Jeevan Maths

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY INDEX 1. Solutions of Equations 2. Matrices 3. Geometry 4. Differentiation 5. Partial Differentiation 6. Integration 7. Vector Calculus 8.
Infinite series 9. Fourier Series 10. Differential equations of I order 11. Linear Differential equations 12. Partial Differential equations 13. Complex variables 14. Laplace Transforms 15. Fourier Transforms 16. Z-Transforms 17. Probability & Statistics 18. Numerical methods
Engineering Mathematics
1 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

Email: onlineies.com@gmail.com Site: www.onlineIES.com
JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY
1. SOLUTIONS OF EQUATIONS * f(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn-1 +.. + an-1 x+an (a0 0) Polynomial in x of degree n * f (x) = 0 algebraic equation of degree n * If f (x) has function such as trigonometric, logarithmic exponential etc. then f (x) = 0 is called transcendental equation * value of x which satisfies f (x) = 0 is called root. * process of finding roots of equation solution of that equation. Properties 1. if is a root of equation f(x) = 0 then polynomial f (x) is exactly divisible by (x- ) and conversely. 2. Every equation of nth degree has n roots (real or imaginary) 3. If f(a) and f(b) have different signs, then the equation f (x) = 0 has atleast one root between x = a & x = b. 4. In an equation with real coefficients, imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs as + i & - i Similarly we have a+ b & a- b as roots * Every equation of odd degree has atleast one real root.
5. Descartes rule The equation f(x) = 0 cannot have more +ve roots than the changes of signs in f(x) : and more -ve roots than the changes of signs in f (-x) * If an equation of nth degree has at the most p +ve roots & q ve roots, then it follows that the equation has atleast n- (p+q) imaginary roots. If 1, 2, 3.. n be the roots of equation a0xn +a1xn-1 +a2xn-2+ ..+ an-1x+an = 0
then
Quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 has roots
Roots are equal if b2-4ac = 0 Roots are real & distinct if b2-4ac >0 Roots are img if b2-4ac < 0 Progressions 1. Numbers a, a+d, a+2d.. are said to be in Arithmetic progression (A.P) nth term Tn = a + (n-1) d Sum Sn = n/2 (2a+(n-1)d) 2. Numbers a, ar, ar2.. are said to be in Geometric progression (G.P) nth term Tn = a rn-1

Sum 3. Numbers 1/a, 1/a+d, 1/a+2d are said to be in Harmonic progression (H.P) A.P. nth term 4.If a and b are two numbers, then their Arithmetic mean = Geometric mean = Harmonic mean = 5. Natural numbers are 1, 2, 3, . n then
reciprocal of
Transformation of equations 1. To find an equation whose roots are m times the roots of the given equation, multiply second term by m third term by m2 and so on (all missing terms supplied with zero coefficients). 2. To find an equation whose roots are reciprocal of the roots of the given equation, change x to 1/x. 3. To diminish the roots of an equation f(x) = 0 by h, divide f (x) by (x-h) successively. * To increase, h taken as - ve (or) divide by (x+h) Reciprocal Equations Equation is unaltered on changing x to 1/x 1. A reciprocal equation of an odd degree having coefficients of terms equidistant from beginning & ending equal, it has root = -1 2. A reciprocal equation of an terms equidistant from the beginning & end equation but oppose in sign, it has root = 1. 3. A reciprocal equation of even degree having coefficient of terms equidistant from beginning & end equal but opposite in sign, it has roots = 1 and -1.

2.Linear Algebra: Determinants,Matrices * Linear Algebra comprises of theory & application of linear system of equations, linear transformations and eigen value problems. * In linear algebra we make a systematic use of matrices and to a lesser extent determinants and their properties. Matrix A system of mn numbers arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m x n. if m = n, it is called a square matrix of order n. Determinants expression is called det of II order det = a1 b2 a2 b1
is called det of III order
det of nth order is a1, b2, c3 ----- ln is called leading or principal diagonal Minor Minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the row and the column which intersect in that element. Eg: if
Co factor Co factor of any element in a det is its minor with proper sign. The sign of an element in the ith row & jth column is (-1)i+j Cofactor of b3 is B3 = (-1)3+2 x minor of b3

C2 Laplaces expansion A determinant can be expanded in terms of any row (or column) as follows: Multiply each element of the row (or column) in terms of which we intend expanding the det, by its cofactor and then add up all these terms. i.e. = a1 A1 +b1B1 +c1C1 = a1 (b2 c3- b3 c2)- b1(a2 c3-a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3-a3b2) ai Aj+bi Bj+ci cj = when i = j = 0 when i j Properties of Determinants 1. A determinant remains unaltered by changing its rows into columns and columns into rows 2. If two parallel lines of a det are interchanged, the det retains its numerical value but changes in sign. * if any line of a det be passed over m parallel lines resulting det 1 = (-1)m . 3. A determinant vanishes if two parallel lines are identical. 4. If each element of a line be multiplied by the same factor, the whole determinant is multiplied by that factor. 5. If each element of a line consists of m terms the det can be expressed as sum of m dets. 6. If to each elements of a line be added equi multiples of the corresponding elements of one or more parallel lines, the determinants remains unaltered. 7. If the elements of a determinant are functions of x and two parallel lines become identical when x = a then (x-a) is a factor of . Multiplication of determinants The product of two determinants of the same order is itself a determinant of that order.
then
Special Matrices Row and Column matrices * A matrix having a single row is called row matrix [1 3 5 7] * A matrix having a single column is called column matrix

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Square matrix * A matrix having n rows & n columns is called a square matrix of order n
leading or principal diagonal = 1, 3, 5 sum of diagonal elements is called trace of A. if |A| = 0 then matrix is said to be singular otherwise non singular. Diagonal matrix A square matrix all of whose elements except those in leading diagonal are zero is called diagonal matrix. A diagonal matrix whose all the leading diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix. Ex:
Diagonal
Scalar
Unit matrix A diagonal matrix of order n which has unity for all its diagonal elements is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix of order n & denoted by In. Eg:
Null Matrix If all the elements of a matrix are zero, it is called 0 null or zero matrix & is denoted by 0.
Symmetric A square matrix A = [aii] is said to be symmetric when aij = aji
i&j
Skew symmetric If aij = - aji
i & j so that all the leading diagonal elements are zero
Triangular Matrix A square matrix all of whose elements below the leading diagonal are zero is called upper triangular matrix.

A square matrix all of whose elements above the leading diagonal are zero, is called a lower triangular matrix.
Matrix Operations 1. Equality of matrices Two matrices A and B are said to equal if and only if (i) they are of same order and (ii) each element of A is equal to corresponding element of B. 2. Addition and Subtraction of matrices If A, B be two matrices of the same order, then their sum A+B is defined as the matrix each element of which is the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B Similarly A-B is defined as a matrix whose elements are obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding element of A. * Only matrices of same order can be added or subtracted * Addition of matrices is commutative i.e. A+B = B+A. * Addition & subtraction of matrices is associative i.e. (A+B) C = A+ (B-C) = B +(A-C) 3. Multiplication of matrix by a scalar The product of a matrix A by a scalar k is a matrix whose each element is K times corresponding elements of A. * Distribution law holds for such products K(A+B) = KA + KB * If AB = 0 it does not necessarily imply that A or B is a null matrix 4. Multiplication of matrices Two matrices can be multiplied only when the number of column in the first is equal to the no. of rows in the second. * such matrices are said to be comformable * Multiplication of matrices is associative (AB) C = A (BC) * Multiplication of matrices is distributive A(B+C) = AB+AC. * If A be a square matrix then product AA is defined as A2. * If A2 = A then the matrix A is called idempotent * If A2 = 0, then the matrix A is called Nilpotent. * If A2= I, then the matrix A is called involuntary

5. Transpose of a matrix The matrix obtained from any given matrix A by interchanging rows and columns denoted by A1 or AT.
* transpose of m x n matrix is n x m matrix * transpose of the transpose of a matrix coincides with itself i.e. (A1)1 = A * For a symmetric matrix A1 = A * For a skew symmetric matrix A1 = A * (AB)1 = B1A1 * every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix. 6. Adjoint of a square matrix 1. Adjoint of A is the transposed matrix of cofactors of A.
7. Inverse of a matrix If A be any matrix then a matrix B if it exists, such that AB=BA= I, is called the inverse of A. i.e. * both matrix and its inverse must be non singular * Inverse of a matrix is unique * (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1 Rank of a Matrix A matrix is said to be of rank r when (i) It has at least one non-zero minor of order r, and (ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes i.e. Rank of a matrix is the largest order of any non-vanishing minor of the matrix. If a matrix has a non-zero minor of order r, its rank is r. If all minors of a matrix of order (r+1) are zero, its is rank is r. Rank is denoted by (A) Elementary transformation of matrix 1. The interchange of any two rows (columns) [Rij] /[Cij] 2. The multiplication of any row (column) by a non-zero number [KRi]/[K ci] 3. The addition of a constant multiple of the elements of any row (column) to the corresponding elements of any other row (column) [Ri+PRj]/[Ci +Pci]

* Elementary transformation do not change either the order or rank of a matrix. * The value of minors may get changed by the transformation (1) & (2), their zero or non zero character remains unaffected. Equivalent matrix Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary transformations. Two equivalent matrices have same rank. Gauss Jordan Method of finding inverse These elementary row transformations which reduce a given square matrix. A to the unit matrix when applied to unit matrix I gives the inverse of A. Working Write two matrices A&I side by side. Then perform the same row transformation on both. As soon as A is reduced to I, the other matrix represents A-1. Normal form Every non zero matrix A of rank r can be reduced by a sequence of elementary transformations to the form is called normal form. * Rank of matrix A is r if and only if it can be reduced to normal form. * Any quantity having n-components is called a vector of ordern Linear dependence The vector are said to be linearly dependent, if these exists r numbers 1, 2--- r not all zero such that 1 + 2 + + r =0 * If no such numbers other than zero exists, the vectors are said to be linearly independent Consistency of Linear System of Equations Find the ranks of the coefficient matrix [A] and the augmented matrix [AK] by reducing A to the triangular form by elementary row operations. Let the rank of [A] be r and that of [AK] be r [AX] =K (i) If r r the equation are in consistent, i.e. no solution. (ii) If r = r = n, the equations are consistent and there in unique solution (iii) If r= r < n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions. System of linear homogeneous equations Consider the homogeneous linear equations [ AX] = 0 a11 x1+ a12 x2 +.. +a1nxn = 0 a21 x1 +a22 x2+ +a2nxn = 0 . am1x1 +am2 x2 +..+amn xn = 0 let rank r of the coefficient matrix A by reducing it to the triangular form then 1. If r = n, the equations have only a trivial zero solution x1 = x2 ----- xn = 0 * If r < n the eqns have (n-r) linearly independent solutions.

