NON-EQUILIBRIUM PHENOMENA IN A DISC-SHAPED

MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR
by
A. Veefkind
TECHNISCHE HOGESCHOOL EINDHOVEN
NEDERLAND
AFDELING DER ELEKTROTECHNIEK
GROEP DIREKTE ENERGIE OMZETTING
EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
THE NETHERLANDS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
GROUP OF DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION
NON-EQUILIBRIUM PHENOMENA IN A DISC-SHAPED
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR
by
A. Veefkind
TH-Report 70-E-]]
March ]970
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was performed as a part of the research program
of the group Direct Energy Conversion of the Eindhoven
University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
The author wishes to express his most sincere thanks to
Dr. L.R.Th. Rietjens, head of the group Direct Energy
Conversion, for his constant interest in this work and
for the fruitful discussions. The indispensable technical
assistance of Mr. C.J. Sielhorst is most gratefully
acknowledged.
- I -
CONTENTS
SUMMARY
NOMENCLATURE
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER III
CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER V
CHAPTER VI
Introduction
Basic equations
Geometry of the disc generator
Stationary solutions of the basic equations
IV.I Introduction
IV.2 Temperature, density and radial flow
3
4
10
IS
20
25
25
velocity of the electron gas 26
IV.3 Radial flow velocity and temperature of
the heavy particles and density of the
neutral particles 31
IV.4 Electrical conductivity and Hall parameter 33
Critical values of the Hall parameter with
respect to ionisation instabilities
V.I Introduction
V.2 First order perturbation equations
V.3 The calculation of critical values of the
35
35
35
Hall parameter for some special cases 38
V.3.1 The region where the Saha equation is valid 38
V. 3.2 The ionisation relaxation region 41
Experimental arrangement 47
CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER VIII
CHAPTER IX
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
- 2 -
Measurements
VII. 1
VII.2
VII. 3
Image convertor camera pictures
Electrostatic probe measurements
Electrode voltage and floating potential
measurements
VII.4 Spectroscopic measurements
VII.5 l1icrowave measurements
VII.6 Piezo-electric crystal measurements
Discussion of the experimental results
Conclusions
Tables at the calculation of critical values
of the Hall parameter in the case of no Saha
equilibrium
53
53
54
63
70
75
79
81
,88
91
96
- 3 -
SUMMARY
The work presented describes the non-equilibrium phenomena of a
medium flowing through a magnetohydrodynamic generator, especially
when a disc-shaped Hall generator is involved.
A set of basic equations is composed of conservation equations
obtained from Boltzmann's equation, and of simplified Maxwell's
equations. The basic equations describe the behaviour of the
electron density, the neutral density, the electron velocity,
the velocity of ions and neutrals, the electron temperature, the
temperature of ions and neutrals, and the electric field, throughout
the generator. One-dimensional and stationary solutions demonstrate
the development of electron temperature elevation and non-equilibrium
ionisation. Also starting from the basic equations, and using first-
order perturbation theory, critical Hall parameters are derived, at
which ionisation instabilities begin to develop.
A pulsed experiment is carried out in a disc-shaped channel, using
pure argon as a medium, at pressures of about 10 Torr and temperatures
of about 5000 OK. Various diagnostic methods are applied, viz. high-
speed photography, electrostatic probes, spectroscopy, a piezo-electric
crystal, and microwave techniques. Thus, information has been obtained
on the electron temperature, the electron density, the neutral
density, the flow velocity, and the electrical potential of the plasma.
Clear evidence of electron temperature elevation has been found,
whereas no non-equilibrium ionisation has been measured. A considerable
influence of ionisation instabilities on the Hall electric field is
measured. The experimental results are discussed and compared with the
theoretical predictions.
- 4 -
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols
A
A1 '
A2
A
P
a
+'
a
-+
B
B
0
b
C
P
C
v
c
D
-+
E
E"
-+
EH
EH
ErR
-+
EL
E
exa
E.
1a
E
m
e
-+
e
r
electron energy loss owing to elastic collisions
microwave amplitudes
probe area
slopes of the asymptotes to the electrostatic probe
characteristic
magnetic induction
value of the magnetic induction in the centre of the
disc
length of the longest side of the wave guide cross
section
specific heat at constant pressure
specific heat at constant volume
length of electrode segment
hydraulic diameter
electric field
induced electric field
Hall electric field
ionisation energy of hydrogen
energy lost or gained by the electrons owing to
ionisations and recombinations
electric field component corresponding to the Lorentz
force
energy corresponding to the lowest excited state
ionsation energy
energy corresponding to excited state m
charge on the electron
unit vector in the radial direction
f
g'
o
h
I
I.
L
i
p
i
po
7
J
+
K
k
L
M
m
N
m
N

