/2]
Shell Side
Nu
s
=
h
o
D
e
k
f
= 0.36Re
s
0.55
Pr
1/3
valid for 2 x 10
3
< Re
s
= V
s
D
e
/ < 1 x 10
6
Pr = / > 0
Conditions: changes moderately with temperature
Properties evaluated at the average fluid temperature [= (inlet + outlet)/2]
78
Nu
t
=
Nu
s
=
I. Convection Coefficients
h
i
= Nu
t
k
f
/ID
t
= h
t
= h
i
ID
t
/OD
t
=
h
o
= Nu
s
k
f
/D
e
=
J. Exchanger Coefficient
1
U
o
=
1
h
t
+
t
k
+
1
h
o
U
o
=
J. Effectiveness
E = 2

1 + C +
1 + exp [N(1 + C
2
)
1/2
]
1 exp [N(1 + C
2
)
1/2
]
(1 + C
2
)
1/2
1
(Graphed below)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s
N Number of Transfer Units
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
C = 0
1 shell pass
Any multiple of 2 tube passes
Effectiveness-N graph for a shell
and tube heat exchanger having
1 shell pass and any multiple of
2 tube passes.
T
1
= T
2
because the warmer fluid is steam, which we assume is condensing at a constant
temperature.
Therefore

m
w
C
pw
= , and C =
(

mC
p
)
min
(

mC
p
)
max
= 0
N =
UA
(

mC
p
)
min
=
and
E =
t
2
t
1
T
1
t
1
= (by equation or figure above)
79
K. Outlet Temperatures Calculations
C = R =
m
c
C
pc
m
w
C
pw
= 0
N =
U
o
A
o

m
c
C
pc
= S = E =
t
2
= S(T
1
t
1
) + t
1
=
T
2
= T
1
R(t
2
t
1
) = T
1
= because R = C = 0
L. Correction Factor for a shell and tube heat exchanger.
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
F
S
R = 4.0
3.0
2.5
2.0 1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5
1 shell pass
Any multiple of 2 tube passes
Correction Factor
graph for a shell
and tube heat
exchanger.
F = (figure above)
M. Log Mean Temperature Difference
Counterflow LMTD =
(T
1
t
2
) (T
2
t
1
)
ln [(T
1
t
2
)/(T
2
t
1
)]
=
N. Heat Balance for Fluids
q
w
=
m
w
C
pw
(T
1
T
2
) = indeterminate = (0)
q
c
=
m
c
C
pc
(t
2
t
1
) =
N. Overall Heat Balance for the Exchanger
q = U
o
A
o
F