2. When m < n the solution is always other than x1 = x2 = ----- xn = 0, The no. of solutions is infinite. 3. When m = n, the necessary & sufficient condition for solutions other than x1 = x2 = ----- xn = 0 is that the determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero. * Equations are consistent and a solution is non-trivial solution. Orthogonal transformation The linear transformation y = Ax is said to be orthogonal if it transforms Y12 +y22 + +yn2 into x21 +x22 +..+xn2 The matrix of an orthogonal transformation is called an orthogonal matrix. * Square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AAT =AT A = I * If A is orthogonal, AT and A-1 are also orthogonal * If A is orthogonal then |A| = 1 Characteristic equation
is called the characteristics equation. * The roots of the equation (-1)n n +K1 n-1 + K2 n-2 + Kn = 0 are called the characteristic roots or latent roots or eigen values. Eigen vectors
If then the Linear transformation y = Ax carries the column Vector X into column vector y by means of square matrix A. X= [ x1 x2.. xn]1 is known eigen vector or latent vector. Properties of Eigen values 1. Any square matrix A and its transpose AT and its transpose AT have same eigen values. 2. Eigen values of a diagonal matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix. 3. The eigen value of an idempotent matrix are either zero or unity. 4. The sum of the eigen value of matrix is the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal. 5. The product of eigen value of a matrix A is equal to its determinant. 6. If is an eigen value of a matrix A, then 1/ is the eigen value of A-1. 7. If is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its eigen value. 8. If 1, 2 .. n are eigen value of matrix A, then Am has the eigen values 1m, 2m. mn

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Cayley- Hamilton Theorem Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Reduction to Diagonal form If a square matrix A of order n has n linearly independent eigen vectors, then a matrix P can be found such that P-1 AP is a diagonal matrix. * The matrix P which diagonalises A is called the modal matrix of A. * Resulting diagonal matrix D is known as Spectral Matrix of A. * The diagonal matrix has the eigen values of A as its diagonal elements. * The matrix P, which diagonalise A, constitutes the eigen vectors of A * A square matrix of order n is called similar to a square matrix A of order n if = p-1 AP. Reduction of Quadratic form to Canonical form * A homogeneous expression of the second degree in any no. of variables is called a quadratic form. Procedure Let 1, 2, 3 be eigen values of matrix A and
Then
where
Here the quadratic form is reduced to a canonical for (or sum of squares form or principal axes form) i.e. 1 x2 + 2 y2 + 3 z2 * The number of positive terms in canonical form of a quadratic form is known as Index of the form. * Signature of the quadratic form is the difference of +ve terms and ve terms in its canonical form. Nature of a quadratic form A real quadratic form x1Ax in n variables is said to be i. Positive definite if all the eigen values of A > 0 ii. negative definite if all the eigen values of A < 0 iii. Positive semidefinite if all the eigen values of A0 and atleast one eigen value = 0. iv. negative semidefinite if all the eigen values of A 0 and atleast one eigen value = 0 v, indefinite if some of the eigen values of A are +ve and others Ve Complex Matrices 1. Conjugate of a matrix If the elements of a matrix A= [ars] are complex numbers rs + irs & rs &rs are real then

is called conjugate matrix 2. Hermitian matrix A square matrix A such that AT=
is said to be Hermitian matrix
3. Skew Hermitian Matrix A square matrix A such that AT =
is said to be a skew Hermitian matrix.
Properties 1. Any square matrix A can be written as the sum of a Hermitian and skew Hermitian matrices. 2. If A is a Hermitian matrix then (iA) is a skew Hermitian matrix. 3. The eigen values of a Hermitian matrix are real 4. The eigen value of a skew Hermitian matrix are purely imaginary or zero 4. Unitary matrix A square matrix U such that
is called a unitary matrix.
Properties 1. Inverse of a unitary matrix is unitary. * Inverse of an orthogonal matrix is orthogonal 2. Transpose of a unitary matrix is unitary * Transpose of an orthogonal matrix is orthogonal 3. Product of two unitary matrices is a unitary matrix * product of two orthogonal matrices is an orthogonal 4. The eigen value of a unitary matrix has absolute value I. * The eigen value of a orthogonal matrix has absolute value I.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 3. GEOMETRY Co-ordinate of a point

y
P r y x
Cartesian (x, y) polar (r, ) x = r cos , y = r sin r = (x2+y2), = tan-1 (y/x) * Distance between two points (x1y1) & (x2,y2)= * Point of division of the line joining (x1,y1) & (x2,y2) in the ratio m1:m2 is
Triangle A (x1y1) B (x2y2), C (x3, y3) * Area
* Centroid (point of intersection of medians) is
* Incentre (point of intersection of internal bisectors of angle)
a,b,c, are length of sides of triangle Circumcentre is the pt of intersection of right bisectors of sides of triangle. Orthocentre is the pt of intersection of perpendicular drawn from vertices to the opposite sides of triangle. Straight line Slope of line joining points (x1y1) & (x2 y2) =

* Slope of the line ax+by+c = 0 is a/b i.e. Equations of a line o Having slope m and cutting an intercept C on y-axis is y = mx+C. o o o Cutting intercepts a & b from the axes is Passing through (x1y1) & having slope m is y-y1= m (x-x1) Passing through (x1y1) & making an < with x-axis is
Through the point of intersection of lines ax+b1y+c1=0 & a2x+b2y+c2= 0 is a1x+b1y+c1+k(a2x+b2y+c1+K(a2x+b2y+c2) = 0 Angle between two lines having slopes m1 & m2 is
o Two lines are parallel if m1 = m0 o Two lines are perpendicular if m1m2 = 1 o Any line parallel to line ax+by+c= 0 is ax+by+k = 0 o Any line perpendicular to line ax+by+ c= 0 is bx-ay+ k = 0 Length of the perpendicular from (x1y1) to line ax+by+c=0 is
Circle
Equation of the circle having centre (h, k) & radius r is (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2 Equation x2+y2+2yx+2fy+c = 0 represents a circle having centre (-g1 f) and radius = (g2+f2c) Equation of the tangent at the point (x1y1) to the circle x2+y2=a2 is xx1+yy1 = a2 Condition for the line y = mx+c to touch the circle x2+y2= a2 is c= (1+m2) Length of tangent from the point (x1y1) to the circle x2+y2+2gx+2fy+c = 0 is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Parabola
Standard equation of parabola is y2= 4 ax o Parametric equations are x = at2, y = 2 at o Latus rectum L L = 4 a Focus S (a, 0) o Directrix ZM is x+a = 0 Focal distance of any point P (x1, y1) on parabola y2= 4ax is Sp= x1+a Equation of tangent at (x1y1) to parabola y2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a (x+x1) Condition for the line y= mx+c to touch parabola y2=4ax is c = a/m Equation of normal to parabola y2= 4ax in terms of its slope m is y =mx-2am-am3. Ellipse Standard equation is
Parametric equations are x = a cos , y = b sin
o Eccentricity = o Latus rectum LSL1 = 2b2/a, Foci S (-ae, 0) & S1 (a e, 0) o Directrices ZM (x = a/e) & Z1M1 (x = a/e) Sum of focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to major axis i.e. SP+S1P = 2a Equation of the tangent at the point (x1 y1) to the ellipse is Condition for the line y = mx+c to touch ellipse is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Hyperbola

1
L M
Standard equation is
Parametric equations are x= a sec , y = b tan
Eccentricity e = Latus rectum Directrices ZM (x= a/e) & z1m1(x= -a/e) Equation of tangent at the point (x1,y1) to hyperbola is Condition for the line y = mx+c to touch hyperbola is Asymptotes of hyperbola are & Equation of rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes as axes is xy= c2 Its parametric equations are x = ct, y = c/t
Nature of a Conic The equation ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c = 0 represents
A pair of lines, if A circle, if a=b, h =0, 0 A parabola, if ab-h2 = 0, 0 An ellipse, if ab-h2> 0, 0 A hyperbola, if ab-h2 < 0, 0 A rectangular hyperbola if ab-h2< 0, 0, a+b=0.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Volumes & Surface areas Solid 1. Cube (side a) 2. Cuboid (length l, breadth b, height h) 3. Sphere (radius r) 4. Cylinder (base radius r, height h volume a
3
Curved surface area 4a

2
Total surface area 6a2 2(lb+bh+hl) 4r2 2r(r+h) r (r+l)
lbh (4/3) r r2h

3
2(l+b) h 2rh rl
5. Cone (base radius r, height h) [ l= r2+h2] (1/3) r2h

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY CALCULUS [Differentiation, Integration] 4. Differentiation Some standard Derivatives
, , , , , , ,
, , , ,
Dn (amx)= mn (loga)n . a mx Dn (emx) = mn emx

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Dn Sin (ax+b) = an Sin (ax+b+n/2) Dn Cos (ax+b) = an Cos (ax+b+ n/2) Dn [eax Sin (bx+c)] = (a2+b2)n/2 eax sin (bx+c+ntan-1(b/a) Dn [ eax Cos (bx+c)] = (a2+b2)n/2 eax cos (bx+c+ntan-1 (b/a)) Leibnitzs theorem If u, v be two functions of x possessing derivatives of the nth order then (uv)n = unV +nc1 un-1 V1 + nc2 un-2 v2 +.+ncnuVn Rolles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in [a,b] (ii) f(x) exists for every value of c of x in (a,b) such that f(c) = 0 (iii) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C of x in (a, b) such that f1 (c) = 0 Lagranges Mean-value Theorem If (i) f(x) is continuous in [a,b] and (ii) f1 (x) exists in (a, b) then there is atleast one value c of x in (a, b) such that
Cauchys Mean-value theorem If (i) f(x) and G(x) be continuous in [a,b] (ii) f1(x) and g1(x) exist in (a,b) (iii) g1(x) o for any value of x in (a,b) then There is atleast one value c of x in (a,b) such that
Taylors Theorem If (i) f(x) and its first (n-1) derivatives be continuous in [a, a+h] and (ii) fn (x) exists for every value of x in (a, a+b) Then there is atleast one number (0 < <1), such that f(a+h) = f (a) + h f1(a) + h2/2 f11 (a)+. + hn/n! fn (a+ h).

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Maclaurins series If f (x) can be expanded as an infinite series, then f (x)= f(0) + xf1(0) + Indeterminate forms
To evaluate Lt [ (f(x)/(x)] in 0/0 form, differentiate the numerator & denominator separately as many times as would be necessary to arrive a determinate form.
Form / Applying L Hospitals rule. i.e. Differentiating numerator & Denominator separately as many times as would be necessary. Increasing & Decreasing Functions In the function y = f(x), if y increases as x increase it is called an increasing function of x. In the function y = f(x), if y decreases as x increases it is called a decreasing function of x. Maxima & Minima Procedure to find maxima & minima 1. Put the given function = f(x) 2. Find f1(x) and equate it to zero. Solve this equation and let its roots be a, b, c. 3. Find f11 (x) and substitute in it by turns x= a, b, c * If f11 (a) is ve, f (x) is maximum at x = a * If f11 (a) is +ve, f(x) is minimum at x = a. 4. Sometime f11 (x) may be difficult to find out or f11 (x) may be zero at x= a. Then * If f(x) changes sign from +ve to ve as x passes through a,f(x) is minimum at x = a. * If f1 (x) changes sign from ve to +ve as x passes through a,f(x) is maximum at x = a. * If f1 (x) does not change sign while passing through x = a, f(x) is neither maximum nor minimum at x =a.

5. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION If z= f(x, y) a function of two variables x & y then & partial derivative of z with respect to x is denoted by (or) (or) fx (x,y) or Dxf and is given by
* Partial derivating of x with respect to y is given by
* Sometimes we may use the notation
Any function f (x, y) which can be expressed in the form xn (y/x) is called a homogenous function of degree n in x and y Eulers theorem If u be a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y then.
If u f(x, y) where x = (f) & y = (t) then total derivative is given by
If t = x
If f (x, y) = c be an implicit relation between x and y then
Taylors expansion of f (x, y) in powers of (x-a) & (y-b) is given by f(x, y)= f (a, b) + [(x-a) fx (a, b)+ (y-b) fy (a, b)] + ! [ (x-a)2 fxx (a, b) +2(x-a) (y-b) fxy (a, b)+ (y-b)2 fyy (a, b) ]+.. Maclaurins expansion of f (x, y) is given by f (x, y) = f (0, 0)+ [ x fx (0, 0)+ y fy (0, 0)]+ . f (a, b) is said to be stationary value of f(x, y) if fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0 i.e., the function is stationary at (a, b) but converse is not true.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Procedure to find maxima & minimum values of f (x, y)
1. Find and equate each to zero. Solve these as simultaneous equation in x & y. Let (a, b) (c, d) be pair of values. 2. Calculate the value of for each pair of values 3. (i) If rt-s2 > 0 & r< 0 at (a, b), f (a, b) is a max value. (ii) If rt-s2> 0 & r> 0 at (a,b), f (a, b) is a min value. (iii) If rt-s2 < 0 at (a, b) f (a, b) is not an extreme value. i.e. (a, b) is a saddle point. (iv) If rt-s2= 0 at (a, b) the case is doubtful & needs further investigation. Laranges method 1. Write F= f (x, y, z) + (x, y, z) 2. Obtain the equations 3. Solve the above equations together with (x, y, z) = 0. The values of x, y, z so obtained will give the stationary value of f (x, y, z)

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 6. INTEGRATION Some Standard Integration Formulae
Sinx dx = - Cos x, tanx dx = - log (cos x) sec x dx = log (sec x+tan x),
cosx dx = sin x cotx dx = log (sinx) cosec xdx= log (cosecx-cot x)
cos hx dx = sin hx

tan hx dx = log (cos hx) sech2xdx = tan hx Reduction Formulae ,
cot hx dx = log (sin hx) cosech2x dx = - cot hx.
( /2, only if both m & n are even)

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Definite Integrals Properties 1.
2.
3.
4.
5. =0
if f (x) is an even function if f (x) is an odd function
6. =0 7. f(x) g(x) dx = f (x) if f (2a-x) = - f (x) g(x) dx f1(x) [ g(x) dx] dx.
Important Integrals
=0
if n is even if n is odd.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Improper Integrals
is said to be an improper integral of first kind if a = - or b = or both. * is said to be an improper integral of second kind if f (x) is infinite for one or more values of x in [a, b] * is said to be convergent if the values of integral is finite.
7. VECTOR CALCULUS A quantity which is completely specified by its magnitude & direction is called vector.
Q
A P
A vector of unit magnitude is called a unit vector ( ) A vector of zero magnitude (which have no direction) is called a zero vector (0). The vector represents the negative of i.e Two vectors having the same magnitude & the same (or parallel) directions are said to be equal ( ). Addition of vectors Subtraction of vectors Any three position vectors are collinear, if ,where
In vector algebra, the division of a vector by another vector is not defined. Scalar or Dot Product The scalar or dot product of two vectors the angle b/n
is defined as the scalar ab cos , where is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Properties 1. Scalar product of two vectors is commutative
2. The necessary & sufficient condition for two vectors to be perpendicular is that their scalar product should be zero. 3. The square of a vector is a scalar which stands for the square of its magnitude. 4. For the mutually perpendicular unit vectors 5. Scalar product of two vectors is distributive 6. Schwarz inequality 7. Scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products of their corresponding components. 8. Angle between two lines whose direction cosines are l, m, n & , , is 9. Angle between two lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c & , , is
10. Projection of the line joining two points (x1, y1, z1) & (x2, y2, z2) on a line whose direction cosines are l, m, n is l (x2- x1) + m (y2 y1)+ n (z2 z1) Vector or Cross Product The vector or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector such that (i) its magnitude is ab sin , being angle between (ii) its direction is perpendicular to the plane of (iii) it forms with a right handed system. Properties 1. Vector product of two vectors is not commutative 2. The necessary and sufficient condition for two non-zero vectors to be parallel is that their vector product should be zero. 3. For the orthonormal vector triad
4. Relation b/n Scalar & vector products is
5. Vector product of two vectors is distributive

6. If
then
Scalar Product of three vectors If be any three vectors then the scalar or dot product and is written as with is called the scalar product of three vectors
Properties 1. The condition for three vectors to be coplanar is that their scalar triple product should vanish. i.e. 2. If any two vectors of a scalar triple product are equal the product vanishes i.e. 3. Every scalar triple product (i) is independent of the position of the dot or cross and (ii) depends upon the cyclic order of vectors
4. Scalar triple product is distributive i.e. 5. If then ,
Vector Product of three vectors If be any three vectors, then the vector or cross product of and is written as with is called the vector product of these vectors * * If be any four vectors then
* * Vector differential operator Del, written as is defined by

The vector function as grad f.
f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f and is written
* grad f = The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function * The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function
is denoted by div
is given by
is solenoidal. is called Laplaces equation. is called irrotational. Greens theorem If (x, y) , (x, y) y & x be continuous in a region E of the xy-plane bounded by a closed curve C, then is Laplacian operator
Stokes theorem If S be an open surface bounded by a closed curve C and continuously differentiable vector- point function, then be any
Where of s.
is a unit external normal at any point
Gauss divergence theorem If is a continuously differentiable vector function in the region E bounded by the closed surface S, then
Where
is the unit external normal vector.

8. INFINITE SERIES An ordered set of real numbers a1, a2, a3..an is called a sequence and is denoted by (an). If the number of terms is unlimited, then the sequence is said to be an infinite sequence Limit A sequence is said to tend to a limit l, if for every > 0, a value N of n can be found such that for n N.
Convergence If a sequence (an) has a finite limit, it is called a convergent sequence. * If (an) is not convergent it is said to be divergent. Bounded Sequence A sequence (an ) is said to be bounded, if there exists a number K such that an < k for every n. Monotonic sequence The sequence (an) is said to increase steadily or to decrease steadily according as an+1 an or an+1 an for all values of n. Both increasing and decreasing sequences are called monotonic sequences. A monotonic sequence always tends to a limit, finite or infinite. A sequence which is monotonic and bounded is convergent If u1, u2, u3 un. be an infinite sequence of real numbers, then u1+u2+u3+. +un+. & is called an infinite series. * Denoted by un & sum its first n terms by Sn If un = u1+u2+u3 + . +un + & Sn = u1+u2+u3+ . +un then 1. If Sn tends to a finite limit as n , the series un is said to be convergent. 2. If Sn tends to as n, the series un is said to be divergent 3. If Sn does not tend to a unique limit as n then the series un is said to be oscillatory or non-convergent Properties of series 1. The convergence or divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected by the addition or removal of a finite number of its terms. 2. If a series in which all the terms are positive is convergent, the series remains convergent even when some or all of its terms are negative. 3. The convergence or divergence of an infinite series remains unaffected by multiplying each term by a finite number. An infinite series in which all the terms after some particular term are positive term series. * A series of positive terms either converges or diverges to +. * If , the series un is convergent.

* If
series un is divergent
Tests for convergence of a series Comparison tests 1. If two positive term series un & un be such that a. un converges. b. un vn for all values of n, then un also converges. 2. If two positive term series un & vn be such that a. vn diverges b. un vn for all values of n, then un also diverges. 3. Limit form If two positive term series un & vn be such that un & vn converge or diverge together. = finite quantity ( 0) then
Integral test A positive term series f(1)+ f(2) + ..+ f(n) + .. where f (n) decreases as n increases, converges or diverges according as the integral, is finite or in finite Comparison of ratios If un & vn be two positive term series, the un converges if (i) vn converges and (ii) from and after some particular term
DAlemberts ratio test In a positive term series un, if Cauchys root test In a positive series un, if , then the series converges for < 1 And divergence for A series in which the terms are alternately +ve or ve is called alternating series. , then the series converges for < 1 And divergence for
>1
>1
An alternating series u1 u2 +u3- u4 +..converges if (i) Each term is numerically less than its preceding term and (ii) * If the given series is oscillatory
If the series of arbitrary terms u1+u2+u3+ un+.. be such that the series |u1|+ |u2|+ |u3| + ..+ |un| + . is convergent, then the series un is said to be absolutely convergent. * If |un| is divergent but un is convergent, then un is said to be conditionally convergent.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 9. FOURIER SERIES
The fourier series for the function f (x) in the interval < x< + 2 is given by
Where
f(x) cos nx dx
f (x) sin nx dx a0, an, bn values are known as Eulers formulae Dirichlets conditions
Any function f (x) can be developed as a Fourier series where a0,an,bn constants provided: 1. f(x) is periodic, single valued and finite 2. f(x) has a finite number of discontinuities in any one period. 3. f (x) has at the most a finite number of maxima and minima. A function f (x) is said to be even if f(-x) = f(x) A function f (x) is said to be odd if f(-x) = - f(x) Fourier series for the even function f(x) in the interval (-c, c) is
where
bn = 0 * If a periodic function f (x) is even, its Fourier expansion contains only cosine terms. Fourier series for the odd function f (x) in the interval (-c, c) is
Where a0 = 0, an = 0
If a periodic function f (x) is odd, its Fourier expansion contains only sine terms. Email: onlineies.com@gmail.com Site: www.onlineIES.com
10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER A differential equation is an equation which involves differential coefficients or differentials. An ordinary differential equation is that in which all the differential coefficients have reference to a single independent variable. A partial differential equation is that in which there are two or more independent variables and partial differential coefficients with respect to any of them. The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it. The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it, after the equation has been expressed in a form free from radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned. A solution (or integral) of a differential equation is a relation between the variables which satisfies the given differential equation. The general (or complete) solution of a differential equation is that in which the number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential equation. A particular solution is that which can be obtained from the general solution by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants.
Solutions of I order and first degree differential equations 1. Variables- Separable Method: If in an equation it is possible to collect all functions of x and dx on one side and all the functions of y and dy on the other side, then the variables are said to be separable. Thus the general form of such an equation is f (y) dy = (x) dx. Integrating both sides, we get f (y) dy = (x) dx+c as its solution.
2. Homogeneous Equations Are of the form Where f (x, y) and (x, y) are homogenous functions of the same degree in x and y. To solve a homogenous equation (i) put y = vx then
(iii)
Separate the variables v and x and integrate
3. Equations reducible to homogenous form The equations of the form Can be reduced to the homogenous form as follows: Case (i) when Putting x = X+h, y = Y+k (h, k being constants) Where

solved by putting Y = Ux. Case (ii) when Let
Put ax+by= t and solve by variable separable method 4. Linear equations A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable and its differential coefficients occur only in the first order degree and not multiplied together. The standard form of a linear equation of the first order commonly known as Leibnitzs linear equation is where P, Q are functions of x, Solution is Integrating Factor (IF) = Solution is y (I.F) = 5. Bernoullis Equations The equation where P, Q are functions of x, is reducible to the Leibniqzs linear equation and is usually called the Bernoullis equation. To solve, divide both side by yn so that
Which is Leibnitzs equation in z & can be solved easily. 6. Exact Differential equations A differential equation of the form M (x, y) dx+ N (x, y) dy = 0 is said to be exact if its left hand member is the exact differential of some function u (x, y) i.e. du = Mdx+Ndy = 0 Solution is u (x, y) = C The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equation Mdx+Ndy = 0 is
The solution of Mdx+Ndy = 0 is