- 5 -
friction coefficient
distribution function of particles belonging to species i
weight factor of the ion ground state
weight factor of the excited state m
channel heigth
reduced Planck's constant
number of ionisations per unit volume per unit time
satured ion current towards the electrostatic probe
probe current
probe current corresponding to the centre of the
current-voltage characteristic
current density
current density component corresponding to the Hall
effect
current density component corresponding to the Lorentz
force
wave vector
Boltzmann's constant
ionisation rate coefficient
recombination rate coefficient
generator length
Mach number
Mach number related to the radial veloctiy
mass of an argon ion or neutral atom
mass of a particle belonging to species i
population of excited state m
refraction coefficient of the plasma
refraction coefficient of the wave guide
refraction coefficient of the window
n
n
ecr
n
g
n ~
n
q
p
p
Pe
Pg
Q
e2
q
R
R
R
R
1
,
ReD
R
m
R
u
r
r
Le
r
Li
s
T
T
0
T (R)
E,M
T
g
T2
R2
- 6 -
heavy particle density
critical electron density
total particle density
density of particles belonging to species 2
principal quantum number
dimensionless representation of the gas pressure
heavy particle pressure
electron pressure
total gas pressure
collision cross section referring to elastic collisions
between electrons and particles belonging to species 2
integer number
dimensionless representation of the radius
number of recombinations per unit volume per unit time
reflexion coefficient
responses of the crystals in the microwave bridge
Reynolds' number related to the hydraulic diameter
resistance in electrostatic probe circuit
load resistance
radius
electron giration radius
ion giration radius
electrode pitch
heavy particle temperature
stagnation temperature
dimensionless parameter representing the interaction of
the electric and magnetic fields with the gas in the
disc generator
total gas temperature
temperature of species 2
t
t I t
2
t3
t. t
out ~ n
U
R
...
u
...
u
g
...
uR.
V
m
Vfl
V
oc
V
p
V
po
V
pl
V
pl
...
v
z
z
"
...
y
t::.R.
t::.Pe
t::.T
e
t::.Vfl
M
- 7 -
time
times on which probe signals are examined
plasma passage times at the inner and outer electrode
rings
dimensionless representation of the radial flow velocity
heavy particle flow velocity
total gas flow velocity
flow velocity of species R.
voltage measured in the electrostatic probe circuit
floating potential
open circuit voltage
probe voltage
probe voltage corresponding to the centre of the current-
voltage characteristic
plasma potential
plasma volume
particle velocity
axial coordinate
nuclear charge
ionisation-recombination parameter
first order term of the quotient of the electron pressure
gradient and the electron density
difference of the lengths of the two paths in the
microwave bridge
electron pressure difference between the electrodes of
the disc
electron temperature difference between the electrodes
of the disc
floating potential difference between the electrodes of
the disc
phase difference introduced by the unequal p a t ~ s in the
microwave bridge
Ii

a

r
K
A.
,
A.
'n
v
v
c
V"),
e ~
P
g
D
Deff
T disch
~
"
st
i
,
"r
W
wr
WT
- 8 -
parameter for the influence of the electron density
gradient in the zeroth order electron energy equation
permittivity of vacuum
relative permittivity
load factor
reduction parameter corresponding to electrode
segmentation
wave length
Debije shielding length
electron mean free path
ion mean free path
characteristic length corresponding to electron inertia
neglection
viscosity coefficient
microwave frequency
total electron elastic collision frequency
collision frequency relating to momentum transfer at
elastic collisions between electrons and particles of
species .
collision frequency relating to energy transfer at
elastic collisions between electrons and particles of
species R.,
total gas mass density
electrical conductivity
effective electrical conductivity
delay time between the opening of the valve and the
discharge of the capacitor bank
phase angle
angular frequency corresponding to ionisation instabilities
imaginary and real part of "
angular frequency of microwaves
plasma frequency
Hall parameter
WT(O)
cr
wTeff
WT (0)
stab
Szpersanpts
(0)
(I)
Subs anp ts
a
e
i
m, n
r, ~ , z
x, y, z
Shorts
ETE
LTE
MIlD
NEI
- 9 -
critical Hall parameter
effective Hall parameter
Hall parameter at the stability limit
zeroth order perturbation
first order perturbation
averaged
neutral particles
electrons
ions
gas species
excited states
cylindrical coordinates
Cathesian coordinates
electron temperature elevation
local thermodynamic equilibrium
magnetohydrodynamic
non-equilibrium ionisation
- 10 -
C HAP T E R I
Introduction
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) electrical power generation might be used
after 1980 in various applications:
- MHD open cycle systems will be suitable to produce electrical
energy On a large scale (1000 MWe) from fossil fuels. High
efficiencies (50 %) are expected from combinations of I1HD and
conventional systems. Already now, experimental MHD generators in
open cycles are capable of converting 6 % of the thermal energy
of the medium into electrical energy at an output of 30 MW
(ref. 1.1).
- Closed cycle MHD generators using liquid metals as working media
are promising with respect to space travel application. The media
of these generators consist of liquid alkali metals, mixed with
a gaseous component, such as vaporised alkali metals, argon
helium or nitrogen. They will be heated by a nuclear source. MHD
power conversion employing liquid metals might be suitable to
supply electrical energy in spacecraft, because of the high
energy production rate per unit mass (compare ref. 1.2).
- The MHD closed cycle systems using gaseous media are orignially
intended to convert the thermal energy of gas cooled nuclear
reactors into electrical energy. The media to be used are inert
gases, viz. helium or argon. Application of this type of MHD
conversion cannot be expected before 1990, the mean reason being
the mismatch of the parameters of the gases to be employed in
the reactors and in the MHD generators in the present stage of
their development. Up to now, the pressure of the gases used in
o
gas cooled reactors is > 20 atm and the temperature < 1600 K,
whereas the MHD generators will work at a pressure < 10 atm and
a temperature ~ 2000 oK.
- The problems connected with the use of a nuclear heat source are
avoided in the mixed cycle systems (ref. 1.3). In these systems
the heat is produced by fossil fuels and is transferred by means
- II -
of a heat exchanger to a closed cycle MHD system employing an
inert gas.
The main problem related to closed cycle systems with gaseous media
is how to achieve a sufficiently high electrical conductivity of the
gas. At temperatures of about 2000 oK and pressures between I and 10
atm, being the practical gas conditions, the electrical conductivity
is too low for a sufficient energy production. Therefore, an
additional enhancement of the degree of ionisation is necessary.
An important improvement of the conductivity is obtained by seeding
the gas with easily ionising materials (alkali metals). Another
method of enhancing the ionisation rate is suggested by Kerrebrock
(ref. 1.4). He has demonstrated that for a high pressure arc
containing 1 atm argon + 0.4 % potassium the electrical conductivity
depends on the current density in a way which can be explained by
considering the gas to be a two temperature plasma with the electron
temperature higher than the gas temperature and with a degree of
ionisation given by the Saha equation at the electron temperature.
As the electron temperature elevation (ETE) appeared to be described
by the balance of Joule heating and elastic collisional losses of
the electron gas, the non-equilibrium ionisation (NEI) seemed to be
promising for the development of closed cycle MHD generators, also
because the employment of rare gases is advantageous with respect to
ETE owing to the low cross-section for electron-atom elastic
collisions in those media. However, the realisation of a two temperature
plasma connected with a suitable NEI in MHD generators appears to be
a complicated problem. Table 1.1 gives a review of recent MHD generator
experiments concerning non-equilibrium phenomena. It can be seen from
the table that there is good evidence for magnetically induced
increment of the electron temperature and density in MHD generators.
The experiments, however, deal with several loss mechanisms, which
affect the behaviour of the non-equilibrium generators. Some of these
mechanisms are extremely favoured by the non-equilibrium situation
itself. Typical losses are: electrode short-circuiting through hot
boundary layers, the existence of ground loops, electrode voltage
drops, non-uniform conductivity due to electrode segmentation,
Ref. type type medium u T P B diagnostics effect reported discussion
..;
,
0
experiment generator (m/sec)
(oK) (atm) (1) of results ;;
1.5 shock linear. A 980 - 1350 - 0.9 - 0.88 electrical enhancement ne non-equilibrium
tube segmented +0.5%Cs 1150 1950 0.43 output and Te calculated behaviour affected by
electrodes from WT and 0 radiation losses and
~
0
~ .
non-uniformity; if
0
<
accounted for these
0
effects. agreement
~
with theory
0
"
."
1.6, shock linear. Xe 1000 5700 I 0.25 - electrical enhancement ne agreement with theory;
0
" 1.7 tube segm. e1. + 0.5 % H 2.25 output and Te calculated non-equi I ibrium a
A 1710
5100 0.4 2.25 - form WT and a phenomena strongly
0
0
2.6 affected by loss "
"
mechanics
n
0
1.8 plasma linear, 70 % He 2350 600 0.05 1.3 electrical small enhancement only small evidence of
0
n
jet segm. e1. + 30 % A output of 0; voltage electron heating and
0
" oscillation magnetically induced
e.
ionisation
0
""
1.9 closed 1 inear, He < G. I 1060 1700 I 2 electrostatic enhancement of 0 agreement with theory
0
~
loop segm. e1. - 3 ,
C probes
0
n
1.10 closed linear, He < 2 % 240 1300 1.3 Z. IS electrical no effect induced field to small
N
"
"
0
loop segm. e1. C, output
0
1.11 blow linear, He < '" 2500 900 0.3 - 1.4 electrical Te enhancement non-equilibrium
down segm. e1. 0.23 % C, 0.6 output;
calculated from behaviour stronly
electrical wTeff affected by loss
" 0
~
0
"
potential; mechanisms and
continuum relaxation phenomena