(LMTD ) =
O. Summary of Information Requested in Problem Statement
Calculated t
2
=
Measured t
2
=
% Error =
80
EXPERIMENT 20
THE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is
used in what is commonly known as an air
conditioner. Such devices are thought of
primarily as something needed to cool a room.
The air conditioner circulates a fluid called a
refrigerant through heat exchangers. The
refrigerant absorbs heat at a low temperature at
one of the exchangers and discharges heat at a
high temperature at the other exchanger.
Evaluation of the vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is the subject of this
experiment.
The Air Conditioner Apparatus
Figure 20.1 is a schematic of the apparatus
used in this experiment. How the apparatus
works in pumping heat is easily understood if
we follow a finite mass of refrigerant around the
circuit. The compressor is a component that takes
in low temperature, low pressure refrigerant
vapor and compresses it. The compressed
refrigerant vapor is discharged as a high
pressure, high temperature vapor. One way
valves in the flow lines of the compressor control
the flow direction.
Upon leaving the compressor, the
superheated vapor enters a finned tube heat
exchanger. In the apparatus of this experiment,
the heat exchanger is a cross flow type. Air flows
in a duct across which are located small diameter
tubes that convey the refrigerant. The small
diameter tubes have fins in the form of thin sheet
aluminum attached. The superheated vapor is
higher in temperature than the air flowing across
the finned tubes and so heat will be transferred
from the refrigerant to the air. During this heat
transfer process, the refrigerant will condense and
so the heat exchanger is commonly called a
condenser. Refrigerant leaving the condenser has
a very low quality.
After leaving the condenser, the part liquid
part vapor refrigerant enters the top of a
receiving tank. Within this tank, we have vapor
rising to the top and liquid falling to the bottom;
the tank thus acts as a separator. Liquid exits
this tank at its bottom and then enters a
throttling device. There are two such devices on
this apparatus. One is called a thermostatic
expansion valve and the other is a capillary tube
(very small inside diameter tube). The object of a
throttling device is to cause a significant loss in
pressure of the refrigerant. (There are actually
two thermostatic expansion valves. The second is
used in reversing the flow direction of the
refrigerant, which will not be done for this
experiment.)
When the refrigerant leaves the throttle, it
has a low pressure and temperature. The
refrigerant now enters another finned tube, cross
flow heat exchanger. The refrigerant is cooler
than the air passing through the exchanger and
so heat is transferred to the air from the liquid
refrigerant. During this process, the refrigerant
vaporizes and so this heat exchanger is commonly
called an evaporator.
Refrigerant that has vaporized in the
evaporator now enters the top of a reservoir
called an accumulator tank. This tank also acts as
a vaporliquid separator. Vapor leaves this tank
through another opening at the top of the tank
and then returns to the compressor.
Air that passes through the condenser absorbs
energy from the refrigerant and is therefore
heated in the process. Air that passes through
the evaporator transfers energy to the refrigerant
and is cooled in the process. The refrigerant thus
pumps heat from the evaporator and discharges
it at the condenser. In addition, the refrigerant
gained energy from the compressor which is
discharged also at the condenser.
Experimental Procedure
The unit used in the laboratory contains
several pressure and temperature gages at various
locations throughout the piping system. A number
of valves are also in the circuit for flow control.
Operation of the unit will be shown by the
instructor. For the experiment, start and operate
the unit as per directions given. Identify the
compressor, condenser, receiving tank, throttling
device, evaporator and the accumulator tank.
Begin at the compressor and follow the closed
loop made by the refrigerant. Observe the process
of condensation and vaporization in the heat
exchangers.
Fans are used to move air past the cross flow
heat exchanger tubes. Set the fans at a desired
setting and with the compressor operating, allow
the system to reach steady state. Use either the
capillary tube or the expansion valve. Once
steady state is reached, take temperature and
pressure readings at all the gage locations.
81
1
2
3
4
compressor
condenser
evaporator
capillary
tube
expansion
valve
receiver
tank
accumulator
tank
filter/dryer
sight
glass
valve
FIGURE 20.1. A schematic of the air conditioner.
Remember that readings from the pressure gages
are in psig while the reduction of data might
require psia.
Analysis
A pressureenthalpy diagram will be
provided for the refrigerant. Identify and label
all points in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a
separate graph. For the calculations involved,
take readings of properties directly from the
pressureenthalpy diagram. By applying the
energy equation to a compressor, we get the
following equation assuming that the process is
adiabatic
(compressor work FL/M)
4
w
1
= h
4
h
1
(20.1)
where the subscripts refer to gage locations as
labeled in Figure 9.1. For the condenser we have
(heat transferred at condenser FL/M)
1
q
2
= h
1
h
2
(20.2)
For the throttle, we write
(throttle FL/M)
h
2
= h
3
(20.3)
For the evaporator, we get
(heat transferred at evaporator FL/M)
3
q
4
= h
3
h
4
(20.4)
Sample Calculations
Data taken on an air conditioner yielded the
pressures and temperatures provided in Table
20.1. A sketch of the cycle was made on a
pressureenthalpy diagram which is given in
Figure 20.2. Readings from a (more detailed)
pressureenthalpy diagram and from a table of
properties of Freon-12 yielded the enthalpies
shown in column 4 of Table 20.1. Also shown in
Table 11.1 are the entropy and specific volume
values for each point in the cycle. Using those
data gives the following results:
Compressor Work:
4
w
1
= h
4
h
1
= 84 90 = 6 BTU/lbm
Heat Transferred at Condenser:
1
q
2
= h
1
h
2
= 90 31 = 59 BTU/lbm
Throttle:
h
2
= h
3
= 31 BTU/lbm
Heat Transferred at Evaporator:
3
q
4
= h
3
h
4
= 31 84 = 53 BTU/lbm
cycle operating between the evaporator and
condenser temperatures.
82
For the data obtained on the air conditioning
apparatus, perform an analysis like that shown
in the sample calculations above. Sketch ph, p
v and Ts diagrams for the refrigerant. Sketch
the Ts diagram for the corresponding Carnot
cycle.
Questions
What is the relationship between
4
w
1
,
1
q
2
and
3
q
4
? Why? On the Ts diagram for the
refrigerant, sketch also the Carnot cycle. At
what points and processes does the actual cycle
differ from the Carnot cycle? What is the
efficiency of the Carnot cycle for the
temperatures of the cycle for which your data
were obtained? What is the actual efficiency of
the cycle?
TABLE 20.1. Refrigerant properties for each point in the cycle of the example.
Pressure Temperature enthalpy entropy specific volume
Point psia F BTU/lbm BTU/lbmR ft
3
/lbm

1 136 116 90 0.169 0.25
2 136 96 31 0.078 0.014
3 56 42 31 0.08 0.013
4 48 64 84 0.175 0.85

1
2
3
4
pressure
psia
enthalpy
BTU/lbm
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d

l
i
q
u
i
d
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
e
d

v
a
p
o
r
FIGURE 20.2. Pressureenthalpy diagram for the data of the example.
83
Appendix
84
ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS
SUGGESTED ORDER OF CALCULATIONS
Problem Complete problem statement
Discussion Potential heat losses; other sources of difficulties
Assumptions 1. Steady state conditions exist.
2. Fluid properties remain constant and are evaluated at a
temperature of
4. h subscript refers to hydraulic diameter
6. a subscript refers to the annular flow area or dimension.
7. p subscript refers to the tubular flow area or dimension.
A. Fluid Properties
m
w
= T
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
m
c
= t
1
=
= C
p
=
k
f
= =
= Pr =
B. Tubing Sizes
ID
a
=
ID
p
= OD
p
=
C. Flow Areas A
p
= ID
p
2
/4 =
A
a
= (ID
a
2
- OD
p
2
)/4 =
D. Fluid Velocities [Route the fluid with the higher flow rate through the flow
cross section with the greater area.]
V
p
= m
/A = G
p
= m
/A =
V
a
= m
/A = G
a
= m
/A =
85