(terms of N not containing x) dy = C (y constant) 7. Equations reducible to exact equations Sometimes a differential equation which is not exact, can be made so on multiplication by a suitable factor called an integrating factor (I.F) (i) I.F. Found by inspection:The I.F. can be found after regrouping the terms of the equation and recognizing each group as being a part of an exact differential xdy+ydx = d (xy)
(ii) I.F. of a homogenous Equation If Mdx+Ndy = 0 be a homogeneous equation in x & y, Then is an I.F. (Mx+Ny 0)
(iii) I.F. for an equation of type f1 (x y) ydx + f2 (xy ) xdy = 0 If the equation Mdx+ Ndy = 0 be of this form, then iv. In the equation Mdx+Ndy = 0 a. If be a function of x only = f (x) say, then is an I.F. (Mx-Ny 0)
is an integrating factor.
b. If factor.
be a function of y only = F (y) say, then
is an integrating

11. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Linear Differential equations are those in which the dependent variable and its derivatives occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied together General form
Where P1 P2.. Pn and x are functions of x only. Linear differential equations with constant coefficients are of the form
Where K1, K2 Kn are constant Procedure to solve the equation
Of which the symbolic form is (Dn+ K1Dn-1 ++ Kn-1 D+Kn) y = x Step I to find the complementary function (CF) (i) Write the Auxiliary equation i.e. Dn+ K1 Dn-1 ++ Kn-1 D+ Kn = 0 and solve it for D. (ii) Write the C.F. as follows: Roots of A.E. 1. m1, m2, m3 (real & different roots) 2. m1, m1, m3.(two real & equal roots) 3. m1, m1, m1, m4 (three real & equal roots) 4. +i, - i, m3 (a pair of imaginary roots) 5. , , m5 (2 pairs of equal imaginary roots) Step II To find the particular Integral (P.I) From Symbolic from (i) When X = eax Put D = a [ f(a) 0] Put D = a [f (a) = 0; f1(a) 0] Put D= a [ f1 (a) = 0, f11 (a) 0] And so on. (ii) when x = sin (ax+b) or cos (ax+b)
C.F c1em1x + c2 em2x+ c3 em3x+ . (c1+c2 x) em1x + C3 em3x+. (c1+c2x+c3x2)em1x +c4 em4x +. eax (c1cosx+c2 sinx) +c3 em3x + eax[(c1+c2x)cos x+(c3+c4x)sin x] +c5 em5x + .

Sin (ax+b) [or cos (ax+b)], Put D2 = -a2 [ (-a2) 0] Sin (ax+b) [ or cos (ax+b)] Put D2 = -a2 [ (-a2)= 0, 1 (-a2) 0] And so on. (iii) When X = xm, m being a +ve integer P.I. (iv) When X = eax V, where V is a function of x
P.I. (V) when x is any function of x P.I. * Resolve into partial fractions & operate each partial fraction on x remembering that
Step III To find complete solution (C.S.) C.S. is y = C.F. + P.I. Method of Variation of Parameters This method is quite general & applies to equations of the form y11+Py1+qy = X where P, q & X are functions of x. It gives P.I. =
Where y1 and y2 are the solutions of y11+Py1+qy = 0 & is called Wronskian of y1, y2. Cauchys homogenous Linear equation
Where X is function of x. Such equations can be reduced to linear differential equations with constant coefficient by putting

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY X = et or t = log x, then D= d/dt
Legendres Linear equation

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 12. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS x and y are independent variable and z is dependent variable Z = f (x, y) then
A linear partial differential equation of the first order, commonly known as Lagranges linear equation is of form Pp+Qq = R When P, Q, R are functions of x,y, z. This equation is called quasi-linear equation. To solve equation PP +Qq = R (i) form the subsidiary equations (ii) solve these simultaneous equations, giving u = a & v= b as its solutions. (iii) write the complete solution as (u, v) = 0 or u = f (v) Procedure to solve the equation
Its symbolic form is (Dn+ K1 Dn-1 D1+ ,+Kn Dn) z = F (x, y) Or f (D, D1) z = F (x, y) Step- I to find C.F. (i) Write the A.E. mn +K1 mn-1 + .+ Kn = 0 & solve it for m. (ii) Write the C.F. as follows Roots of A.E. 1. m1, m2, m3. (distinct roots) 2. m1, m2, m3 (two equal roots) 3. m1,m1, m1 (three equal roots) Step- II To find P.I. From the symbolic form (i) when F (x, y) = (ii) [Put D = a & D1 =b] (iii) when F (x, y) = sin (mx+ny) or cos (mx+ny) Sin or cos (mx+ny) [ Put D2 = - m2, DD1= - mn, D2 = - n2] (iii) when F (x, y) = x y
m n
C.F. f1(y+m1 x) +f2(y+m2 x) + f3 (y+m3 x)+ . f1(y+m1 x)+ x f2 (y+m2 x)+f3 (y+m3 x)+. f1 (y+m1 x)+ x f2 (y+m1x)+x2 f3 (y+m3 x) + .

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY (iv) when F (x, y) is any function of x & y
Step- III C.S. = C.F. + P.I. = Z Non-linear equations of the first order Form I. f (p, q)= 0 i.e. equations containing p & q only its complete solution is z = ax+by+c where a & b are connected by relation f (a, b) = 0. z = ax+ (a) y+c, a & c are arbitrary constants. From- II f (z, p, q) = 0, i.e. equations not containing x & y. (i) assume u = x+ay & substitute P = dz/du, q= a dz/du in equation. (ii) solve the resulting ordinary differential equation in z & u. (iii) replace u by x+ay. Form- III f (x, p) = F (y, q) i.e. equations in which z is absent and the terms containing x & p can be separated from those containing y & q. Solution is z = (x) dx+ (y) dy +b. Form-IV Z = Px+qy+f (P, q) Its complete solution is z = ax+by+f (a, b) which is obtained by writing a for P & b for q in the given equation.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 13. COMPLEX VARIABLES
A number of the form x+iy, where x and y are real numbers and i=(-1) is called a complex number. X is called the real part of x+iy and is written as R (x+iy) and y is called the imaginary part and is written as I (x+iy) A pair of complex numbers x+iy and x-iy are said to be conjugate of each other. Properties 1.If x1+iy1= x2+iy2 then x1-iy1 = x2- iy2 2. Two complex numbers x1+iy1 and x2 +iy2 are said to be equal when R (x1+iy1)= R (x2+ iy2) i.e. x1 = x2 And I (x1+ iy1) = I (x2 + iy2) i.e. y1 = y2 3. Sum, difference product and quotient of any two complex numbers is itself a complex number. If x1+iy1 and x2+iy2 be two given complex number. Then (i) their sum = (x1 +x2) + i (y1+y2) (ii) Their difference = (x1- x2) + i(y1- y2) (iv) Their product = x1x2- y1 y2 + i (x1y2+x2y1) (v) Their quotient 4. Every complex number x+iy can always be expanded in the form r (cos + i sin ) The number r = x2+y2 is called the modulus of x+iy and is written as mod (x+iy) or |x+ iy| The angle is called the amplitude or argument of x+iy and is written as amp (x+iy) or arg (x+iy). = tan-1 (y/x) Cos + i sin is briefly written as c is De Moivres Theorem If n be (i) an integer, +ve or - ve (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n (ii) a fraction + ve or ve one of the values of (cos + i sin )n is cos n + isin n . Cis 1 .. Cis 2 Cis n = C is (1+ 2+ ..+ n) (Cos - i Sin )n = Cosn- isin n = (cos + i sin )-n (Cis m )n = Cis mn = (Cis n )m Complex Function If for each value of the complex variable z (= x+iy) in a given region R, we have one or more values of w (= u+iv), then w is said to be a complex function of z and we write w = u (x, y) + I v(x, y) = f (z) where u, v are real functions of x & y. If to each value of z, there corresponds one & only one values of w, then w is said to be a single valued function of z otherwise a multivalued function Eg: w = 1/z is a single valued function W = z is a multivalued function Exponential function of a complex variable The exponential function of the complex variable z = x+iy is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Properties 1. Exponential form of Z = rei 2. ez is periodic function having imaginary period 2 i, 3. ez is not zero for any value of z 4. Circular function of a complex variable The circular functions of the complex variable z is given as
Properties 1. Sin z, cos z are periodic with period 2 , tan z, cot z are periodic with . 2. cos z, sec z are even functions while sinz, cosec z are odd functions 3. Zeros of Sin z are given by z = 2 n & zeroes of cos z are given by z = (2n+1) , n = 0, 1, 2.. Eulers theorem ei = cos + i sin , where is real or complex Hyperbolic functions If x be real or complex (i) (ii) is defined as hyperbolic sine of x [ sin hx] is defined as hyperbolic cosine of x [ cos hx ]
Properties 1.Sin hz & cos hz are periodic with period 2 i 2. cos hz is an even function & sin hz is an odd function 3. Sin ho= 0 , cos ho = 1, tan ho = 0. 4. Relations b/n hyperbolic & circular functions Sin i x = i sin hx Cos i x = cos h x Tanix = i tan hx 5. Formulae of hyperbolic functions cosh2 x- sin h2 x = 1 Sec h2 x+ tan h2 x = 1 Cot h2 x- Cosech2 x = 1 Sin h (xy) Sin hx cos hy cos hx sin hy Cos h ( x y) = cos hx cos hy sin hx sin hy Tan h (x y) = Sin h2x = 2 Sin hx cos hx Cos h2x = cos h2 x + sin h2 x = 2 cos h2 x -1 = 1+2 sin h2 x

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Sin h 3x = 3Sin hx+ 4 Sin h3 x Cos h3x = 4 cosh3 x- 3 Cos hx Tan h 3x =
Sin hx + Sin hy = Sin hx- sin hy Cos h x+ coshy Cos hx- Cos hy Inverse hyperbolic functions Sin h-1 z = log [ Z+ z2+1] Cos h-1 z = log [ z+ z2-1] Tan h-1 z = log [ (1+z)/(1-z)] Logarithmic function of a complex variable If z ( = x + I y) and w ( = u + I v) be so related that ew = z, then w is said to be a logarithm of z to the base e and is written as w = logez. Logarithm of a complex number has an infinite no. of values and is therefore a multi-valued function. Log Z = log (x+ iy) = 2 in + log (x+ iy ) Log (x+ iy) = log ( x2 + y2) + i [ 2n + tan-1 (y/x)].
Exponential series ex = Sine, Cosine, Sin h or Cosh series
Logarithmic series

Gregorys series
Binomial Series
Geometric series a+ar+ar2 + .to n terms = a+ar+ar2+ .. =
Derivative of f(z) The derivative of w = f (z) is defined to be
provided the limit exists and has the same value for all the different ways in which z approaches zero. The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function v(x, y) = f (z) to exist for all values of z in a region R, are (i) (ii) are continuous functions of x & y in R. Cauchy- Riemann equations w = u(x, y)+ i
Analytic functions A function f (z) which is single valued & possess a unique derivative with respect to z at all points of a region R, is called an analytic function of z in that region.