" c
"
-<adiad""
~
0
I. J 7. shock disc A' 1400
,
1700 1.3 3.4 continuum ne enhancement non-equilibrium
tube I % C,
radiation from radiation ionisation accompanied
measurements by large ne fluctuation
~
0
<
,
"
-.
0
1.13 plasma linear, A + 0.1
,
700 1500 - I 0.2 electrical enhancement ne non-equilibrium
jet segm. e1. - 3 % K 3000 potential and Te calculated behaviour strongly
from w1eff influenced by
boundary layers
0
~
0-
0
g
I. 14 blow linear, He + 200 - 1200 - 1.2 2.7 electrical no effect currents to small
down segm. e1. o. I % K 1000 1700 - 2 output
,
0
~
~ .
1. 15 closed linear, He + 1417 1403 0.65 0.5 - electrical no effect influence loss
loop se.emented O.IS%C
s I. 97 output mechanism too strong
~
tr
~ .
1.16 blo .... linear, He +
1400 - 1500 I 4.5 electrical enh ancemen t of 0 non-equilibrium
down segm. e1. 2 - 5 % c, 2000 output behaviour strongly
-.
affected by losses;
0
0
accounting for them
_.
"
3.1!reemen t yi th theo!.L
,
" -.
0
?
- 13 -
radiation losses, and ionisation instabilities. These losses have
to be calculated very carefully before non-equilibrium phenomena
can be interpreted and in many cases a quantitative understanding
remains difficult.
Another apparent feature of Table 1.1 is the lack of variation in
diagnostics. In almost all experiments conclusions are drawn from
values of the Hall parameter and the electrical conductivity, which
are derived from the electrical output. As pointed out by many of
the authors even the conductivity and the Hall parameter are
affected by the losses. Little attention has been given on the
measurement of the electron temperature and density in a direct and
independent way; only the continuum radiation measurements provide
a direct determination of the electron density. In spite of the
difficulties related to the realisation of a suitable non-equilibrium
condition in MHD generators, it has been stated (ref. 1.17) that NEI
is necessary, in addition to the use of seeding materials, in order
to make possible practical conversion 'of energy using MHD closed
cycle systems.
The aim of the present work is to examine ETE and NEI in an MHD medium
in situations where perturbing effects are suppressed as much as
possible. The analysis has been simplified by considering non-seeded
argon as a medium. The phenomena are studied in the disc geometry to
avoid the problems connected with electrode segmentation. Although
electrode voltage drops may occur, the non-equilibrium conditions
will be developed all the same, the azimuthal currents being primarily
responsible for the process. Ground loop leakages are eliminated by
using an inductive method for the plasma production. The most important
remaining loss mechanism affecting the non-equilibrium phenomena are
the ionisation instabilities.
The analysis is based on fundamental equations for the various plasma
components. Similar equations have been used by Bertolini (ref. 1.18)
for the description of the relaxation of an MHD medium towards the
non-equilibrium state. The present analysis leads to solutions
describing both the relaxation processes and the behaviour of the
- 14 -
two temperature plasma. Furthermore, part of the set of equations is
used to study the plasma conditions which are critical with respect
to the development of ionisation instabilities.
The experiment provides plasmas flowing during short times (100 ~ s e c )
through the disc. The electron temperature and density are measured
by electrostatic double probes, spectroscopic measurements and m1cro-
wave measurements. Total gas pressures are determined using a
piezo-electric crystal. Moreover, the floating potential of the plasma
is measured, in order to obtain information on the effective Hall
parameter and the electrode potential drops. In the experiment
described, the gas pressures and magnetic fields are lower than in
other experiments. There is, however, no reason why the results
of this experiment should essentially differ from those involving
high pressures and magnetic fields, as the mutual ratios of
characteristic lengths, like free mean paths, Debye shielding length,
gyration radii and the dimensions of the channel, have not been
altered in a critical way.
- 15 -
CHAPTER II
Basic equations
In an MHD generator a partially ionised gas flows through a magnetic
field. In the presented work a flowing argon plasma consisting of
electrons, singly ionised atoms, and neutral atoms, will be
considered as a medium for the MHD generator.
The kinetic and dynamic properties of the plasma are described by the
distribution functions
the Boltzmann equation
...
fi(v, r, t), which can be obtained by solving
for each species i. Simultaneously with the
Boltzmann equation the Maxwell equations have to be solved in order
to describe the electromagnetic fields as a result of the electric
charge density distribution and the current density distribution.
Considering this specific case of an MHD generator, a number of
simplifying assumptions will be made.
The distribution functions are assumed to be Maxwellian
(II. 1)
The assumption given by equation (11.1) reduces the solution of the
Boltzmann equation to the solution of the following three conservation
equations for each species: the continuity equation, the momentum
equation and the energy equation, in order to find the density n
i
,
h
. ... d h
t e flow veloc1ty u
i
an t e temperature T
i
.
A further simplification is made by assuming the flow velocity of the
ions to be equal to the flow velocity of the neutrals and assuming
the temperatures of these species to be equal. These assumptions limit
the number of conservation equations to seven, three continuity
equations (one for each species), two momentum equations (one for the
electrons and one for the heavy particles), and two energy equations
(one for the electrons and one for the heavy particles).
- 16 -
As in the cases considered the magnetic Reynolds' number will be small,
the magnetic induction owing to the currents in the plasma is
neglected compared to the applied magnetic induction. The latter is
taken as stationary. Moreover, the electric space charge is assumed
to be small, according to the inequality:
n
I e
1 (11.2)
This assumption determines the Debye length as the minimum characteristic
length in the plasma to be described. Neglecting In - n. I with respect
e 1
to n or
e
n
i
, one
Poisson
may replace n. by n in the conservation equations.
1 e
From the equation for electrical space charge and equation
(11.2) the following condition for the variation of the electric field
can be derived:
IvE:1
n e
e.
E
o
(11.3)
Once having found the solution of the problem, the condition (11.3)
can be verified in order to justify the substitution of n for n ..
e 1
Furthermore, only phenomena are discussed that are stationary or
quasy-stationary with respect to the Maxwell equations, which can
then be reduced to the following relationships:
~
V.J = 0 (II.4)
(II.S)
Equation (11.4) has already been given implicitly by the continuity
equations for the electrons and the ions.
The seven conservation equations which are used to analyse the medium,
are given in Table 2.1. Throughout the analysis the mass of an electron
is neglected compared to the mass of an argon atom; the masses of a
neutral and an ion are taken to be equal. The right-hand sides of the
continuity equations describe the net number density production rates,
caused by ionisations and recombinations. The major ionising processes
which may occur in the argon plasma considered are electron-atom
Table 2.1 Conservation equations.
CONTINUITY EQUATIONS
a

