COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Composites Science and Technology 66 (2006) 28782894 www.elsevier.com/locate/compscitech

Buckling of optimised curved composite panels under shear and in-plane bending
C.A. Featherston
b

a,*

, A. Watson

a Cardi School of Engineering, Cardi University, Queens Buildings, Cardi CF24 0YF, UK Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK

Received 31 March 2005; received in revised form 9 February 2006; accepted 17 February 2006 Available online 6 May 2006

Abstract Due to the level of complexity of the governing equations for curved composite panels, few solutions, allowing the critical buckling loads and postbuckling behaviour of such structures to be determined, exist. Those that do are for basic problems based on single load types and simple boundary conditions. For other cases, such behaviour can only be determined by either grossly simplifying both the load and boundary conditions to those which can be predicted using these simplied equations (which may lead to overestimations in buckling load, and thereby premature failure or collapse), or by using alternative tools such as nite strip techniques or nite element analyses. This paper details a series of tests carried out to determine the behaviour of a number of optimised bre composite panels of diering radii of curvature and aspect ratio, simply supported along two edges and built in along the other two, subject to a varying combination of shear and in-plane bending, for which no theoretical solution exists, and assesses the suitability of nite strip techniques and nite element analysis to predict this behaviour. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: A. Carbon bres; C. Buckling; C. Finite element analysis; Optimisation

1. Introduction Composite materials are used increasingly in a number of industries, most notably aerospace, due to their superior specic stiness and strength. Many of the components constructed from such materials take the form of curved panels subject to combined loading regimes and complex boundary conditions, which can potentially fail due to buckling. Due to the need to consider, even for small deections, the development of membrane stresses in addition to bending stresses during deformation, shell theory, which can be used to determine the behaviour of such structures, is more complex than the plate theory applied to simpler designs. In the case of composites, where depending upon lay-up, shear, membrane-bending and bendtwist couplings may also exist, the governing equations are further complicated
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0 2920 875328; fax: +44 0 2920 874597. E-mail address: FeatherstonCA@cardi.ac.uk (C.A. Featherston). 0266-3538/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.02.028
*

and form a set of three eighth order dierential equations which remain coupled even for symmetrical laminates. Due to the complexity of these equations, very few solutions for buckling exist, and those that do, cover only the simplest of load and boundary conditions for very specic lay-ups. One case of interest, for which no theoretical solutions exists, is that of a curved panel built-in at one end and subjected to a shear load across the other as illustrated in Fig. 1, leading to a combination of shear and in-plane bending which vary across the structure. This arrangement is typical of that found in structures such as fan blades, which are formed from two curved panels of diering radii of curvature joined together along their two axial edges, built-in at their hub, and loaded across their tip. This paper presents the results of work carried out to investigate such a case using experimental, exact nite strip and nite element techniques, in order to improve understanding of the structures buckling and postbuckling behaviour and assess the suitability of analytical modelling

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Nomenclature d f J J0 Jm kij K KD k m Nx,Ny displacement vector load factor number of eigenvalues that lie between zero and a trial value value of J when the components of the displacement vector corresponding to K are clamped value of J for a particular member member stiness matrix global stiness matrix upper triangular matrix half wavelength member of the structure direct stress intensities Nxy Nx N xy P R s{K} u,v w h x shear stress intensity ratio of the critical compressive axial load with shear to that without shear ratio of the critical shear load with compression to that without compression perturbation force vector radius of curvature sign count of K in-plane displacements out-of-plane displacement ply orientation angle frequency

techniques to predict this behaviour. Nine dierent geometries of panel with three dierent radii of curvature and three aspect ratios were investigated with a total of sixty panels with two dierent radii of curvature and three aspect ratios tested as detailed in Section 4.1. Each panel was manufactured from eight plies of carbon bre epoxy pre-preg arranged in a balanced, symmetrical lay-up. In each case the lay-up was designed to optimise the buckling strength of the panel using a two stage, multi-level optimisation procedure based on a combination of the exact nite strip code VICONOPT and the commercially available nite element analysis (FEA) code ABAQUS/Standard. The experimentally determined buckling loads and the postbuckling behaviour of each set of panels are compared with the results of these two types of analysis. A number of recommendations based on the results obtained are then made. 2. Theory 2.1. Governing dierential equations As is the case for isotropic shells, shell theory for laminated composites is governed by a set of eighth order dierential equations whose solution requires four boundary conditions to be dened along each edge of the shell. In
Load

composites however, these equations become algebraically more complex than those associated with isotropic shell theory due to the large number of stiness coecients involved. In addition to this added complexity, it can also be shown that in contrast to the case of laminated at plates these equations remain coupled even for midplane symmetric laminates. Derivation of the shell buckling equations for laminated composite shells is thus a complicated procedure. Depending upon the assumptions made however, (for example the use of classical shell theory (CST) or rst order shear theory (FST)) various theories can be obtained. These along with the results of a range of experimental work are described in a number of reviews including Tennyson [1], Leissa [2] and Kapania [3]. 2.2. Plates under combined shear and in-plane bending Due to the complexity of the shell buckling equations only a limited number of solutions are available, mainly for shells under single, simple types of loading. For the case of a curved panel, such as that considered here therefore, most of the work that has been completed previously involves the use of analytical codes such as STAGS [4] to determine critical buckling loads which are then compared with the results of experimental studies. Shear Studies on composite curved shear panels include those by Bert et al. [5] in which a number of thin walled sandwich shells, cylindrical panels and full-scale cylinders manufactured from two-ply epoxy bre glass using a structure analogous to a picture frame were examined. Correlation between test results and calculated values was similar to that found with homogeneous isotropic specimens. Wilkins and Olson [6] performed tests on eight-ply +45 specimens manufactured from graphite epoxy and boron epoxy. Strain gauges were used to monitor the behaviour of the panels (which were mounted in sets of four to form a cylinder to which a torsional load was applied), thereby allowing the buckling loads to be calculated in a non-

Curved panel

In-plane bending
Fig. 1. Load case.