A function which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane is known as an entire function. A point at which an analytic ceases to possess a derivative is called a singular point of the function. If a complex function is one known to be analytic it can be differentiated just in the ordinary way. The real & imaginary parts of an analytic function are called conjugate functions.
Cauchys theorem If f (z) is an analytic function and f1 (z) is continuous at each point within and on a closed curve C, then c f (z) d z= 0 Cauchys integral formula If f (z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
Taylors series If f (z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a, then for z inside C, f (z) = f (a) + f1 (a) (z-a) + Laurents Series If f (z) is analytic in the ring- shaped region R bounded by two concentric circles C and C1 of radii r & r1 ( r > r1) and with centre at a, then for all z in R f (z) = a0 + a1 (z-a) + a2 (z-a)2 + .+ a-1 (z-a)-1 + a-2 (z-a)-2 + .
Where being any curve in R, encircling C1. A zero of an analytic function f (z) is that value of z for which f (z) = 0 Singularities of analytic functions (i) Isolated singularity If z = a is a singularity of f (z) such that f (z) is analytic at each point in its neighbourhood, then z = a is called isolated singularity. (ii) Removable singularity If exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity. (iii) Poles If all the negative powers of (z-a) in f (z) after the nth are missing then the singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n f (z) = a0+ a1(z-a) + a2 (z-a)2+ . + a-1 (z-1)-1 + . A pole of first order is called a simple pole. (iv) Essential Singularity

If the number of negative powers of (z-a) in f (z) is infinite then z = a is called an essential singularity In this case, does not exist.
Residues The coefficient of (z-a)-1 in the expansion of f (z) around an isolated singularity is called the residue of f(z) at that point
Residue theorem If f (z) is analytic in a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular points within C, then x (sum of the residues at the singular points within C). Calculation of residues 1. If f (z) has a simple pole at z = a then Res f (a) =
2. Res f (a ) Where (z) = (z-a) F(z), F(a) 0. 3. If f (z) has a pole of order n at z = a then
Res f (a) =

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 14. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
Let f (t) be a function of t defined for all positive values of t. Then the Laplace transforms of f (t) denoted by L { f (t)} is defined by L { f (t)} = Provided that the integral exists. If f (t) = L-1 { f (s)} then f (t) is called the inverse Laplace transform of f (s). Important Laplace transforms L (1) = L (tn) = L (eat) = L (Sin at ) = L (cos at) = L (sin h at)= L (cos h at ) = L (e at tn) = L (eat Sin bt) = L (eat Cos bt) = L (eat Sinh bt) = L (eat Cosh bt) =
Properties 1. Linearity property If a, b, c be any constants and f, g, h any functions of t then L [ a f (t) + b g (t) c h (t)] = aL { f (t)} + bL { g (t)} c L [ h (+1)}

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 2. First shifting property If L { f (t)} = L { e f (t)} = 3. Change of scale property If L {f (t)} = L { f(at)} = If f (t) is continuous and exists for s > a If f1 (t) be continuous and L {f (t)}= f(s) then L {f1(t)} If f1 (t) and its first (n-1) derivatives be continuous then L {fn (t)} then
at
then
is finite, then the Laplace transform of f(t) i.e.
If L { f (t)} = If L {f (t)} = L { tn f (t) } If L { f (t)} = then then where n = 1, 2, 3, .
ds provided integral exists. Inverse transforms

Convolution theorem If L-1 { } = f (t) and L-1 { } = g (t)
Then L-1 { }= If f (t) is a periodic function with period T, then

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 15. FOURIER TRANSFORMS The fourier transform of f(x) is given by F(s) = The inverse fourier transform of F (s) is given by
The fourier sine transform of f(x) is 0 < x < is
Inverse Fourier sine transform of Fs(s) is
The Fourier cosine transform of f (x) is 0 < x < is Fc(s)= o Inverse Fourier cosine transform of Fc(s) is
The finite fouirier sine transform of f(x) in 0 <x < c, is defined as
The inverse finite fourier sine transform of Fs(n) is given by
The finite fourier cosine transform of f(x) in 0< x< c is defined as
The inverse finite fourier cosine transform of Fc(n) is
Properties 1. Linear property If F(s) & G(s) are fourier transforms of f(x) & g(x) respectively then F[ a f(x) + b g(x)] = a F (s) + b G(s) Where a & b are constants 2. Change of scale property If F(s) is the complex Fourier transform of f(x), then F { f (ax)}

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 3. Shifting property If F(s) is the complex fourier transform of f(x), then F { f(x-a)} = eisa F(s) 4. Modulation theorem If f(s) is the complex fourier transform of f(x) then F{f(x) cos ax} =1/2 [ F(s+a) + F (s-a)] Fs{ f(x) cos ax} = [ Fs (s+a) + Fs (s-a)] Fc{ f(x)sin ax} = [ Fs (s+a) - Fs (s-a)] Fs{ f(x) sin ax} = [ Fs (s-a) Fc (s+a)]
Convolution The convolution of two functions f(x) and g(x) over the interval (- , ) is defined as f * g =
The fourier transform of the convolution f(x) & g(x) is the product of their Fourier transforms i.e. F {f(x) * g (x)} = F {f(x)} . F {g (x)}
Parsevals Identity If the fourier transforms of f(x) & g(x) are F(s) & G(s) then i) ii) Where bar implies the complex conjugate Parsevals identities for fourier sine & cosine transforms are (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Relation between Fourier & Laplace transforms If f (t) = e-xt g (t), t > 0 then = 0, t<0 F {f (t)} = L { g (t)} The Fourier transform of the nth derivative of f(x) is

Inverse Laplace transforms by method of Residues
= Sum of the residues of
at the poles of f(s)
6. Z-TRANSFORMS If the function un is defined for discrete values (n = 0, 1, 2, .) and un = 0 for n < 0, then its ztransform is defined to be
whenever the infinite series converges The inverse Z-transform is written as Z-1 [ U(z)] = un Z- transform U(z)
Standard Z- transforms Sequence un (n0) 1 -1 K n n2 np (n) = 1, n = 0 = 0, n 0 u (n)= 0, n <0 =1n0 an n an n2 an Sin n
1 Z/ Z-1

Cos n an sin n an cos n
Sin hn
Cos hn an sinhn an cos hn an u n un+1 un+2 un+3 un-k n un u0
U (Z/a) z [ U (z) u0] Z2 [ U (z)- u0- u1z-1] z3 [ U(z) u0-u1 z-1-u2 z-2] z-k U (z) - z d/dz [ U (z)]
Properties 1. Linearity property If a, b, c be any constants and un, vn, wn be any discrete functions, then Z(a un+bv n-cwn) = aZ(un) + bZ (vn) cZ(wn) 2. Damping rule If z(un) = U(z) then z(a-n un) = U (az) Z (an un)= U (z/a) 3. Shifting un to the right If z (un) = U (z) then Z (un-k) = z-k U(z), (k > 0] 4. Shifting un to the left If z(un) = U(z) then Z (un+k) = zk [ U(z) u0-u1 z-1- u2 z-2 . -uk-1 z-(k-1)] 5. Multiplication by n If z(un) = U(z) then Z (n un) = - z dU(z)/dz.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Initial value theorem: If z(un) = U(z), then u0 = Final value theorem:If z(un) = U(z) then Some standard inverse Z transforms U(z) Convolution theorem If Z-1[ U (z)] = un and z-1 [ V(z)] = vn then Inverse z- transform un an u (n) (n+1)an u (n) ! (n+1) (n+2) an u (n) an-1 u (n-1) (n-1) an-2 u (n-2)
(n-1) (n-2) an-3 u (n-3)
= un *vn The region of the z-plane in which U(z) converges absolutely is known as region of convergence (ROC) of U(z). For a right sided sequence the ROC is |z| > |a|
.
0
z =a
For a left handed sequence the ROC is |z| < |b|

For a two-sided sequence ROC is |b| < |z| < |c|

0 b c

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 17. PROBABILITY & STATISTICS Permutations The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time is n (n-1) (n-2) (n-r+1)= nPr = The no. of circular permutations formed with n objects is (n-1)!
If the direction is not specified or considered then no. of circular permutations is The no. of permutations of n objects of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike and n3 are alike is
Combinations (or) Selections The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time is
ncn-r = ncr 2n objects can be divided into two equal groups in
(m+n+p) objects can be divided into three groups of m objects, n objects, ways. The number of straight lines drawn through n points on a circle is nc2. The no. of diagonal of a polygon with n vertices is
p objects in
The no. of triangles formed by joining vertices of a polygon with n vertices is nc3 =
Basic Terminology Exhaustive events; A set of events is said to be exhaustive if it includes all the possible events. Mutually Exclusive events: If the occurrence of one of the events procludes the occurrence of all others, then such a set of events is said to be mutually exclusive Equally Likely events: If one of the events cannot be expected to happen in preference to another then such events are said to be equally likely. Odds in favour of an event:

If the number of ways favourable to an event A is m and the no. of ways not favourbale to A is n then odds in favour of A = m/n Odds against A = n/m Probability If there are n exhaustive, mutually exclusive & equally likely cases of which m are favourable to an event A, then probability (P) of happening of A is P (A) = m/n Chance of A not happening is q or P (A1) P (A) + P (A1) = 1 always If an event is certain to happen then its probability is unity. If an event is certain not to happen then its probability is zero.
Statistical (or empirical) definition If in n trials, an event A happens m times, then the probability (p) of happening of A is given by P = p (A) = Random experiment: Experiments which are performed essentially under the same conditions & whose results cannot be predicted are known as random experiments. Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called sample space for that experiment(s). The elements of the sample space S are called the sample points. Event The outcome of a random experiment is called an event. Every subset of a sample space S is an event. The null set is also an event & is called an impossible event. Probability of an impossible event is zero i.e. P () = 0.
Axioms (i) The numerical value of probability lies between 0 & 1. i.e. for any event A of S, 0 p(A) 1. (ii) The sum of probabilities of all sample events is unity i.e. p (s) = 1 (iii) Probability of an event made of two or more sample events is the sum of their probabilities Notations (i) Probability of happening of events A or B is written as P (A+B) or P (AUB) (ii) Probability of happening of both the events A & B is written as P (AB) or P (AB). (iii) Event A implies ( ) event B is expressed as A B. (iv) Event A & B are mutually exclusive is expressed as AB =

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY For any two events A & B P (AB1) = P(A)- P (A B) P (A1B) = P (B) P (A B)
Addition Law of probability (Theorem of Total Probability) If the probability of an event A happening as a result of a trial is P (A) and the probability of a mutually exclusive event B happening is P (B), then the probability of either of the events happening as a result of the trial is P(A+B) or P ( A U B) = P (A) + P (B) If A, B are any two events (not mutually exclusive) then P (A+B) = P (A) + P (B)- P(AB) i.e. P(A UB) = P(A) + P(B) P(AB) Independent events Two events are said to be independent, if happening or failure of one does not affect the happening or failure of the other. Otherwise the events are said to be dependent. Conditional probability For two dependent events A & B, the symbol P (B/A) denotes the probability of occurrence of B, when A has already occurred. It is known as the conditional probability and is read as a probability of B given A`. Multiplication Law of Probability (Theorem of compound probability) If the probability of an event A happening as a result of trial is P (A) and after A has happened the probability of an event B happening as a result of another trial (i.e. conditional probability of B given A) is P (B/A) then the probability of both the events A & B happening as a result of two trials is P (AB) or P(A B) = P (A). P (B/A) The conditional probability of A given B is P (A/B) then P (A B) = P (B). P (A/B) If the events A& B are independent i.e. if the happening of B does not depend on whether A has happened or not, then P (B/A) = P (B) & P(A/B)= P (A). Therefore P (AB) or P (AB) = P (A) . P (B) If P1, P2 be the probabilities of happening of two independent events, then (i) The probability that the first event happens & the second fails is P1 (1-P2) (ii) The probability that both events fail to happen is (1-P1) (1-P2) (iii) The probability that atleast one of the events happens is 1- (1-P1) (1-P2). This is commonly known as their cumulative probability If P1, P2, P3 Pn be the chances of happening of n independent events, then their cumulative probability is 1- (1-p1) (1-p2) (1-p3) (1-pn) Bayes theorem An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B1, B2.Bn If P (Bi) and P (A/Bi) are given then