OD
p
ID
p
ID
a
E. Annulus Equivalent Diameters
Friction D
h
= ID
a
- OD
p
=
Ht Trans D
e
= (ID
a
2
- OD
p
2
)/OD
p
=
F. Reynolds Numbers
Re
p
= V
p
ID
p
/ =
Re
a
= V
a
D
e
/ =
G. Nusselt Numbers
Modified Seider-Tate equation for laminar flow:
Nu =
hD
k
f
= 1.86
(
j
,
\
D Re Pr
L
1/3
Re =
VD
< 2 200 D = ID
p
D = D
e
0.48 < Pr =
< 16 700
86
Modified Dittus-Boelter Equation for turbulent flow:
Nu =
hD
k
f
= 0.023(Re)
4/5
Pr
n
n = 0.4 if fluid is being heated
Re =
VD
10 000 D = ID
p
D = D
e
0.7 Pr =
160
L/D 60
Nu
p
=
Nu
a
=
H. Convection Coefficients
h
p
= Nu
p
k
f
/OD
p
=
h
a
= Nu
a
k
f
/D
e
=
I. Exchanger Coefficient
1
U
o
=
1
h
p
+
1
h
a
U
o
=
J. Outlet Temperature Calculations (Exchanger length L )
R =
m
c
C
pc

m
h
C
ph
= A
o
= OD
p
L =
Counterflow E
counter
= exp[U
o
A
o
(R - 1)/m
c
C
pc
] =
T
2
=
T
1
(R - 1) - Rt
1
(1 - E
counter
)
RE
counter
- 1
t
2
= t
1
+
T
1
- T
2
R
87
Parallel Flow E
para
= exp[U
o
A
o
(R + 1)/m
c
C
pc
] =
T
2
=
(R + E
para
)T
1
+ Rt
1
(E
para
- 1)
(R + 1)E
para

t
2
= t
1
+
T
1
- T
2
R
T
2
=
t
2
=
K. Log Mean Temperature Difference
Counterflow LMTD =
(T
1
- t
2
) - (T
2
- t
1
)
ln [(T
1
- t
2
) /(T
2
- t
1
)]
=
Parallel Flow LMTD =
(T
1
- t
1
) - (T
2
- t
2
)
ln [(T
1
- t
1
) /(T
2
- t
2
)]
=
L. Heat Balance
q
w
= m
w
C
pw
(T
1
- T
2
) =
q
c
= m
c
C
pc
(t
2
- t
1
) =
q = U
o
A
o
LMTD = (clean)
M. Fouling Factors and Design Coefficient
R
di
= R
do
=
1
U
=
1
U
o
+ R
di
+ R
do
U =
N. Heat Transfer Area and Tube Length (unless already known)
A
o
=
q
U (LMTD)
=
L =
A
o
(OD
p
)
=
88
O. Friction Factors

Re
p
= V
p
ID
p
/ =

ID
p
=
f
p
=

Re
a
= V
a
D
h
/ =

D
h
=
f
a
=
Laminar Flow Equations
Laminar flow in a tube f
p
=
64
Re
p
Re
p
=
V
p
ID
p
2 200
Laminar flow in an annulus =
OD
p
ID
a
Re
a
=
V
a
D
h
10 000
1
f
a
=
Re
a
64

,
]
]
1 +
2
1 -
+
1 +
ln()
Turbulent Flow Equations D = ID
p
D = D
h
Chen Equation
1
f
= - 2.0 log

3.7065D
-
5.0452
Re
log

,
]
]
1
2.8257
( )
D
1.1098
+
5.8506
Re
0.8981
Churchill Equation
f = 8

,
]
]
(
j
,
\
8
Re
12
+
1
(B + C)
1.5
1/12
where B =

,
]
]
2.457ln
1
(7/Re)
0.9
+ (0.27/D)
16
C =
(
j
,
\
37 530
Re
16
89
P. Pressure Drop Calculations
p
p
=
f
p
L
ID
p

pV
p
2
2g
c
=
p
a
=
(
j
,
\
f
a
L
D
h
+ 1
aV
a
2
2g
c
=
Q. Summary of Information Requested in Problem Statement

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A Manual for

TABLE 4. Data obtained in a series of

FIGURE 1.2. Open circuit voltage in a

Solving this problem is simplified with a

and introducing the notation

= exp( mz) (7.3)

, m and using the

0.21 (infinite cylinder)

0.85 (semi-infinite plate)

0.21(0.85) = 0.179 (finite cylinder)

, and plate surface

whereL = plate length in vertical direction

, and plate surface temperature

whereL = plate length in vertical direction

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