Shear

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destructive manner, using the Southwell method. Results were compared with classical shell theory predictions and good correlation was found. The results also highlighted the existence of a postbuckled load-bearing capacity. Viswanathan et al. [7,8] conducted wide-ranging parametric studies on, in particular the inuence of curvature on the buckling of symmetrically laminated eight ply quasi-isotropic boron epoxy shell panels of innite length under a range of boundary conditions. The work showed results obtained using Donnell-type shell theory deviated signicantly from those using more accurate analyses for large values of axial half wavelength of the buckling pattern/ panel width. Extensive data was also provided by Fogg [9] who examined graphite epoxy panels under shear loading. Zhang and Matthews [10,11] derived a set of governing equations for buckling for arbitrarily laminated cylindrical shells in terms of the transverse displacement and an Airy stress function. These were solved for shells having all edges clamped and subjected to axial and/or shear loads using the Galerkin method, with the work in particular illustrating the importance of using double precision in the calculation of the beam functions. The resulting equations were used to investigate the eect of bre orientation on the buckling loads of a series of boron epoxy panels with unidirectional lay-ups. Results for both positively and negatively directed shear loads were determined for a range of curvatures, and it was shown that a change in sign for this shear load (which may also be interpreted as a change from +h to h in bre orientation for a given shear load) had considerable eect on the shear buckling loads. It was also found that this eect was less pronounced for symmetric angle ply lay-ups, and decreased as the number of plies increased. Finally, for antisymmetric lay-ups the direction of shear loading was found to have almost no eect on critical buckling load. The results of a number of these pieces of work were reviewed by Wolf and Kossira [12], who also performed research, based on the use of a picture-frame device, to devise an improved method for investigating shear behaviour, with particular attention to postbuckling behaviour [13]. This was carried out on two types of panels with four ply and eight ply 45 lay-ups and a radius of curvature of 4000 mm. The results of the tests performed were compared with predictions made using a nite element code FiPPS [12]. Good correlation was obtained. Bending A number of studies have been performed to investigate bending in cylindrical shells, however, no work has been carried out to investigate in-plane bending in curved panels. Combined loading Most curved panels need to be designed to resist combined loads, however the majority of analyses carried out are limited to single, simple types of loading. There have however been a number of studies on cylindrical specimens subject to combined loads including those of Wilkins and Love [14], Herakovich and Johnson [15], Viswanathan et al. [7,8] and Zhang and Matthews [10,11] each of whom looked at the combination of shear

and compressive loading. Although not explicitly the same load case as that considered here, this combined loading is equivalent to that found in the upper part of the panels to be tested (see Fig. 6) and hence the results will be discussed briey here. Wilkins and Love investigated the eects of material and lay-up on behaviour, testing boron-epoxy and graphiteepoxy four ply 45 and six ply 0, 45 congurations, both of which possess signicant bendtwist coupling interactions. Comparison between test results and analytical predictions showed a knock down factor of approximately 65%. One point of particular interest in these studies was an almost linear relationship between shear and compressive stress over a wide range of compressive stresses, with torsional buckling stress reducing by between 10% and 20% of the increase in applied compressive stress. Herakovich and Johnson again tested a combination of boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy cylinders with a number of dierent lay-ups (four ply (45)s, eight ply (452/ 452)s, eight ply (0/45/90)s, and an unsymmetric four ply (82.5/30/20/82.5)). The results of these tests were compared with those obtained using a computer program developed by Wu (described in [15]) and good correlation was observed. In particular it was noted that the shape of the interaction curve is extremely dependant upon the lay-up conguration. Viswanathan et al. as mentioned earlier examined a series of symmetric, quasi-isotropic boron epoxy panels. In terms of combined loading, they investigated three loading cases in which Nx = Nxy,Ny = Nxy and Nx = Ny = Nxy. Finally Zhang and Matthews produced interaction curves showing critical combinations of axial and shear loads which cause buckling. In each case N x is plotted against N xy , where N x is the ratio of the critical compressive axial load with shear to that without shear and N xy is the ratio of the critical shear load with compression to that without compression. As far as the authors are aware therefore, there is no existing theory that would allow the buckling loads and postbuckling behaviour of the panels to be tested to be predicted. Data with which to compare experimental results will instead be determined using either VICONOPT (an exact nite strip program described in Section 3.1), or nite element analysis which is capable of allowing the buckling loads of plates having any particular lay-up under a specic set of load and boundary conditions to be calculated. 3. Optimisation In order to determine the optimum design for each of the panels tested, as discussed earlier, a two stage optimisation process using the software VICONOPT (based on an exact nite strip method) in conjunction with a series of nite element analyses performed using the commercially available software ABAQUS was carried out. In the rst stage of the optimisation the VICON analysis route in VICONOPT was used to perform series of parametric

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studies to determine the eect of varying ply orientation on the buckling load. These studies provided sucient data to generate response surfaces plotting buckling load against lay-up for each geometry (i.e., combination of radius of curvature and aspect ratio), from which an initial estimate of the optimum design could be determined. Due to the eciency of the analysis, it was possible to run series of studies relatively quickly, making the software ideal for this stage of the optimisation process. During the second stage of the process which used the results of the VICON analysis as a starting point, the FEA software ABAQUS was used to carry out a series of more precise analyses (being able to represent the load and boundary conditions exactly), systematically investigating the eect of deviating from this initial recommended lay-up to determine an accurate local optimum. (However, as the starting point of this analysis was based on a number of assumptions it was not possible to ensure that this was a global optimum solution). 3.1. Viconopt The VICONOPT [16] computer code is an analysis and design-optimisation code for the buckling, postbuckling and free vibration analyses of prismatic assemblies of at or curved plate elements subjected to in-plane loads. It incorporates the earlier program VIPASA (Vibration and Instability of Plate Assemblies including Shear and Anisotropy) [17] and VICON (VIpasa with CONstraints) which has substantial additional capability. In contrast to conventional nite element methods, the VICONOPT analyses use a transcendental stiness matrix derived from an analytical or numerical solution of the governing dierential equations of the component plates. For any longitudinally invariant loading combination (of longitudinal, transverse, in-plane shear and pressure loads), critical buckling loads or undamped natural frequencies can be found with certainty, using the WittrickWilliams algorithm [18]. In the original form of the software VIPASA, the modes of buckling or vibration are assumed to have a sinusoidal longitudinal variation with half-wavelength k, limiting the load cases which can be considered. In VICON the assumed modes are sums of VIPASA modes, obtained by coupling dierent values of k thereby extending the original capability to allow end conditions to be modeled more accurately for overall modes of plate assemblies with substantial in-plane shear loads, for which VIPASA gives very conservative results. 3.2. Exact strip method and WittrickWilliams algorithm As stated previously VICONOPT analyses are based on an exact nite strip method which assumes a continuous distribution of stiness over the structure rather than discretised stinesses at nodal points, as is the case for the more widely used nite element method. The exact nite strip method is based on solutions to the partial dierential equations, which govern the in-plane and out-of-plane deformation of the component plates. Where possible, an analytical