Random Variable If a real variable x be associated with the outcome of a random experiment, then since the values which x takes depend on chance, it is called a random variable or stochastic variable or simply a variate. If a random variables takes a finite set of values, it is called a discrete variate. If it assumes an infinite number of uncountable values, it is called a continuous variate.
Discrete Probability Distribution If the probability that X takes the values xi, is pi then P (x= xi)= Pi or p (xi) for i = 1, 2 Where (i) p (xi) 0 for all values of i, (ii) p(xi) = 1 The set of values xi with their probability Pi constitutes a discrete probability distribution of the discrete variable X. The distribution function F(x) of the discrete variate X is defined by
F(x) = P (X x) = P (xi) where x is any integer. The distribution function is also sometimes called cumulative distribution function.
Continuous Probability Distribution The probability distribution of a continuous variate x is defined by a function f(x) such that the probability of the variate x falling in the small interval x-1/2 dx to x+1/2 dx is f(x) dx i.e. P (x- dx x x+1/2 dx) = f (x) dx * f (x) is called the probability density function * the continuous curve y = f (x) is called probability curve * the density function f (x) is always positive &
If F(x) = P (X x) = then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or distribution function of continuous variate X. F1(x) = f(x) 0, F(x) is a non-decreasing function. F(- ) = 0 ; F () = 1 = F(b) F(a)
Expectation The mean value () of the probability distribution of a variable X is known as its expectation , discrete distribution , continuous distribution

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Variance
= is the standard deviation of the distribution The rth moment about mean (denoted by r) is defined by r = (xi- )r f (xi), discrete = Mean deviation from the mean is given by |xi- | f(xi), discrete
The probability of r success is ncr Pr qn-r The probability of atleast r successes in n trials = ncr Pr qn-r + ncr+1 Pr+1 qn-r-1 + . + ncn Pn Binomial Distribution If we perform a series of independent trials such that for each trial P is the probability of a success and q that of a failure, then the probability of r successes in a series of n trials is given by P (x =r) =ncr Pr qn-r The probability of the number of successes obtained is called the binomial distribution Mean = np Standard deviation = (npq) Variance = npq Skewness =
Poisson Distribution It is a distribution related to the probabilities of events which are extremely rare, but which have a large number of independent opportunities for occurrence.
Mean = Standard deviation = Variance = Skewness = 1/
Normal Distribution The normal curve is of form

Mean deviation from the mean () Moments about mean 2n+1 = 0 2n = (2n-1) (2n-3) 3.12n Coefficient skewness is zero
where
Mean If x1, x2, x3. Xn are a set of n values of a variate, then the arithmetic mean (or simply mean) is given by
In a frequency distribution if x1, x2, . xn be the mid values of the class intervals having frequencies f1, f2.. fn respectively we have
Median If the values of a variable are arranged in the ascending order of magnitude, the median is the middle item if the number is odd and is the mean of the two middle items if the number is even Median = Where L = Lower limit of the median class. N= total frequency f= frequency of the median class h= width of the median class C= cumulative frequency upto the class preceding the median class Mode The mode is defined as that value of the variable which occurs most frequently, i.e, the value of the maximum frequency Mode = Where L = Lower limit of class containing mode. 1 = excess of modal frequency over freq of the preceding class. 2 = excess of modal freq over following class. h= size of modal class. Curves having a single mode are termed as unimodal, those having two modes as bi-modal and those having more than two modes as multi-modal.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Mean-Mode = 3 (Mean-Median)
Geometric mean If x1 x2, . xn are a set of n observations then the geometric mean is given by G.M= (x1 x2 xn) 1/n Harmonic mean If x1, x2, . Xn be a set of n observations, then the harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the (arithmetic) mean of the reciprocal of the quantities
Standard Deviation ()
Correlation When the changes is one variable are associated or followed by changes in the other, is called correlation. Data connecting such two variables is called bivariate population. If an increase (or decrease) in the values of one variable corresponds to an increase (or decrease) in the other, the correlation is said to be positive. If the increase (or decrease) in one corresponds to the decrease (or increase) in the other, the correlation is said to be negative. If there is no relationship indicated between two variables they are said to be independent or uncorrelated. The numerical measure of correlation is called the coefficient of correlation and is defined by the relation
Where x = deviation from the mean Y = deviation from the mean x = S.D. of x. series y = S.D. of y series n = no. of values of two variables Lines of Regression A line of best fit for the given distribution of dots is called the line of regression. If there are two lines, such that one giving the best possible mean values of y for each specified value of x and the other giving the best possible values of x for given values of y. The former is known as the line of regression of y on x and the latter as the line of regression of x on y. The line of regression of y on x is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY o Slope is called regression coefficient = r y/x The line of regression of x on y is
o Regression coefficient = r x/y The correlation coefficient r is the geometric mean between the two regression co-efficients
i.e. we have * The acute angle between two regression lines is
When (1) r= 0, = /2, the two lines of regression are perpendicular to each other. (2) r = 1, = 0 or , the lines of regression coincide and there is perfect correlation between variables x and y. Rank Correlation A group of n individuals may be arranged in order of merit with respect to some characteristic. The same group would give different orders for different characteristics. Considering the orders corresponding to two characteristics A and B, the correlation between these n pairs of ranks is called the rank correlation in the characteristics A and B for that group of individuals Rank correlation coefficient Where di = xi-yi

18. NUMERICAL METHODS Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental equations To find the roots of an equation f (x) = 0, we start with a known approximate solution and apply any of the following methods. 1. Bisection method:
If f(x) is continuous between a & b, and f(a) & f(b) are of opposite signs then there is a root between a & b.
Let f (a) be-ve & f(b) be +ve, then the first approximation to the root is x1 = (a+b) If f(x1)= 0, then x1 is a root of f(x) = 0. Otherwise, the root lies between a & x1 or x1 & b according as f (x1) is positive or negative. Then we bisect the interval as before and continue the process until the root is found to desired accuracy. 2. Method of false position (or) Regular-falsi method (i)

Here we choose two points x0 & x1 such that f(x0) and f(x1) are of opposite of signs i.e., the graph of y = f(x) crosses the x-axis between these points. This indicates that a root lies between x0 & x1 consequently f (x0) f (x1) < 0 Equation of the chord joining the points A[x0, f(x0)] & B[ x1, f(x1)] is
The method consisting in replacing the curve AB by means of the chord AB and taking the point of intersection of the chord with the x-axis as an approximation to the root.
3. Newton Raphson Method (Order of convergence = 2)
Secant method (1.62)
Iterative formula to find 1/N is xn+1 = xn (2- Nxn) Iterative formula to find N is xn+1 = (xn + N/xn) Iterative formula to find 1/ N is xn+1 = (xn + 1/N xn) Iterative formula to find is
Solution of Non linear simultaneous equations = Newton Raphson method Consider the equations f(x,y) = 0, g (x, y) = 0. If an initial approximation (x0 y0) to a solution has been found by graphical method or otherwise, then a better approximation (x1, y1) as X1 = x0+h, y1 = y0+K so that F(x0 + h, y0+k) = 0 & g(x0 + h, y0 +K)= 0 Finite differences Suppose we are given the following values of y = f(x) for a set of values of x: X: x0 x1 x2 xn Y: y0 y1 y2 yn Then the process of finding the values of y corresponding to any value of x = xi between x0 & xn is called interpolation Interpolation is the technique of estimating the value of a function for any intermediate value of the independent variable. The process of computing the value of the function outside the given range is called extra polation.

1. Forward differences The difference y1-y0, y2-y1, yn-yn-1 when denoted by y0, y1, yn-1 respectively are called the first forward differences where is the forward difference operator. i.e. first forward differences are yr = yr+1 - yr 2 yr = yr+1 - yr p yr = P-1 yr+1 - P-1 yr defined pth forward difference. Forward Difference Table Value of x X0 X0+h X0+2h X0+3h X0 +4h y4 2. Backward differences The differences y1-y0, y2- y1, .. yn yn-1 When denoted by y1, y2, yn respectively, are called the first backward difference where is the backward difference operator yr = yr yr-1 2 yr = yr - yr-1, 3 yr = 2 yr- 2 yr-1 etc. Backward difference table Value of x Value of y X0 y0 Value of y y0 y1 y2 y3 1st diff y0 y1 y2 y3 2nd diff 3rd diff 2y0 2y1 y2
2
3y0 3y1
1st diff y1
2nd diff 3rd diff
y2
3
X0+h
y1 y2
2
y3
y3
3
y4
X0+2h
y2 y3
2
y4
X0+3h X0+ 4h
y3 y4 y4

3. Central differences The central difference operator is defined by y1-y0= y1/2 , y2-y1 = y3/2 . yn- yn-1 = yn-1/2 y3/2 y1/2 = 2 y1, y5/2 y3/2 = 2 y2, .. 2y2 2y1 = 3y3/2 and so on.
Central difference table Value of x Value of y X0 y0 X0+h X0+2h X0+3h X0+ 4h y1 y2 y3 y4
1st diff y1/2 y3/2 y5/2 y7/2
2nd diff 3rd diff 2y1 2y2 y3

2
3y3/2 3y5/2
Newtons forward interpolation formula
Where Newtons backward interpolation formula
Where
Central difference Interpolation Formulae x y 1st diff 2nd diff 3rd diff x0-2h y-2 y-2 (=y-3/2) 2y-2(=2y-1) X0-h X0 X0+h X0 +2h y2 y-1 y0 y1 y-1 (=y-1/2) y0 (=y1/2) y1 (=y3/2)
3y-2 (=3y-1/2)
2y-1 (=2y0) y0(= y1)

2 2
3y-1(=3y1/2)

1. Gausss forward interpolation formula
. In the central difference notation
2. Gausss backward interpolation formula +.. 3. Stirlings formula
4. Bessels Formula
5. Everetts formula
Where P=1-q Interpolation with Unequal intervals 1. Lagranges formula If y = f(x) takes the values y0, y1, . Yn corresponding to x = x0, x1, xn then F(x)= (x-x1) (x-x2) (x-xn) y0 + (x-x0) (x-x2) (x-xn) (x0-x1) (x0-x2).. (x0 xn) (x1-x0) (x1-x2) (x1-xn) y1+ + (x-x0) (x-x1) (x-xn-1) yn (xn-x0) (xn-x1) (xn-xn-1) 2. Divided difference If (x0, y0), (x1, y1), (x2, y2) be given points, then the first divided differences for the arguments x0, x1 is defined by the relation