.. k n n - k 02n.
ELECTRONS
,
-n + V.n u
at e e e f e a r e 1
a
2
IONS
,
3t n
i
+ V.n.u = k 0 n -
krneni
1 f e a
a

2
NEUTRAL PARTICLES
,
-n + V.n u = - kfnen
a
+ krneni
at a a
MOMEHTIIM EQUATIONS

xii) + n m - ) ('I> V ) ELECTRONS
,
0 . - 'VP
e
- nee(E + u +
e e e e e1 ea
a
'V. n.e(E

x B) - n m - ) (v . + v ) HEAVY PARTICLES
,
at
+ .. - Vp + + U
1 e e e e1 ea
ENERGY EQUATIONS
a
(
3 I 2
) (
3
+ 1. m u
2
)

)

V.t;

)(v . + v ) ELECTRONS
,
ne (2 kTe
+ E.
+ '2 meue)
+ v.
ne(I kTe
+ E. u = - ue,vP
e
- P
e
- n eE.u + nemeu. (u -
at 1 1 2 e e e e e e e e1 ea
m
- 3 n

('I> ei
+ v ) k (T - T)
e m ea e
a
( (1 kT
I 2
) ( (1 kT
I 2
) - p'V.;

; ) (v . + v ) HEAVY PARTICLES
,
at
n + "2 mu ) + V. n -+ 2 mu ) u = - + n.eE.u - nemeu, (u -
2 2 1 e e1 ea
m
+ 3 n
e
(v
ei
+ v ) k (T - T)
e m ea e
- 18 -
collisions, atom-atom collisions and photo-ionisation, while the most
important de-ionising processes are three-body and radiative
recombinations. Considering only electron temperatures below 20,000 oK
and electron densities above 10
19
m-
3
, the radiative ionisation and
recombination processes can be neglected (ref. 2.1). As no ionisation
degrees below 10-
4
will be considered, and as almost everywhere in the
generator T will be considerably higher than T, it follows from
e
the comparison of the rate coefficients for the different collisional
ionisation and recombination processes (ref. 2.2) that the electron-
atom collisions constitute the most important ionising reaction and
electron-electron-ion interaction the most frequent recombination
process. The forward and reverse rate parameters k
f
and kr' which
appear in the right-hand side of the continuity equations, are then
given by:
k
f
= 3.75 x 10-
22
T
3/2
(E IkT + 2) exp (-E IkT)
e exa e exa e
(II.6)
k = 1.29 x 10-
44
(E IkT + 2) exp { (E. - E )/kT }
r exa e 1a exa e
(II. 7)
For argon, E and E. are 11.5 and 15.75 eV respectively.
exa 1a
In an MHD generator the development of non-equilibrium ionisation can
be described by the continuity equations. The Saha equation follows
from these equations if the number of ionisations equals the number
of recombinations. In the momentum equation for electrons (Table 2.1)
the inertia term is neglected; comparing this term with the collision
term of the right-hand side, it appears that when neglecting the
inertia of the electrons, a new minimum characteristic length is
defined:
,. = u I(v . + v )
1n e e1 ea
The basic equations of Table 2.1 do not describe processes with
characteristic lengths < 'in' In the cases discussed here, 'in will
(11.8)
- 19 -
always be smaller than. AD' so that the validity of the space charge
neutrality approximation implies the justification of the neglection
of the inertia term. The collision frequencies v . and v , used in
. e1. ea
the momentum equations as macroscopic quantities, are related to the
elastic collision cross section as follows (ref. 2.3):
v =
e n
e
r
J
Q , I ~ - ~ I f d ( ~ - ~ )
eX, e e e
(II. 9)
with is either i or a. The contribution of inelastic collisions to
the momentum transfer between the electron gas and the heavy particles
is neglected with respect to the momentum transfer due to elastic
collisions. This is because the frequencies of the inelastic collision
processes are low compared to
momentum transfer is the same
v . and
e1
in both
v and the efficiency of
ea
types of collision. The electron
elastic collision frequency related to the transfer of thermal energy
is not defined in the same way as the corresponding quantity related
to momentum transfer, but is given by the following equation (ref. 2.3):
v*
e
m
e
= n 3kT
e e
(II.10)
with is i or a. In this analysis it is assumed that ve may be
approximated by v ~ so that in the energy equations the same collision
frequencies appear as in the momentum equations. Q is taken to be
ea
constant and equal to 0.5 x 10-
20
m
2
; v . is taken in accordance with
e1
Spitzer's theory (ref. 2.4). The radiative energy is neglected.
Ohlendorf (ref. 2.5) estimated that the radiative losses in a non-seeded
argon plasma are several orders of magnitude lower than in a potassium-
seeded plasma. As in a seeded plasma the radiative losses are comparable
with the elastic losses, in a non-seeded plasma the radiative losses are
small compared to the elastic losses. In the energy equation for electrons,
2
terms of the order m u are neglected with respect to terms of the order
e e
kT Furthermore, heat conduction processes are not included in the