solution procedure [17] is used to determine the member stiness matrices kij, which are subsequently assembled into the global stiness matrix K for the overall structure. If an analytic solution of the member equations is not available the kij matrices can be found by solving the member equations numerically [19]. The global stiness matrix K relates a nite set of displacements d at the nodes of the structure to their corresponding perturbation forces P, by Kd P. 1 The critical buckling load factors or natural frequencies of the structure correspond to the eigenvalues found by solving Kd 0; 2 where K consists of transcendental, and thus highly nonlinear, functions of the load factor f or frequency x [20]. The solution of this transcendental eigenvalue problem requires an iterative search for values of f or x at which Eq. (1) is satised. VICONOPT analyses make use of the WittrickWilliams algorithm [18,21], to converge on eigenvalues (i.e., critical buckling load factors or natural frequencies of free vibration) to any desired accuracy with the guarantee that none are missed. The algorithm calculates J, the number of eigenvalues, which lie between zero and any trial value of f or x. Any change in J between two trial values is equal to the number of eigenvalues lying between these trial values. In its general form the WittrickWilliams algorithm can be stated as J J 0 sfKg; 3 where s{K} is known as the sign count of K, and is equal to the number of negative leading diagonal elements of the upper triangular matrix KD obtained by applying conventional Gauss elimination, without pivoting, to the matrix K. J0 is the value J would have if all the freedoms corresponding to K were clamped. Unless substructures are used, J0 can be calculated as X J m; 4 J0
m

where the summation is over all members m of the structure, and Jm is calculated for each member as the number of critical load factors or natural frequencies exceeded by the trial value, when the member ends are clamped. 3.3. Optimisation step 1 VICONOPT As discussed earlier, for each of the panels examined, a series of analyses using the VICON route in VICONOPT were performed to create response surfaces representing the variation of buckling load with lay-up. Each panel was modelled using the curved plate option in VICONOPT. In this option the geometry of the curved panel is approximated by discretising it into a series of at plate members that are joined to form the complete curved panel. In order to ensure that an adequate number of plate

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members were used in the analysis a convergence study was undertaken. McGowan and Anderson [22] show a minimum of 100 plate members are necessary for accurately modelling a complete cylinder and the authors found that 50 plate members were sucient for the panels presented in this paper. Each of the models used was constructed from 10 strips. Each strip was modelled as a curved panel made up of ve at plate elements as illustrated in Fig. 2. The panel was clamped along its loaded edges by restricting out-of-plane displacement and rotation. In order to speed up the process due to the large number of analyses required, a small number of point supports were used to represent the line support and a small number of wavelengths were used to represent the mode (Watson et al. [23]). The remaining edges were simply supported by restricting out-of-plane displacement. A shear load was applied to the ends of each of the strips, and in-plane bending was modelled by applying a series of compressive and tensile loads, which varied linearly from the top to the bottom edge of the panel. In each case the lay-up was assumed to be symmetric and balanced to minimise the possible alternatives. Individual plies were then paired such that each pair had one ply at +h and one at h (where h is dened as illustrated in Fig. 3). As in each case the laminate comprised eight plies three possible combinations of pairs existed; plies 1 and 2 and plies 3 and 4; plies 1 and 3 and plies 2 and 4; and plies 1 and 4 and plies 2 and 3, and three response surfaces were therefore generated for each of the nine combinations of radius of curvature (100, 177 and 322 mm) and aspect ratio (1, 1.5, 2) investigated a total of 27 response surfaces. The angle of each pair was varied in steps of 5, thereby producing 1369 results for each response surface. Using a Pentium 4 3 GHz 1 GB Ram computer, these results took 253 s to generate for each surface demonstrating the eciency of the programme. 3.4. Optimisation step 2 nite element analysis Once the optimum lay-up based on the VICON analyses had been determined, a small number of nite element analyses where performed in the region of this design

Fig. 3. Ply orientation.

(again by varying the ply angle by 5) to identify the optimum ply angle based on an exact representation of the test undertaken (since the VICON analyses had been based on a number of assumptions which changed the loading and boundary conditions of the plates being analysed slightly relative to those being tested, such as the application of pure shear, where in the test shear varies across the panel, and the application of a xed bending load, when in the test the bending load varies with the moment arm and therefore is maximum at the built-in end and zero at the end at which the load is applied). Thus the optimisation process was multi-level, with the quicker, more ecient code VICONOPT used to identify the area of the optimum solution, and the slower, but more accurate in terms of representation of the exact problem nite element analysis, to identify the nal optimum solution. 3.5. Results A total of 27 response surfaces were generated using the results of the VICON analyses as discussed previously. Study of these surfaces resulted in the optimum lay-ups presented in the third column of Table 1 being identied. As described above, a second procedure using the nite element analysis code ABAQUS/Standard was then undertaken, the results of which are provided in the fourth column of the table. The results of this second stage of the optimisation procedure are also illustrated in the form
Table 1 Optimised lay-ups Radius of curvature (mm) 100 Aspect ratio 1 1.5 2 1 1.5 2 1 1.5 2 VICON analysis (60/30/60/30)s (65/30/65/30)s (60/30/60/30)s (60/30/60/30)s (60/25/60/25)s (65/30/65/30)s (60/30/60/30)s (65/40/65/40)s (55/30/55/30)s FE analysis (60/20/60/20)s (65/20/65/20)s (75/30/75/30)s (65/30/65/30)s (65/20/65/20)s (65/20/65/20)s (65/20/65/20)s (60/15/60/15)s (65/20/65/20)s

177

322 Fig. 2. Segmented representation of curved plate geometry used by VICONOPT.

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of response surfaces in Figs. 46. For each combination of radius of curvature and aspect ratio, the surface illustrated is that obtained by considering plies 1 and 2 and plies 3 and 4 as pairs and varying ply angle accordingly as discussed in Section 3.4. The lay-ups determined during the second stage of the procedure then became the ones used during the manufacture of the test specimens.