3. Newtons divided difference formula Y = f(x) = y0 + (x-x0) [ x0, x1] + (x-x0) (x-x1) [ x0, x1, x2] +. Where [x0, x1] = and so on Numerical Integration The process of evaluating a definite integral from a set of tabulated values of the integral f(x) is called numerical integration This process when applied to a function of a single variable is known as quadrature.
1. Newton- Cotes quadrature formula
n = 1, 2, 3, 2. Trapezoidal rule Putting n = 1 is Newton-cotes quadrature formula
[ (y0+yn)+2 (y1+y2++yn-1)] 3. Simpsons one-third rule Putting n = 2 [ (y0+yn)+4 (y1+y3+ +yn-1) +2 (y2+y4++yn-2)] 4. Simpsons three eighth rule Putting n = 3
[ (y0+yn)+3 (y1+y2+y4+y3+..+yn-1)+2 (y3+y6++yn-3)] 5. Weddles rule Putting n = 6

(y0+5y1+y2+6y3+y4+5y5+2y6+5y7+y8+.) Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential equations Methods for finding the solution of first order differential equations of form dy/dx = f (x, y), given y (x0) = y0 are as follows 1. Picards Method First approximation y1 to the solution is y=y0 + y1= y0 + Second approximation y2 = y0 + Third approximation y3= y0 + 2. Taylor series Method y(x) = y0 + (x-x0) (y1)0 + and so on.
3. Eulers Method dy/dx = f (x, y), y (x0) = y0 y1 = y0 + h f (x0, y0) y2 = y1 + hf (x0+h y1) : : yn = yn-1 +h f (x0 + h, yn-1) 4. Modified Eulers Method Y1(1) = y0 + h/2 [ f (x0, y0)+ f (x0 +h, y1)] Y1(2)= y0 + h/2 [ f (x0, y0) + f (x0+h, y1(1))] Y2(1)= y1+h/2[ f (x0+h, y1)+ f (x0+2h, y2)] 5. Runges method Procedure Calculate successively K1 = h f (x0, y0) K2 = h f (x0+ h, y0+ K1) K1 = h f (x0 + h, y0+K1) K3 = h f (x0 + h, y0 + K1) Finally K = 1/6 (K1+4K2+ K3)

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY y = y0 +K is the solution 6. Runge-Kutta method Procedure Calculate successively K1 = h f (x0,y0) K2 = h f (x0+ h, y0+ K1) K3 = h f (x0 +1/2 h, y0+1/2 K2) K4 = h f (x0 + h, y0 + K3) Finally K = 1/6 (K1+2K2+ 2K3+K4) y1 = y0 +K is the solution
7. Predictor-corrector methods (i) Milnes method Given dy/dx = f (x,y) and y = y0 when x = x0; to find an approximate value of y for x = x0+ nh by Milnes method, proceed as follows y0 = y(x0) being given, we compute y1 = y (x0+h), y2 =(x0+2h), y3 = y (x0+3h) by picards or Taylors series method Next we calculate f0 = f(x0 y0), f1 = f (x0+h, y1), f2 = f (x0 + 2h, y2), f3 = f (x0 +3h, y3), then y4 = y0 + 4h/3 (2f1- f2+2f3) called predictor y4 = y2 + h/3 (f2+4f3+f4) called corrector y5 = y (x0 +5h) = y1+ 4h/3 (2f2-f3+2f4) Predictor y5 = y3+ h/3 (f3+4f4+ f5) and so on (ii) Adams- Bashforth method: Given dy/dx = f (x, y) & y0 = y (x0) we compute y-1= y (x0-h), y-2 = y (x0- 2h), y-3= y (x0-3h) by Taylors series or Eulers method or Runge- Kutta method Next we calculate f-1 = f (x0-h, y-1), f-2 = f (x0-2h, y-2) f-3 f(x0-3h, y-3) y1 = y0 + h/24 (55f0- 59f-1 +37f-2 -9f-3) Adams- Bashforth predictor formula y1= y0+ h/24 [ 9f1+19f0-5f-1+f-2) Correctors formula.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY GATE OLD QUESTION PAPERS GATE-2005 One Mark Questions 1. The following differential equation has
a. degree = 2, order = 1 c. degree= 4, order = 3
b. degree= 1, order = 2 d. degree= 2, order = 3
2. A fair dice is rolled twice. The probability that an odd number will follow an even number is
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. A solution of the following differential equation is given by a. y = e2x + e-3x c. y = e-2x + e3x b. y = e2x + e3x d. y = e-2x + e-3x
GATE- 2005 Two Marks Questions 4. In what range should Re(s) remain so that the Laplace transform of the function e(a+2)t+5 exits. a. Re (s) > a+2 c. Re (s) < 2 b. Re (s) > a+7 d. Re (s) > a + 5
5. Given the matrix
, the eigen vector is
a.
b.
c.
d.
6. Let
and
Then (a+b) =

a.
b.
c.
d.
7. The value of the integral a. 1 c. 2
is b. d. 2
8. The derivative of the symmetric function drawn in given figure will look like
a.
b.
c.
d.
9. Match the following and choose the correct combination Group-I E. Newton-Raphson method F. Rung-kutta method G. Simpsons Rule H. Gauss elimination Group-II 1. Solving nonlinear equations 2. Solving linear simultaneous equations 3. Solving ordinary differential equations 4. Numerical integration 5. Interpolation

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 6. Calculation of Eigen values a. E-6, F-1, G-5, H-3 c. E-1, F-3, G-4, H-2 b. E-1, F-6, G-4, H-3 d. E-5, F-3, G-4, H-1
10. Given an orthogonal matrix
a.
b.
c. GATE-2006 One Mark Questions
d.
11. The rank of the matrix a. 0 c. 2 12. a. P x c.

2
is
b. 1 d. 3 x x P, where P is a vector is equal to xPP+ xP

2
b. d.
P+ .P)-
(
2
x P) P
13.
,where P is a vector, is equal to
a.
P. d
b.
xP. d
c.
x P. d
d.
.P dv
14. A probability density function is of the form p(x) = Ke-|x| , x (-,)

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY The value of K is a. 0.5 c, 0.5 a. e-2tu(t) c. e-t u(t) d. b. 1
15. A solution for the differential equation b. e2tu(t) d.et u(t)
(t) + 2x(t) = (t) with initial condition x(0-) = 0 is
16. A low-pass filter having a frequency response H(j) = A () ej() does not produce any phase distortion if a. A () = C2, () = k3 b. A () = C2, () = k3 c. A () = C, () = k2 d. A () = C, () = k-1 GATE-2006 Two Marks Questions 17. The eigen values and the corresponding eigen vectors of a 2 x 2 matrix are given by Eigen value Eigen vector
1 = 8
2 = 4 The matrix is
a.
b.
c.
d.
18. For the function of a complex variable W = In z (where, W = u + jv and Z = x + jy, the u = constant lines get mapped in Z-plane as a. set of radial straight lines c. set of confocal hyperbolas b. set of concentric circles d. set of confocal ellipses
19. The value of the contour integral a. j /2 b. - /2
|z-j|=2
dz in positive sense is

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY c. -j/2 d. /2
20. The integral a. 1/2 c. 4/3
sin3 d is given by b. 2/3 d. 8/3
21. Three companies X, Y and Z supply computers to a university. The percentage of computers supplied by them and the probability of those being defective are tabulated below Company % of computers Supplied X Y Z 60% 30% 10% Probability of being defective 0 .01 0.02 0.03
Given that a computer is defective, the probability that it was supplied by Y is a. 0.1 c. 0.3 b. 0.2 d. 0.4
22. For the matrix
the eigen value corresponding to the eigen vector
a. 2 c. 6
b. 4 d. 8
23. For the differential equation (i) y = 0 for x = 0 and (ii) y = 0 for x = a
the boundary conditions are
The form of non-zero solutions of y (where m varies over all integers) are
a.
b.
c.
d.
24. As x increased from - to , the function f (x) = a. monotonically increases

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY b. monotonically decreases c. increases to a maximum value and then decreases d. decreases to a minimum value and then increases GATE-2007 One Mark Questions
25. The following plot shows a function y which varies linearly with x. The value of the integral I
y dx is
Y 3 2 1 3 X
-1
a. 1.0 c. 4.0
b. 2.5 d. 5.0 b. x2 d. 1/x2
26. For |x| << 1, coth (x) can be approximated as a. x c. 1/x
27. a. 0.5 c. 2 b. 1 d. not defined
28. Which one of the following is stricity bounded? a. 1/x2 c. x2 a. (3-x) e-2 c. [3+2 2- (1+ 2) x] e-2 b. ex d. e-x2
29. For the function e-x the linear approximation around x = 2 is b. 1-x d. e-2

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY GATE-2007 Two Marks Questions
30. It is given that X1, X2. XM are M non-zero orthogonal vectors. The dimension of the vector space spanned by the 2M vectors X1, X2 XM, X1, a. 2M b. M+1 c. M d. dependent on the choice of X1, X2 XM 31. Consider the function f(x) = x2 x-2. The maximum value of f(x) in the closed interval [-4, 4] is a. 18 c. -2.25 b. 10 d. indeterminate - X2, - XM is
32. An examination consists of two papers, Paper 1 and Paper 2. The probability of failing in Paper 1 is 0.3 and that in Paper 2 is 0.2. Given that a student has failed in Paper 2, the probability of failing in Paper 1 is 0.6. The probability of a student failing in both the papers is a. 0.5 c. 0.12 b. 0.18 d. 0.06
33. The solution of the differential equation (i) y = y1 at x= 0 and (ii) y = y2 at x = , where k, y1 and y2 are constant is a. y = (y1 y2) exp(-x/k2) + y2 b. y = (y2 y1) exp (-x/k) + y1 c. y = (y1 y2) sin h(x/k) + y1 d. y = (y1-y2) exp (-x/k) + y2
under the boundary conditions
34. The equation x3- x2 + 4x -4 = 0 is to be solved using the Newton- Raphson method. If x = 2 is taken as the initial approximation of the solution, then the next approximation using this method will be a. 2/3 c. 1 b. 4/3 d. 3/2
35. Three functions f1 (t), f2(t) and f3(t) which are zero outside the interval [0, T] are shown in the figure. Which of the following statements is correct?

a. f1(t) and f2 (t) are orthogonal b. f1(t) and f3(t) are orthogonal c. f2(t) and f3(t) are orthogonal d. f1(t) and f2(t) are orthonormal 36. If the semi-circular contour D of radius 2 is as shown in the figure. Then the value of the
integral
j
is
0 -j2 0
D 2
a. j c.
b. j d.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY GATE-2008 One Mark Questions
37. All the four entries of the 2 x 2 matrix values is zero. Which of the following statements is true? a. p11 p22 p12 p21 = 1 c. p11 p22 p12 p21 = 0 4x+ 2y = 7 2x+y = 6 has a. a unique solution b. no solution c. an infinite number of solutions d. exactly two distinct solutions 39. The equation sin (z) = 10 has a. no real or complex solution b. exactly two distinct complex solutions c. a unique solution d. an infinite number of complex solutions b. p11 p22 p12 p21 = -1 d. p11 p22 + p12 p21 = 0
are nonzero, and one of its eigen
38. The system of linear equations
40. For real values of x, the minimum value of the function f(x)= exp (x) + exp (-x) is a. 2 c. 0.5 b. 1 d. 0
41. Which of the following functions would have only odd powers of x in its Taylor series expansion about the point x = 0? a. sin (x3) c. cos (x3) b. sin (x2) d. cos (x2)
42. Which of the following is a solution to the differential equation a. x(t) = 3e-t c. x(t) = (-3/2) t2 b. x(t) = 2e-3t d. x(t) = 3t2