e
equations (see also chapter VIII).
- 20 -
CHAPTER III
Geometry ofthe disc generator
The amount of electron temperature elevation depends on the geometry
of the M F ~ generator. Fig. 3.1 shows diagrams of a continuous and a
segmented Faraday generator, a linear Hall generator and a disc Hall
generator, these being the most general geometries. The following
c
d
Fig. 3. I MHD generator geometries: continuous Faraday generator (8), segmented Faraday
generator (b). linear Hall generator (c). and disc Hall generator Cd). EL and
1L are the electric field and the current density corresponding to the Lorentz
force e ( ~ x B), respectively. EH and TH are the electric field and the current
density owing to the Hall effect. respectively.
expressions
are derived
for the ratio of T and the stagnation temperature T
e 0
by Hurwitz (ref. 3.1) for the continuous and segmented
Faraday generators, and the linear Hall generator respectively:
5
(1
2
{
2 2
}
M2
T 1 + - . K) . wr / (1 + WT )
e 9
=
T
+ 1. M2
0
3
(Ill. 1)
5 2 2 2
T .1.+ 9" (l-:K) .WT .. M
e
-=
T
1
1. M2
0 +
3
(III.2)
2 M2 2( . 2 2)/(
.+ wr2) T 1 + wr. 1 . +. K WT 1
e 9
=
T
1. M2
0 +
3
(Ill. 3)
- 21 -
where Cp/C
v
is taken equal to 5/3 and inelastic losses are neglected.
Eq. (111.3) holds also for the disc generator, if M is related to
the radial velocity. It can be shown from the equations (111.1),
(111.2) and (111.3) that the presence of a Hall electric field favours
the electron temperature elevation. For the ratio of T and T is
e 0
limited to 5/3 for K = 0 and M + ~ in the case of the continuous
generator, whereas for the segmented generator types T IT is unlimited
e 0
and increasing with the Hall parameter.
In linear MHD channels the Hall electric field can be built up provided
segmented electrodes are used. The characteristic distances for electrode
segmentation are shown in Fig. 3.2. Celinski (ref. 3.2) shows that
finite segmentation results in an inferior performance of the generator.
h
5
I
I
I
c
.,
Fig. 3.2 Characteristic lengths for electrode segmentation.
The reduction of three important generator quantities is given 1n Table
3.1 for the segmented Faraday generator. As shown in ref. 3.2, the
reduction parameter A becomes considerably smaller than unity for
values of WT ~ 3 and for slh ~ I. Moreover, hot boundary layers near
the insulator segments reduce the Hall electric field (ref. 3.3).
In order to avoid the problems connected with electrode segmentation,
the disc geometry can be used for a Hall type MHD generator, as
suggested by several authors (refs. 3.4, 3.5, 3.6). A disadvantage
of the disc generator in comparison with the linear generator is the
limitation to the Hall mode of operation; in the linear geometry, the
- 22 -
possibility of various load connections results in many different
modes of operation (ref. 3.7).
Table 3.1 The effect of finite electrode segmentation.
quantity
ideal generator
real generator
(s/h = 0) (s/h > 0)
current density (1 - K)auB A (1 - K)auB
electrical power density K ( 1
2 2
- K)au B AK (1
2 2
- K)au B
Joule heating per cubic metre
222
(1 - K) au B A(1
2 2 2
- K) au B
A diagram of the disc generator is given in Fig. 3.3 . The gas is
supplied to the centre of the disc-shaped MHD channel and flows
radially outward perpendicularly to an axial magnetic field. The
Lorentz forces acting on the electrons and ions of the medium
cause an azimuthal current density component and a radial Hall
electric field. The load can be connected between two sets of
concentric electrode rings.
out.r
elect Ie
+
inner
.1
Fig. 3.3 Cross-section of a disc Hall
corresponding to the Lorentz
+
+
-t h dt
generator. 1L repreents t e current enS1 y
force e ( ~ x B), EH and iM the electric field
and the current density owing to the Hall effect.
- 23 -
The behaviour of the medium in a disc generator is analysed by solving
the basic equations of Chapter II for a one dimensional stationary
flow. For that case the conservation equations, given in Table 2.1,
transform into those given in Table 3.2.
.. --
CUNTINUITY EQUATIONS
du do 0 u
3
ELECTRONS
er

e
=
e er
kfnen
ll
- k
,
0
d"r""""
u
dr
- ---.
0
e er r r e
du do 0 u
3
IONS
r e
=
e r
+ kfnen
a
- k
,
0 -- . u
dr
0
e dr r r r e
..;
0'


du do 0 u
3
!'lEUTRAL PARTICLES
r a
=
k[ne.:1a
k
,
0 -- . u
dr

0
a dr r r r e
,.,
N
n
a
a


"
HO!'IENTIDI EQUATIONS
<

" e
dT do
0
a
ELECTRONS, R-COM?ONENT
,
k
__ e.
kT
e
= - n e (E

u B)

n m (v .