4. Testing 4.1. Specimens The test specimens used were manufactured from the carbon bre epoxy unidirectional pre-preg T300 914. Each specimen comprised 8 lamina, 0.125 mm thick, giving an

-15

-20 Ply 2 -25

-55

-60 Ply 1

-65

-30 -70

Aspect ratio 1
-15

10300-10350 10250-10300 10200-10250 10150-10200 10100-10150 10050-10100 10000-10050 9950-10000 9900-9950 9850-9900 9800-9850 9750-9800 9700-9750 9650-9700 9600-9650

7100-7150 7050-7100 7000-7050 6950-7000 6900-6950 Ply 2 6850-6900 6800-6850 6750-6800 6700-6750 6650-6700

-20

-25

-60

-65 Ply 1

-70

-30 -75

6600-6650 6550-6600 6500-6550

Aspect ratio 1.5

-15

5100-5150 5050-5100 5000-5050 4950-5000 4900-4950 4850-4900 4800-4850 4750-4800 4700-4750 4650-4700

-20

-25 Ply 2

-30

-60

-65

-70 Ply 1

-75

-35 -80

4600-4650 4550-4600 4500-4550

Aspect ratio 2

Fig. 4. ABAQUS buckling load versus lay-up radius of curvature R = 100 mm.

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-20

7100-7150 7050-7100 7000-7050 6950-7000 6900-6950 Ply 2 6850-6900 6800-6850 6750-6800 6700-6750 6650-6700

-25

-30

-55

-60 Ply 1

-65

-35 -70

6600-6650 6550-6600 6500-6550

Aspect ratio 1
-10

4825-4850 4800-4825 -15 Ply 2 -20 4775-4800 4750-4775 4725-4750 4700-4725 4675-4700 4650-4675 -55 -60 Ply 1 -65 -25 -70 4625-4650 4600-4625

Aspect ratio 1.5

-15 3800-3825 3775-3800 -20 Ply 2 -25 3750-3775 3725-3750 3700-3725 3675-3700 3650-3675 3625-3650 -30 -75 3600-3625 3575-3600 3550-3575

-60

-65 Ply 1

-70

Aspect ratio 2
Fig. 5. ABAQUS buckling load versus lay-up radius of curvature R = 177 mm.

overall panel thickness of 1 mm. Tests were carried out on sets of panels with two dierent radii of curvature (100 and 322 mm). These radii were selected to give specimens of a reasonable size for testing and to represent curvatures typical of those found in the aerospace industry (as was the additional radii of curvature of 177 mm examined during

the optimisation process). For each radius, three dierent aspect ratios of panel were tested: aspect ratio 1 100 mm long 100 mm wide; aspect ratio 1.5 150 mm long 100 mm wide and aspect ratio 2 200 mm long 100 mm wide giving a total of six dierent panel geometries. Whilst the initial aim of the experiment was

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-10

5075-5100 5050-5075 5025-5050

-15

5000-5025 4975-5000 4950-4975 4925-4950 4900-4925 4875-4900 4850-4875

-20 Ply 2

-25

-55

-60 Ply 1

-65

-30 -70

4825-4850 4800-4825 4775-4800

Aspect ratio 1
10 -15 -20 -25 Ply 2 -30 -35 -40 -75

3425-3475 3375-3425 3325-3375 3275-3325 3225-3275 3175-3225 3125-3175 3075-3125 3025-3075 2975-3025 2925-2975 2875-2925 2825-2875

-55

-60

-65 Ply 1

-70

Aspect ratio 1.5

-15

2550-2575 2525-2550 2500-2525 2475-2500 2450-2475 Ply 2 2425-2450 2400-2425 2375-2400 2350-2375 2325-2350

-20

-25

-55

-60

-65 Ply 1

-70

-30 -75

2300-2325 2275-2300 2250-2275

Aspect ratio 2

Fig. 6. ABAQUS buckling load versus lay-up radius of curvature R = 322 mm.

to examine panels with the two axial edges simply supported, it proved too complicated to design a rig that would maintain this boundary condition throughout pre and postbuckling. For this reason an attempt was made to introduce similar conditions by modifying the shape of the test specimens. To do this, an additional 10 mm of material was folded over at 90 along the longitudinal

edges (as illustrated in Fig. 8), thus allowing the panel to rotate about this edge but reducing out-of-plane displacement. This was obviously not ideal, but could at least be represented exactly using nite element analysis to allow direct comparison. To create the desired radii of curvature, each specimen was laid-up by hand onto a male former, with a female

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former then positioned on top. The whole assembly was cured in a hot press at 170 C and 7 barg for 60 min and post-cured also in a hot press at 190 C and atmospheric pressure for 4 h. Each treatment process was monitored with pressure and temperature measurements taken every 5 s to ensure the integrity of the specimen. For each geometry, a total of ten tests were performed, allowing the mean and standard deviation of each set of results to be calculated, thus giving some indication of imperfection sensitivity. 4.2. Test rig The test rig used was as illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8. Panels were attached along one curved edge thus representing a built-in boundary condition, using clamps bolted together through the specimen and then to the rig. In order to prevent slipping of the specimen, sheets of glass paper were inserted between the specimen and the clamps (as per ASTM D4255/D [24]). The two straight edges were left free, the shape of the panel then modelling a simply supported edge condition as described in Section 4.1. The remaining curved edge was held between two clamps again

Fig. 7. Test rig.