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY GATE-2008 Two Marks Questions 43. The recursion relation to solve x = e-x using Newton Raphson method is
a.
b.
c.
d.
44. The residue of the function f(z) =
a.
b.
c.
d.
45. Consider the matrix
The value of eP is
a.
b.
c.
d. 46. In the Taylor series expansion of exp(x) + sin (x) about the point x = , the coefficient of (x)2 is a. exp () c, exp () + 1 b. 0.5 exp () d. exp () -1

47. The value of the integral of the function g(x,y) = 4x3 + 10y4 along the straight line segment from the point (0,0) to the point (1,2) in the x-y plane is a. 33 c. 40 b. 35 d. 56
48. Consider points P and Q in the x-y plane, with P = (1, 0) and Q= (0,1). The line integral
along the semicircle with the line segment PQ as its diameter a. is-1 b. is 0 c. is 1 d depends on the direction (clockwise or anticlockwise) of the semicircle GATE-2009 One Mark questions
49. The order of the differential equation a. 1 c. 3 b. 2 d. 4
+ y 4 = e-t is
50. A fair coin is tossed 10 times. What is the probability that Only the first two tosses will yield heads?
a.
b.
c.
d.
51. If f(z) = c0 + c1z-1, then a. 2 C1 c. 2 jC1 b. 2 (1+C0) d. 2 j (1+C0)
dz is given by
GATE-2009 Two Marks Questions at x = is given by
52. The Taylor series expansion of
a.
b. Email: onlineies.com@gmail.com Site: www.onlineIES.com
c.
d.
53. Match each differential equation in Group I to its family of solution curves from Group II Group I Group II
a.
1. Circles
b.
2. Straight lines
c.
3. Hyperbolas
d.
a. A-2, B-3, C-3, D-1 c. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-3
b. A-1, B-3, C-2, D-1 d. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-2
54. The eigen values of the following matrix are a. 3, 3 + 5j, 6-j c. 3 + j, 3-j, 5 + j b. -6, + 5j, 3 + j, 3-j d. 3, -1 + 3j, -1-3j

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY ANSWERS & EXPLANTIONS 1. (b) Order is highest derivative term. Degree is power of highest derivative term.
2. (d)
Since both events are independent of each other.
P(odd/even) = 3. (b) A.E. D2 5D + 6 = 0
(D-2) (D-3) = 0 D = 2, 3 Therefore y = e2x + e3x 4. (a) f(t)= e(a+2) t+5 = e5.e(a+2)t
Therefore for L.T. to exists, Re (s) > a + 2 5. (c)
A- I = 0
(-4- ) (3- ) -8 = 0 -12 + 4 -3 + 2- 8 = 0 2 + 20 = 0

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY ( +5) (-4) = 0 Therefore = -5, 4
Let eigen vector be Putting 1 = - 5
m1 + 2m2 = 0 Taking the value m1 = 2 & m2 = -1 Thus the eigen vector correspondence to eigen value 1 = -5 is
Again, eigen vector X2 corresponding to eigen value 2 = 4 is
-8m1 + 2m2 = 0 4m1 m2 = 0 - 8m1 = - 2m2
m1 = - 4; m2 = - 1
m1 = -2, m2 = - 8
When = -5,

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 6. (a) [AA-1]= I
- 2a-0.1b=0, 3b = 1
b = 1/3
7. (a)
Comparing with
Here = 0
8. (c) Given function has negative slope in +ve half and +ve slope in ve half. So its differentiation curve is satisfied by (c).

9. (C) 10. (c) [AAT]-1 = I For orthogonal matrix AAT = I i.e. unity matrix Inverse of I = I 11. (c) R3 R1- R3
Therefore Rank = 2 12. (d) From vector triple product. A x (B x C) = B (A.C)- C(A. B) A= x ,B= xP= , C=P ( .P) P ( . )= ( .P) 2
13. (a)
( X P) ds =
P.d (strokes Theorem)
14. (c)

2K= K = 0.5
15. (a) (t) + 2x(t) = (t) Taking L.T. on both sides sX(s) x(0) + 2X(s) = 1 X(s) [s+2] = 1
X(t) = e-2t u(t) 16. (b)
For distortion less transmission Phase response should be linear () = K 17. (a) [I-A] = 0
(-6)2 4 = 0 = 8, 4 * By property of eigen matrix sum of diagonal elements should be equal to sum of values of .
18. (b) W= nZ = loge z u + jv= loge (x+jy) = log (x2 + y2) + itan-1 (y/x) u is constant

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY log (x2 + y2) = C X2 + Y2 = C [equation of circle having same centre (0, 0)]
19. (d)
Polo (0,2) lies enside the circle |z-j| = 2 By Cauchys integral formula.
| z-j| = 2
20. (c)
, Let cos = t
-sin d = dt, = 0, cos 0 = 1 = t = , cos =-1 = t
= I = (2/3) + (2/3) = 4/3 21. (d) S supply by y d defective

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Probability that the computer was supplied by y, if the product is defective
P(s d) = 0.3 x 0.02 = 0.006 P (d) = 0.6 x .01 + 0.3 x 0.02 + 0.1 x 0.03 = 0.015
22. (c)
Given eigen vector
(4- ) (101) + 2(101) = 0 =6 23. (a) D2 + K2 = 0 D = jK Y = A cos Kx + jB sin kx At x= 0, y = 0 x=a, y =0
4- + 2 = 0
A = 0, y = jB sin kx
0 = B sinka
B 0 else y = 0 always Sinka = 0

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 24. (a)
At x , functions value increases.
25. (b) Y=X+1
= (9-4) = 2.5
26. (c)
27. (a)
28.(d)
y y
y= 1/x
y= e


y
y= x2
y= e
-x2
29. (a)
30. (c)
31. (a) f (x) = x2 x 2 = (x+1) (x-2) f(-4) = 18 f (+4) = 10
f(x) is maximum in interval [-4, 4] at x = -4 32. (c) P (A) = 0.2 P (B) = 0.3 P (A/B) = 0.6 A failing in paper 1 B failing in paper 2

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Prop. of failing in both P (AB) = P(A/B) x P(B) = 0.6 x 0.2 = 0.12
33. (d)
Complementary function
y = C1ex/k + C2 x/k . (1) X = 0; y = y1 = C1 + C2 (2) X = ; y = y2 34. (b) f (x) = x3 x2 + 4x-4 = 3x2 2x+4 f(2) = 8
f(2) = 12
35. (c) Two functions f(x) & g(x) are said to be orthogonal if

= =0 36. (a)
= 2j x (sum of residne) Residue at pole s = -1 is 0 Residue at pole s = 1 is
37. (c) Eigen values are the roots of the determinant formed by matrix [si-P]
[sI-P] = 0
(s-p11) (s-p22) p12p21 = 0
S2 (p11 + p22) s+p11p22 p11 p22 p12p21 = 0 Since, one of the its eigen values is zero, therefore, putting s = 0 P11p22 p12p21 = 0 Which is the desired condition 38. (b) The system can be written in matrix from as
The Augmented matrix [A | B] is given by

4 2 2 1 7 6
Performing Gauss elimination on this [A|B] as follows:

4 2
2 1
7 6
_ 2 R _ R1 2 4 _ 1 = R _ R1 2 2
4 0
2 0
7 5/2
Now Rank [A|B]= 2 (The number of non-zero rows in [A|B] Rank [A] =1 (The number of non-zero rows in [A]) Since Rank [A|B] Rank [A] The system has no solution
39. (a) Sin (z) = 10 Since maximum value of sin (z) = 1, Therefore, the above equation has no real or complex solutions 40. (a) f(x) = ex + e-x
Arithmetic mean of ex and 1/ex is
Geometric mean of ex and 1/ex is
It is known that A.M. G.M.
Therefore, (ex + e-x) min = 2 41. (a)

42. (b) (D+3) X(t) = 0 D=-3 So, x(t) = CeDt = Ce-3t
43. (c) The given equation to be solved is x = e-x Which can be rewritten as f (x) = x- e-x = 0 = 1 + e-x The Newton-raphson iterative formula is
44. (a) Since is finite and non-zero, f(z) has a pole of order two at z=2
The residue at z = a is given for a pole of order n as
Res f(a) = Here n = 2 (pole of order 2) & a = 2
Res f (2)

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY = [-2 (z+2)-3 ] z=2
46. (b) f (x) = ex + sin x we wish to expand about x = Taylors series expansion about X = a is
Now about x = f (x) = f() + (x- ) () +
The coefficient of (x- )2 is Here f(x) = ex + sinx (x) = ex + cosx (x) = ex _sinx () = e sin = e 0 = e The coefficient of (x- )2 is
47. (a) Equation of straight line from point (0,0) to (1,2) is
Or Y = 2x G (x,y) = 4x3 + 10 y4 = 4x3 + 10 (2x)4 = 4x3 + 160x4

= 1 + 32 = 33
48. (b)
49. (b) Hieghest derivative of differential equation is 2
51. (d) f(z)= c0 + c1 z-1
Unit circle It has one pole at origine
So
52. (b)

Now f () = 0 () = -1/6 so the expansion is f(x) = -1 + (-1/6) (x- )2 +..
53. (a)
A.
log y = log x + log c = log cx Y = cx.. Equation of straight line
B.
log y = -log x + log c log yx = log c yx = c y = c/x.. Equation of hyperbola.
C.

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY y2 x2= c2
D.
x2 + y2 = c2. Equation afcircle
54. (d) Sum of the eigen values are the sum of the principle diagonal element of the matrix Sum of the diagonal current = 3-1-1 =1 Sum of the eigen values = 3-1 + 3j-1-3j = 3-1-1 =1 Hence (d) option is correct.


Jeevan Maths

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Jeevan Maths

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY INDEX 1. Solutions of Equations 2. Matrices 3. Geometry 4. Differentiation 5. Partial Differentiation 6. Integration 7. Vector Calculus 8.

1 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

Quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 has roots

2 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

3 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

is called det of III order

4 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

5 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

Symmetric A square matrix A = [aii] is said to be symmetric when aij = aji

Skew symmetric If aij = - aji

i & j so that all the leading diagonal elements are zero

6 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

7 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

8 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

9 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

10 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

11 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

is said to be Hermitian matrix

3. Skew Hermitian Matrix A square matrix A such that AT =

is said to be a skew Hermitian matrix.

is called a unitary matrix.

12 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 3. GEOMETRY Co-ordinate of a point

Triangle A (x1y1) B (x2y2), C (x3, y3) * Area

* Centroid (point of intersection of medians) is

* Incentre (point of intersection of internal bisectors of angle)

13 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

14 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Parabola

Parametric equations are x = a cos , y = b sin

15 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY Hyperbola

Parametric equations are x= a sec , y = b tan

Nature of a Conic The equation ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c = 0 represents

16 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

Curved surface area 4a

Total surface area 6a2 2(lb+bh+hl) 4r2 2r(r+h) r (r+l)

lbh (4/3) r r2h

5. Cone (base radius r, height h) [ l= r2+h2] (1/3) r2h

17 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

Dn (amx)= mn (loga)n . a mx Dn (emx) = mn emx

18 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

19 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

20 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY

* Partial derivating of x with respect to y is given by

* Sometimes we may use the notation

If u f(x, y) where x = (f) & y = (t) then total derivative is given by

If f (x, y) = c be an implicit relation between x and y then

21 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

22 | Bringing the best to Guntur #9848896652

JEEVAN ENGINEERS ACADEMY 6. INTEGRATION Some Standard Integration Formulae