v )(u - ) n
dr
u
e dr e e e, e e el ea r er


C

" e
ELECTRONS, '- COMPONENT
,
0 = 0 eu B

0 m (v

v ) (u -
ueq,)
e er e e ei ea
0 N
a
.0-


du
2
HEAVY PARTICLES, R-COMPONENT
r
ok
dT
kT
do
u,
n e (E
u1>B)
- n m (v . v
e
) (u
r
- II )
,
omll
dr
-.
dr =
nm - +

r dr r e e e Cl er



e
m

"
dll, U ll.
HEAVY PARTICLES, -COMPONENT
r .
B -
neme(vei \!e)(U
-
u
e
)
,
nmll
dr
=- nm--- 0 ell
r r e r
0
" 0'


e'

n
ENERGY EQUATIONS

m
a
m
"
n ku
dT dT dn m
ELECTRONS
,
e
- II 0 k
e
II kT
__ e =
ne eE (U
r
- )

-
ueru)
- 30 --"- (v

u ) k(T - T)
dr

U
2 e er r e r e dr er e m ei eo e

" 0

-
(2-
KT
Eia) (kfnen
a
- k n
3
)
2 e r e
3 dT
u kT dn
m
HEAVY PARTICLES
,
okll - = 3n --"- (v .

v ) k (T - T)
,.
r dr r dr e m e> ea e
- 25 -
CHAPTER I V
IV.I Introduction
Numerical solutions of the set of equations for the disc generator,
given in Table 3.1, are calculated with an Electrologica X 8 computor
using a Runge-Kutta method. Comparable solutions of a similar set
of equations for an ideal segmented linear Hall generator are also
computed. As a result of the calculations in this chapter, several
quantities of the MHD medium will be given as functions of the
position in the generator.
The functions are given for values of the radius between 0.03 and
0.20 m in the disc generator case and for generator distances
between 0 and 0.20 m as far as the linear generator is concerned,
these being the extreme values representing the inlet and outlet
of the channel.
The plasma properties at the inlet are chosen as follows:
n
e
u = u
er r
u = u
ex x
1800 m/sec, u ~ =
= 1800 m/sec
T T = 9000 oK.
e
o (disc generator);
(linear generator);
For the linear generator, only solutions are given that are related
to open-circuit conditions, whereas for the disc generator both loaded
and open-circuit conditions are discussed. The radial current density
is assumed to flow for 0.07 < r < 0.14 m, the extreme values of r
representing the electrode positions:
- 26 -
u = u for r < 0.07 m and r > 0.14 m
er r
(VI. I)
u ~ u for 0.07 < r < 0.14 m
er r
The value of the load is determind by the imposed discontinuity in
u at r = 0.07 m; in fact u is supposed to drop there to 0.65
er er
times its original value.
In the disc generator the magnetic induction is assumed to have the
following radial dependency (compare chapter VI):
B
2
B (I - 0.51 r - 9.56 r )
o
with r expressed in m.
Various magnetic field strengths are considered by choosing B
successively equal to 0, 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, and 0.07 T for the
o
open generator conditions; for the loaded generator, the values
(IV.2)
o and 0.01 T are not considered because they do not represent a
realistic MHD generator situation in connection with the implicitly
imposed radial current density component. The magnetic induction
in the linear generator is chosen to be constant and equal to B
o
The choice of the various parameters is based on measured values
resulting from the experiment described in chapter VI (see for
measurements the chapters VII and VIII).
The calculated solutions are represented by the curves given in the
Figures 4. I, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5. The plots marked (a) concern
a loaded disc generator, the plots marked (b) an open disc generator,
and the plots marked (c) an open ideally segmented linear generator.
IV.2 Temperature, density and radial flow velocity of the electron gas
For the conditions considered, Fig. 4.1 shows enhancements of the
electron temperature over the heavy particle temperature of about
12000
8000
'if
-4000
....
... "
a
I t; ... ...
electrode sili s I
, I "
, ,\
----
,
,/ I \
" I ,
, I
I I
I I
____ "I"'"
I
a-QQ3L
16000
12000

-" ,
"
,
b
--;:::.--
-,',- / .......
,. / , ....
-" I I \ \
I I \
I I '
/1 I
/
11000

_ _... -0ll3l
,- -
,/ / ..........
,/ .t / ..........
./
/' ,.,..--- \ \-- .... "
.
10000
>-;.9000
..."