bolted through the specimen, which were in this case then xed to a loading plate. The arrangement for the loaded end of the rig can be seen in detail in Fig. 8. In order to facilitate the application of a bending and shear force, the end of the panel was allowed to move vertically and to rotate in the plane about its clamped end (i.e., about the x axis); however, lateral displacement was not permitted to prevent twisting of the panel about the y axis. To ensure this, the loading plate was positioned between two uprights attached to the baseplate, thus preventing movement in the x direction and rotation about the y axis (Fig. 8). Ball-bearings located between the loading plate and the curved edges of the two vertical spacers or slides allowed rotation about the y axis. The at external side of these slides and the inside surfaces of the uprights were hardened and ground, thus allowing them to slide against one another to facilitate movement in the z direction and rotation about the x axis. The baseplate of the rig was bolted to a Howden universal testing machine and load was applied through a loading arm attached to the crosshead. This arm was connected to a pin in the loading plate via a spherical bearing, thereby ensuring the loading arm was always in tension. This resulted in a combination of shear and in-plane bending loads being introduced into the specimen. The test machines computer control software was used to program the test therefore ensuring consistency between individual experiments. The software also recorded the applied shear load using a 10 kN load cell and in-plane displacement using a built-in displacement transducer. Load versus inplane displacement plots for each test were then used to determine the buckling loads by taking the intersection of tangents to the pre- and postbuckling gradients in a method similar to that presented by Zaal [25] and used successfully in earlier work [26]. In addition to recording this in-plane data, an analogue to digital (A/D) card was installed to provide two further data input channels. This allowed two displacement transducers positioned to measure the out-of-plane displacement at points coinciding with the anticipated peaks of the rst eigenmode to be connected via a conditioning unit to the software and logged also. The load was increased by moving the crosshead upwards at a speed of 2 mm/min. The results were sampled at a rate of 10 points/s. The shadow moire technique (Featherston and Lester [27]) was used to provide a full-eld representation of the out-of-plane displacement of the panel. This method is non-contact and therefore does not aect the buckling of the plate. A grating of 8 lines/cm was projected on to the surface of the panel (which was painted white to improve contrast) using an ASK Impression 8300 DLP SVGA slide projector. The panel was then videoed throughout the test and the video processed using software written in C++ with the Microsoft DirectShow software developers kit. This software captured the initial frame of the video, representing the grating projected onto the undeformed specimen and superimposed it on

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direction of loading

end plate slides bearings

end guides

folded over edge z y x

clamps

test panel

Fig. 8. Detail of loading arm.

all subsequent frames recording the displaced grating on the progressively deformed specimen, thereby producing a real time series of fringes corresponding to points of equal lateral displacement. Thus full eld out-of-plane displacement of the panel could be monitored throughout the period of the test. 4.3. Results The experimentally found buckling loads for specimens with each combination of aspect ratio and radius of curvature are presented in Table 3, with their mean and standard deviation. These are compared in Figs. 11 and 12 with those predicted by ABAQUS using both linear eigenvalue and nonlinear Riks analyses. In-plane load versus displacement plots (with displacement measured at the point and in the direction of loading) again for each combination of curvature and aspect ratio, measured experimentally and predicted using nonlinear analysis are presented in Figs. 13 and 14. Finally experimental and FEA out-of-plane displacement at points corresponding to the peaks of each eigenmode for panels with aspect ratio 1 and radii of curvature R = 100 and 322 mm, respectively, can be found in Figs. 15 and 16. 5. Finite element analysis 5.1. Model The panels investigated were modelled using 5 mm square shell elements for the curved section, and 5 mm 10 mm shell elements for the folded over edges, as shown in Fig. 9. (The mesh density being selected following a convergence study to produce errors of less than 1% at loads equivalent to twice the buckling load.) The clamps

Fig. 9. Finite element mesh.

and loading plate were also modelled to ensure accurate load application, using brick elements. The elements used for the panel were quadrilateral S8R5 elements, which behave in a manner consistent with thin shell theory (i.e., they are based on the KirchoLove theory). These elements are eight noded elements in which edge behaviour is modelled using quadratic equations, which prevent the occurrence of the hourglass eect (in which spurious displacements occur perpendicular to the shell surface). Reduced integration, with four integration points instead of the standard eight is used, and each node has ve degrees of freedom, namely three displacements and two in-surface rotations. The solid elements used to the model the end clamps and loading plate were of type C3D20R. These are 20 noded elements also with edge behaviour described by quadratic equations. Nodes have three degrees of freedom (three displacements), and reduced integration is again employed

2888
Edge 2

C.A. Featherston, A. Watson / Composites Science and Technology 66 (2006) 28782894 Table 3 Experimental buckling loads Buckling load (N)
Edge 4

Force

Radius of curvature (mm):

y

100 1 3300 3100 3300 3900 4500 2700 3500 3500 3900 3650 3535 496 1.5 3000 3100
a

322 2 2500
a a

Edge 1

Aspect ratio: Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 3550 2900 3600 3400 3600 3300 3000 3100 3200 3600 3325 266

1.5 2500 2500 2400 2220 2100 2100 2280 2080 2230 2000 2241 178

2 1860 1650 1750 1790 1850 1720 1730 1700 1700 1850 1761 74

x Edge 3

Fig. 10. Boundary conditions.

giving 12 integration points. These elements were selected for compatibility with the shell elements. The boundary conditions applied to the model can be described by reference to Fig. 10, with three degrees of freedom representing displacements, and three rotations. Along edge 1, all ve degrees of freedom were restrained thus representing the clamped end condition. Edges 2 and 3 remained free. Along edge 4, to which the load was applied, boundary conditions were applied to prevent out-of-plane displacement x and rotation about the y-axis, but movement and rotation in all other directions were permitted, thus allowing shear and bending to be transmitted through the panel. 5.2. Buckling analysis An estimate of the initial, critical buckling load of each geometry of panel was calculated using the classical linear eigenvalue solver in ABAQUS/Standard. Since due to the lay-up optimisation, the structures are weaker when loaded in the same sense but in the opposite direction, a number of negative eigenvalues (corresponding to a load applied in the opposite direction) exist which are smaller in magnitude than the eigenvalues corresponding to the initial failure in the required direction. To prevent these being calculated rst, thus increasing the time to reach a solution, a preload was applied. The buckling loads corresponding to the rst positive eigenvalue calculated by ABAQUS for each optimised panel are presented in Table 2, and are compared with those found experimentally in Figs. 11 and 12. These analyses were also used to provide eigenmodes to be used in modelling geometric imperfections in the subsequent nonlinear analysis.

3300 3200 2900 2800 2600 2700 2900 2944 230

2600
a a

2300 2450 2300 2100 2375 178

Mean Standard deviation

a

Denotes premature material failure.

5.3. Postbuckling analysis A nonlinear postbuckling analysis was carried out for each geometry of specimen using the Riks method also available in ABAQUS/Standard [28,29], which is suitable for unstable problems in which the load or the displacement may decrease as well as increase during the loading process. In each case, a geometric imperfection was introduced in the form of the rst positive eigenmode, with a maximum amplitude equal to the thickness of the panel, i.e., 1 mm. This method was originally promoted by Speicher and Saal [30], and has been adopted by most of the commercial nite element codes to allow the calculation of a lower limit for any experimentally found buckling loads. The buckling loads calculated using this method for panels with each combination of radius of curvature and aspect ratio are compared with those predicted by the earlier linear analyses and the experimental results in Figs. 11 and 12. Plots of load versus the in-plane displacement in the direction of loading predicted by nonlinear analysis are compared with that measured experimentally in Figs. 13 and 14, along with similar graphs comparing out-of-plane displacement for a limited number of specimens (Figs. 15 and 16). Finally Fig. 17 illustrates the devel opment of the moire fringes representing out-of-plane displacement with the corresponding FEA contours at

Table 2 Optimised buckling loads Aspect ratio Radius of curvature (mm) 100 Step 1 VICON analysis 1 1.5 2 9945 7041 4317 Step 2 FE analysis 10341 7150 5135 177 Step 1 VICON analysis 7041 4771 3765 Step 2 FE analysis 7149 4846 3815 322 Step 1 VICON analysis 4887 3159 2248 Step 2 FE analysis 5092 3465 2552

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12000
ABAQUS eigenvalue analysis

2889

10000 8000

ABAQUS Riks analysis Experimental results Mean experimental result

Load (N)

6000 4000 2000 0 1 1.5 Aspect ratio 2

Fig. 11. Comparison of ABAQUS and experimental buckling loads for panels with radius of curvature R = 100 mm.

6000
ABAQUS eigenvalue analysis

5000 4000 Load (N) 3000 2000 1000 0 1 1.5 Aspect ratio

ABAQUS Riks analysis Experimental results Mean experimental result

Fig. 12. Comparison of ABAQUS and experimental buckling loads for panels with radius of curvature R = 322 mm.

6 AR 1 5 AR 1.5 4 Experimental Results Riks analysis

Load (kN)

AR 2 3

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Displacement (mm)

Fig. 13. Comparison of FEA and experimental in-plane displacement for panels with radius of curvature R = 100 mm.

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6

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Experimental results
5 AR 1 4

Riks analysis

Load (kN)

3 AR 1.5 2 AR 2 1

0 0 1 2 3 Displacement (mm) 4 5 6

Fig. 14. Comparison of FEA and experimental in-plane displacement for panels with radius of curvature R = 322 mm.

6 Experimental results Riks analysis 5 LV DT 1 4 Load (kN) LVDT 2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Displacement (mm) 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Fig. 15. Comparison of FEA and experimental out-of-plane displacement for panels with radius of curvature R = 100 mm and aspect ratio 1.

5 Experimental results Riks analysis 4 LVDT 1 LVDT 2

Load (kN)

0 -0.5 0 0.5 1 Displacement (mm) 1.5 2 2.5

Fig. 16. Comparison of FEA and experimental out-of-plane displacement for panels with radius of curvature R = 322 mm and aspect ratio 1.

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2891

Fig. 17. Comparison of Moire fringes and Riks out-of-plane displacement contours for a panel with radius of curvature R = 322 and aspect ratio 1.

the point of buckling for a panel with radius of curvature R = 322 and aspect ratio 1. 6. Discussion 6.1. Optimisation The optimum lay-ups calculated using the two stage process involving multiple VICONOPT analyses in the rst instance, followed by a much smaller number of nite elements analyses, are given in Table 1. These illustrate the success of the technique in determining complex optimum solutions to a problem that is insolvable using simple design equations. Study of Figs. 46 illustrates a maximum of 35 nite element analyses, following an initial 1369 VICON analyses required to provide an optimum design. Thus the majority of the optimisation is carried out by the substantially quicker exact nite strip method, with the nal result determined using the much slower, but more capable of modelling complex load and boundary conditions, nite element analysis, leading to a further increase in buckling load for the same thickness specimen of up to 13%. As anticipated, the optimum solutions align the external plies with the direction of the compressive stress due to the shear load in all cases. In terms of trends between radius of curvature, aspect ratio and optimum lay-up however there is little correlation, illustrating the complexity of the problem with many factors inuencing the design. For panels with radius of curvature R = 100 mm there is a link between optimum lay-up angle and aspect ratio, with the angle increasing with increased aspect ratio, as was found in earlier studies on at plates [26]. This is not supported by the other two sets of panels, i.e., those with radius of curvature R = 177 and 322 mm where there is little variation in lay-up with changing aspect ratio. There is also some correlation between ply orientation and relative proportion of compressive stress with orientation angle decreasing as the relative proportion of compressive load increases. This can be illustrated by examining the dierence between the VICON and FEA analyses. In the FEA (as in the experiment), the plates are built in at one end and a load is applied across the other introducing shear which varies across the plate and in-plane bending, which increases from zero at the point of load application, to a

maximum at the built-in end. As noted earlier, it is not possible to model this varying in-plane bending in VICONOPT, since only longitudinally invariant loading can be introduced, so an average load representative of that found halfway along the plate was used. This results in the compressive load in the model being too great at the loaded end of the plate, and too low in the region near the built-in end where the plate buckles. Thus the eects of the compressive loading are underestimated in the most critical region resulting in optimum lay-ups with bres aligned more towards the transverse direction, than would otherwise be the case. Study of the optimum lay-ups calculated by VICON and FEA show this to be the case, with the nite element results recommending a lay-up in which the bres are more aligned with the h = 0 direction. This trend is also in agreement with design guides such as Niu [31]. 6.2. Experimental results The experimentally found load versus in-plane displacement plots for panels with radii of curvature R = 100 and 322 mm illustrated in Figs. 13 and 14 respectively, demonstrate a stable initial buckling process in which the stiness of the panels gradually decreases with increasing load, followed by a sudden decrease in load carrying capacity at the point at which the axial edges buckle. These results illustrate a reduction in buckling load with increasing aspect ratio for panels with both R = 100 mm and R = 322 mm. This is due to a reduction in the stiness of the panels as aspect ratio increases, which can be seen by examining the results of Figs. 13 and 14, and an increase in the maximum in-plane bending load as the moment arm, i.e., the length of the panel increases. The results also show an increase in buckling load with increased curvature, i.e., panels with R = 100 mm have higher initial buckling loads than those with R = 322 mm. This is as a result of the increased stiness due to the curvature of the panel, which can be illustrated by examining the relative gradients of panels having the same aspect ratio but dierent radii of curvature in Figs. 13 and 14. It is interesting to note however, that this increase is not as pronounced as that found earlier for metallic plates [32], due to the dierence in lay-up between each set of specimens giving dierent material properties. Finally, it is apparent from examination of the standard deviations of the experimental results for