- 3.0 -2.0 -1.0


-lil -2.0 -1.0

1010g x (m)
I010g (r -o.03)(m)
log(r_0.03) (m)
Fig. 4.1 Variations of the electron temperature Te (dashed lines) and the heavy particle temperature T (solid lines) with the
generator distance (r -O.03m in the case of the disc geometry and x in the case of the linear geometry). at various
values of the magnetic induction Bo'
a. Loaded disc generator. h. open disc generator. c. open linear Hall generator.
Electrode positions in the disc: r = 0.07 and r = 0.14 m. Plasma conditions at channel inlet: n = 2 x 10
21
m-
3
e
n = 2 x 10
23
m-
3
, u
a er
B = 0 and B '" O.C I T
o 0
= u
r
= u
ex
= U
x
= 1800 u = O. Te
coincide.
= T = 9000 OK. In c. the curves of T and T at
e
N
....,
-24

t' 23
go

121
go
a
2
c
/'.
23
'-...
"-

' 20_3.0 -2.0
-to -1.0
3500
'''Iog(r -0.03) (m)
Fig. 4.2 variations of the electron density fie (dashed lines) and the heavy particle density Da (solid lines) with the generator
distance. For a further description. see Fig. 4.1.
a
3500

]
"
=1-
b
B.O }---__
8:Q01T
8:0.031

__
-3.0 -2.0 -to
1Qlog(r _ O.03Hm)
c

1700

E 1600
/
/
a..-o- l-'"
//
0.05T /,
B.: O.Qzr /
Fig. 4.3 Variationsof the electron velocity and heavy particle velocity (u
er
and u
r
in the case of the disc geometry. and u
ex
and uxin the case of the linear geometry) with the generator distance. The dashed lines in a. represent u
er
as far as
it differs from u
r
' For a further description see Fig. 4.t.

()O
4.
I I

I I
I
15
I I
I I
: I
I I
I I

-3.0 -20
10log (r -0.03) (m)
o
!1'

4.0
6.=0071
B:O.05T /

a,.001T
a...o._y
b

-3.0 -2.0 -1.0
1olO9(r - 0.03) (m)
3.6
c


o
f 8.00IT
o a..o. _)
/

-3.0 -2.0 -1.0
1109 . (m)
Fig. 4.4 Variation of the electrical conductivity a with the generator distance. For a further description see Fig. 4.1.
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
I-'
3

8,=Q03T
a
!l3:0 -2.0
10log(r -0.03) (m)
-1.0
I-'
3
b
3D
10

-w -10
10log(r_0.03) (m)
1.00
0.75
0.501:-_----';...,.'--_
I-' 0.25F-----Lt'----_
3
Fig. 4.5 Variation of the Hall parameter WT with the generator distance. For a further description, see Fig. 4.1.
- 30 -
10,000 oK with relaxation lengths of about 0.01 m. In the case
of the higher magnetic induction relaxation lengths are shorter
and the Te levels higher because of the larger amounts of Joule
heating. Fig. 4.1 band c shows that even at B = 0 the electron
o
temperature will be higher than the gas temperature. This is caused
by the initial value of the electron density which is chosen to be
higher than determined by the Saha equation; in fact, the recombination
energy is added to the electron gas resulting in T > T.
e
The electron temperature varies in different ways in three
distinguished regions. These changes will be discussed for one
particular curve, namely the curve in Fig. 4.1 b, belonging to
B
o
10
= 0.07 T. For log(r - 0.03) - 2, Joule heating of the
electrons
For - 2 <
'V
causes the
10
log(r -
elevation of T
e
0.03) < - 1.12,
'V
from 13,000 up to
o
15,000 K occurs,
from 5000
a further
because the
o
up to 13,000 K.
increase of T
e
expansion of the
. + +
medium results in a value of u x B and a decrease of the
10
collision frequency. For log(r - 0.03) > - 1.12, T drops owing
'V e
to several processes connected with the setting in of non-equilibrium
ionisation. These processes are the
- The ionisation energy is withdrawn from the electrons.
-AsQ.