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C.A. Featherston, A. Watson / Composites Science and Technology 66 (2006) 28782894

panels with dierent geometries that the degree of scatter decreases with increased aspect ratio and decreased curvature. This is as a result of the diering levels of imperfection sensitivity. Specically, we would anticipate a marked difference in imperfection sensitivity between panels with R = 100 mm which are much more highly curved and therefore behave in a manner similar to a cylinder which is highly imperfection sensitive, particularly under compressive loading, and panels with R = 322 mm which are atter and behave in a manner similar to at plates, which are relatively non-imperfection sensitive. These observations are again consistent with earlier ndings [32]. 6.3. FEA results 6.3.1. Buckling analysis The buckling loads calculated using linear eigenvalue analysis, provided in Table 2 and compared with the results determined experimentally in Figs. 11 and 12 for panels with radii of curvature R = 100 and 322 mm respectively, can be seen to overestimate those found in the actual panels in all cases, although they can be seen to follow the same trends, i.e., decreased bucking load with increased aspect ratio and increased radius of curvature. This overestimate can be seen to be greater in the panels with higher curvature. This is due to the fact that these values are based on a linear analysis of a perfect structure. Since curved panels are imperfection sensitive, and this sensitivity is greater for panels with higher curvature, such analyses will always overestimate the actual buckling values as they do not take into account the eect of any imperfections present in the as manufactured panels. In addition coupling between in-plane membrane stresses and out-of-plane bending stresses introduced due to the nature of the loading introduce nonlinearity which is not modelled in this type of analysis. Again this eect is greater for panels with higher curvature. 6.3.2. Imperfection sensitivity and postbuckling analysis The buckling loads calculated using a series of nonlinear Riks analyses which incorporated in each case an imperfection in the form of the rst eigenmode, scaled such that its maximum amplitude was equal to the thickness of the panel, can be seen by reference to Figs. 11 and 12 to much more accurately predict those found experimentally, with errors between the mean experimental result, and that predicted using FEA being limited to less than 3%. This, greatly increased accuracy in comparison with that provided by the linear eigenvalue analysis is due to a number of factors. As discussed above, the structures being considered are imperfection sensitive and any imperfections in either the panels themselves (due to variations in lay-up and curvature and manufacturing defects) or the experimental set-up (due to misalignment of the plate, boundary conditions and load eccentricities) will act to reduce the buckling load by a knock down factor. Models which do not incorporate these imperfections will therefore overestimate the behaviour of the panels. Due to the curvature

of the panels and the nature of the loading, an element of out-of-plane bending is introduced which when coupled with the in-plane stresses causes nonlinear deformation behaviour which can only be modelled accurately using a fully nonlinear analysis and nally, as the panel moves into the postbuckling area, deections become larger and initial assumptions regarding small deections become invalid, requiring nonlinearity to be taken into account. The load versus in-plane displacement plots presented in Figs. 13 and 14 can also be seen to correlate with experimental results, particularly prior to buckling and in the early stages of postbuckling. Although this is true for all geometries of test specimen, agreement is better for the panels with R = 322 mm. The increased deviation between predicted and actual results in the deep postbuckling region are possibly due to the onset of other failure modes such as matrix cracking, which were not incorporated into the models used. Correlation between the FEA and experimental load versus out-of-plane displacements plots, with out-of-plane displacement being monitored at the point of greatest deection, i.e., the centre of the rst buckle, show less consistent correlation. Although agreement between the two sets of results for panels with radius of curvature R = 100 mm is excellent as illustrated by Fig. 15, actual behaviour is much less accurately predicted for panels with radius of curvature R = 322mm (Fig. 16). Regardless of the geometry of the specimen, variation in out-of-plane displacement as load increases, depends very much on the shape and position of any initial geometric imperfections, particularly prior to buckling, where deection at a certain point may follow a path totally dependant on its initial position out-of-plane, and only snap or jump to the anticipated path in the postbuckled region. Unless the actual form of each specimen is known therefore prior to commencing the test, and this form is introduced into the nite element model, it is likely that the correlation may not be a good as one might wish. In addition to providing a comparison for the experimental results in terms of in-plane and out-of-plane displacement proles, the Riks analyses also allow the eect of introducing a range of geometric imperfections to be quantied, as demonstrated in Fig. 18 where the percentage reduction in buckling load when an imperfection of maximum amplitude 2t is introduced is plotted against aspect ratio. From this gure it can be seen that this reduction in load varies with radius of curvature, panels with greater curvature being more sensitive to the introduction of geometric imperfections, and as the aspect ratio increases with greater sensitivity to imperfections being displayed in lower aspect ratio plates. Again this supports the experimental results discussed earlier. It is interesting to compare these results with those given in an earlier paper (Featherston and Watson [26]) and presented again in this gure, for at plates. Although again it can be seen that imperfection sensitivity decreases with an increase in aspect ratio, this eect is much less marked.

C.A. Featherston, A. Watson / Composites Science and Technology 66 (2006) 28782894

30 R=100mm R=322mm Flat Plate

2893

25

% Decrease in Buckling Load

20

15

10

0 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

Aspect Ratio

Fig. 18. Imperfection sensitivity of plates and panels with diering radii of curvature and aspect ratios.

7. Conclusions The results presented in this paper have illustrated that a range of geometries of composite panels can be accurately and eciently optimised using a multi-level approach, based on the initial application of an extremely fast exact nite strip technique to a simplied version of the problem, followed by a series of more accurate nite element analyses, capable of modelling the specic conditions required. They have also shown nonlinear nite element analysis techniques to be suitable for predicting the buckling loads and early postbuckling behaviour of a range of geometries of carbon bre composite curved panels under a variable combination of shear and in-plane bending. More specically it has been shown: There is no direct correlation optimum between ply angle and geometry for the specimens considered, due to the complexity of the problem. It is therefore necessary in such cases to apply the type of technique described here to obtain an optimum result. There is a correlation, although small, between ply angle and the relative proportion of compressive stress with angle decreasing as the relative proportion of compressive load increases. Initial buckling loads are higher for panels with smaller aspect ratios, and those with greater curvature. Imperfection sensitivity is also greater for panels with smaller aspect ratios, and those with greater curvature. A linear eigenvalue analysis will overestimate the initial buckling load of a curved panel regardless of geometry. This overestimation however, is greatest for panels with smaller aspect ratios and greater curvature. A fully nonlinear Riks analysis, incorporating initial geometric imperfections in the form of the rst eigenmode, scaled such that its maximum amplitude is equal

to the thickness of the plates will accurately predict the initial buckling load and the load versus in-plane displacement behaviour of the panel up to the point of buckling and into the early postbuckling range. References
[1] Tennyson RC. Buckling of laminated composite cylinders: a review. Composites 1975:1724. [2] Leissa AW. Buckling of laminated composite plates and shell panels, Report AFWAL-TR-85-3069, AF Wright Aeronautical Laboratories; 1985. [3] Kapania RK. A review on the analysis of laminated shells. ASME J Press Vess Technol 1989;11:8896. [4] Almroth BO, Brogan FA, Stanley GM. Structural analysis of general shells, 1,2, Report No. LMSC-D6333873. Palo Alto (CA): Applied Mechanics Laboratory, Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory; 1982. [5] Bert CW, Crisman WC, Nordby GM. Fabrication and full-scale structural evaluation of glass-ber reinforced plastic shells. J Aircraft 1968;5:2733. [6] Wilkins DJ, Olson F. Shear buckling of advanced composite curved panels. Exp Mech 1974;14:32630. [7] Viswanathan AV, Tamekuni M, Baker LL. Buckling analysis for anisotropic laminated plates under combined inplane loads. In: 25th international astronautical congress, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 30th September5th October; 1974. p. 11. [8] Viswanathan AV, Tamekuni M, Baker LL. Elastic stability of laminated, at and curved, long rectangular plates subjected to combined inplane loads, Contractor Report, NASA CR-2330; June 1974. p. 68. [9] Fogg L. Stability analysis of laminated materials, state of the art design and analysis of advanced composite materials. Lockhead California Company; 1981. p. 162 [Sessions I and II]. [10] Zhang Y, Matthews FL. Initial buckling of curved panels of generally layered composite materials. Compos Struct 1983;1:330. [11] Zhang Y. PhD Thesis, University of London; 1982. [12] Wolf K, Kossira H. The buckling and postbuckling behavior of curved CFRP laminated shear panels. In: Proceedings, ICAS 88, 16th congress of the international council of the aeronautical sciences, Jerusalem, Israel, August 28thSeptember 2, 1988;1:92030.

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C.A. Featherston, A. Watson / Composites Science and Technology 66 (2006) 28782894 [22] McGowan DM, Anderson MS. Development of curved plate elements for the exact buckling analysis of composite plate assemblies including transverse shear eects. In: 38th AIAA SDM conference, AIAA-1997-1305; 1997. [23] Watson A, Kennedy D, Williams FW, Featherston CA. Buckling and vibration of stiened panels or single plates with clamped ends. Adv Struct Eng 2003;6(2):13544. [24] ASTM D 4255/D 4255M 01. Standard test method for in-plane shear properties of polymer matrix composite materials by the rail shear method. [25] Zaal K. Buckling and postbuckling of a square plate subjected to uniform edge loads an experimental investigation. ASL-138 Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Department of Aeronautical Engineering; 1998. [26] Featherston CA, Watson A. Buckling of optimised at composite plates under shear and in-plane bending. Compos Sci Technol 2005;65:83953. [27] Featherston CA, Lester W. The use of automated projection interferometry to monitor the buckling behaviour of a simple aerofoil. Exp Mech 2002;42(3):25360. [28] ABAQUS Theory Manual, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorenson, Inc.; 1994. [29] ABAQUS Users Manual, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorenson, Inc.; 1994. [30] Speicher G, Saal H. Numerical calculation of limit loads for shells of revolution with particular regard to the applying equivalent initial imperfection. In: Julien JF, editor. Buckling of shell structures, on land, in the sea, and in the air. London: Elsevier Applied Science; 1991. p. 46675. [31] Niu MCY. Composite airframe structures: practical design information and data. Hong Kong: Conmilit; 1992. [32] Featherston CA, Ruiz C. Buckling of curved panels under combined shear and bending. Proc Inst Mech Engr Part C J Mech Eng Sci Proc 1998;212:18396.

[13] Wolf K, Kossira H. An ecient test method for the experimental investigation of the postbuckling behavior of curved composite shear panels. In: Proceedings, ECCM-CTS, European conference on composite testing and standardisation, Amsterdam, September 8th 10th; 1992. [14] Wilkins DJ, Love TS. Combined compression-torsion buckling tests of laminated composite cylindrical shells. J Aircraft 1975;12(11):885 889. [15] Herakovich CT, Johnson ER. Buckling of composite cylinders under combined compression and torsion-theoretical/experimental correlation, test methods and design allowables for brous composites. In: Chamis CC, editor. ASTM STP, vol. 743. West Conshohocken (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials; 1981. p. 34160. [16] Anderson MS, Williams FW, Wright CJ. Buckling and vibration of any prismatic assembly of shear and compression loaded anisotropic plates with an arbitrary supporting structure. Int J Mech Sci 1983;25(8):58596. [17] Wittrick WH, Williams FW. Buckling and vibration of anisotropic or isotropic plate assemblies under combined loading. Int J Mech Sci 1974;16(4):20923. [18] Wittrick WH, Williams FW. An algorithm for computing critical buckling loads of elastic structures. J Struct Mech 1973;1(4): 497518. [19] Anderson MS, Kennedy D. Transverse shear deformation in exact buckling and vibration analysis of composite plate assemblies. AIAA J 1993;31(10):19635. [20] Plank RJ, Wittrick WH. Buckling under combined loading of thin, at-walled structures by a complex nite strip method. Int J Numer Meth Eng 1974;8(2):32339. [21] Wittrick WH, Williams FW. A general algorithm for computing natural frequencies of elastic structures. Q J Mech Appl Math 1971;24(3):26384.