collision
Q ionisations result in
ea
frequency stimulating the
electrons and heavy particles.
an increase of the total
thermal contact between
h
. d 7+
- By the en ancement of the con the J x B
.. ...
braking force becomes stronger, resulting in a reduction of u x B.
It follows from equation (111.3) that T - T in a loaded Hall parameter
e
remains lower than in an open one; this effect is illustrated in
Fig. 4.1 a showing a drop in T at the inner electrode.
e
The occurence of non-equilibrium ionisation is shown in Fig. 4.2.
For the given parameters, ne can be raised by one order of magnitude
owing to NEI. The relaxation length is of the order of 0.1 m. Higher
levels of additional ionisation and shorter relaxation lengths are
connected with higher values of the magnetic induction. The limited
non-equilibrium ionisation in the loaded generator is a result of
- 31 -
the reduced electron temperature enhancement.
The radial electron flow velocity in an open generator (see Fig. 4.3 b
and c) remains always equal to the radial flow velocity of the heavy
particles. This results from the following relationship, which is
derived from the basic equations:
n (u - u ) = constant
e r er
(IV.3)
In the loaded disc generator (Fig. 4.3 a) the radial flow velocities
u and u are also related by equation (VI.3) except at the electron
r er
positions where the curves of u show discontinuities.
er
IV.3 Radial flow velocity and temperature of the heavy particles and
density of the neutral particles
In practical MHD generator cases and also in given numerical examples
the changes of the quantities
+
u and T being the particle
g g
n ,
a
+
u and T can be approximated by those of n
g'
density, velocity, and temperature
respectively of the total gas. Conservation equations for the whole
medium can be obtained from Table 2.1 by adding the corresponding
equations for the different plasma components. The curves of
T, shown in Figs. 4.3 and 4.1, will now be interpreted by the
u and
r
total
gas equations. In a dimensionless form the r-component of the momentum
equation and the energy equation of the total medium in the disc
generator are successively given by:
dP dU
R L 7
1i)
(IV.4) -+ --=
2
(J x
dR dR r
PgU
gr
~ dP +
( ~ p
dU
R
~ P
L 7+ 7 +
}
+ 1 ) --+ =
{
J .E - (J x
B) <j>ug<j>
2 dR 2 dR 2 3
PgU
gr
(IV.S)
- 32 -
where P
g
is the mass density of the gas. P, DR and R are the
normalised pressure, radial flow velocity, and radius, respectively,
the normalisation relationship being given by:
2
p '=puP
goo
r = r R
o
The analysis is given for a fixed, arbitrarily chosen generator
(IV.6)
position r = r where u
o r
= u . this results in DR and R being equal
0'
to unity. From equations (IV.4) and (IV.S) the following relation-
ship can be found:
1 = M2 T(R)
- ~ E,M
(IV. 7)
In equation (IV.7) the Mach number MR is related to the radial flow
velocity. The interaction of the medium with the electric and magnetic
fields is represented by T ~ R ~ :
,
T(R) =
E,M
L
In MHD generators T(R) is always greater than zero.
E,M
(IV.8)
of n
e
Comparing the curves of u
r
(Fig. 4.3 a and b) with those
(Fig. 4.2 a and b), it can be seen that the behaviour of the flow
velocity depends on whether non-equilibrium ionisation has been
(R)
developed or not. If not, TE M will be small and the siutation
,
is described by equation (IV.7) with the right-hand side equal to
zero; as in the given example ~ > 1, the radial flow velocity will
then increase. In the region where non-equilibrium ionisation has
effectuated high electrical conductivity, the positive right-hand
side of equation (IV.7) determines the value of dDR/dR resulting in
a deceleration of the radial flow.
- 33 -
The neutral particle density and the heavy particle temperature are
shown in Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.1, respectively, as functions of the
generator position. In the disc generator, the two quantities are
determined by the expansion of the medium for r smaller than the
ionisation relaxation length; considering supersonic gas velocities,
nand T decrease in that region. For r larger than the ionisation
a
relaxation length,
influence of the T
n
a
and T tend to increase owing to the
+ .
x B brak1ng force.
For the linear generator, T, na and u are plotted in Figs. 4.1 c,
4.2 c and 4.3 c; the curves are similar to those for the disc
generator, except for the typical expansion effects.
IV.4 Electrical conductivity and Hall parameter
Both the scalar electrical conductivity and the Hall parameter are
strongly related to the electron elastic collision frequency. In the
given examples the plasma is Coulomb collision dominated.
In a Coulomb collision dominated medium a is in first order proportional
to T3/2. this explains the similarity in the a and T variations
e ' e
(compare Figs. 4.1 and 4.4). Furthermore, it follows from Fig. 4.4
that in the given example the value of a is higher than in practical
MHD generators, where generally values below lOa mho/m are found. If
the Coulomb collisions are in the majority, WT is approximately
proportional to n-
I
T
3
/
2
It can be seen from Fig. 4.5 that for values
e e
of r smaller than the ionisation relaxation length WT is strongly
influenced by Te' If r exceeds the ionisation relaxation length, the
increase of n by the non-equilibrium ionisation, together with
e
the simultaneous decrease of T , causes a drop in WT.
e
Generally, it can be stated that especially
the non-equilibrium ionisation region - the
if v . >
e1
value of
v
ea
the
- at least in
Hall parameter
is much higher in the ionisation relaxation region than in the generator
- 34 -
positions where the ionisation degree has already been enhanced.
Then, in order to have a reasonably high WT in the main part of the
Hall generator, WT in the relaxation region must be far above the
critical value related to ionisation instabilities (see chapter V).
- 35 -
CHAPTER V
Critical values of the Hallparameter with respect to ionisation
instabilities
V.I. Introduction
In MHD generators the development of instabilities in the plasma can
result in poor performance of the device. The most important types
of instabilities occurring in MHD generators are the magneto-acoustic
and the ionisation instabilities; from the two, the latter have
generally the greatest effect on the generator output, and they will
be discussed here.
Non-linear effects in Ohm's law, which result from ionisation
instabilities, are described by introducing an effective electrical
conductivity G
eff
and an effective Hall parameter WT
eff
Neglecting
Vp Ohm's law is then given by:
e
.,.
-t wTeff +
]+---]
B
x B = (V. I)
The values of wTeff and G
eff
are lower than the values of WT and G;
the measure of the reduction depends on the amplitude of the fluctuations.
Using first-order perturbation theories, several authors have calculated
critical values of the Hall parameter that represent upper limits of
stability (refs. 5.1, 5.2, 3.6). They all assume Saha equilibrium and
exclude the ionisation relaxation region of the generator. As in this
region the Hall parameter has far higher values than in the region of
Saha equilibrium (see chapter IV), in the present chapter critical Hall
parameters will be calculated without assuming the validitylof the
Saha equation.
V.2. First order perturbation equations
Ionisation instabilities
->
The quantities n , u and
a
consist of fluctuations in n , ~ ,T and E.
e e e
T are assumed to be constant within distances
comparable with the typical wavelengths of the fluctuations. The
- 36 -
ionisation instabilities are described starting from the conservation
equations of Table 2.1 as far as they are related to the electron gas,
and eqs. (11.4) and (11.5). From the combination of the continuity
equation for the electrons and eq. (11.4), it follows that the former
may be replaced by the continuity equation for the ions.
Considering the transition from stability to instability, a first-
order perturbation theory is justified, because the fluctuations
are small in the primary stage of their development. The zeroth-
order terms represent the stationary behaviour of the medium, and
the first-order terms represent the fluctuations, as
-T
from the following division of the quantities n
e
, ],
zeroth and first-order terms:
can be seen
d
+ .
T an E 1n
e
(V.2)
Substitution of eq. (V.2) in the basic equations and subtraction of
the zeroth-order relationships result in three first-order conservation
equations, namely the continuity equation for ions, the momentum
equation for electrons and the energy equation for electrons. They
are given by the following relationships respectively:
:l (I - R)
an
e
n =n(O)
- e e
T =T(O)
e e
a (1 - R)
aT
e
n =n(O)
- e e
T =T(O)
e e
(V.3)
- 37 -
w, (0)
(0)
u
1. kn(O)
2 e
(I)
(
au
ane"" (0)
n =n
e e
n
e
T =T(O)
e e
w,(O)
(0)
u
au
+ --
aT ""
e n =n(O)
- e e
T =T(O)
e e
(I)
ne ->- -+(1 ),'
--=y+E
(0)
n
e
-t(l) ->-(0)* -t(0) -+(1)* aA
J .E + J .E - an
e n =n (0)
- e e
(I)
n
e
aA
- W-
e n =n(O)
- e e
(I)
n
e
T =T(O)
e e
T =T(O)
e e
(V.4)
(V.S )
In eq. (V.3) the functions I and R represent the number of ionisations
and the number of recombinations per unit volume and unit time,
respectively. In eq. (V.4) Y is the first order term of _1_ Vpe:
n
->- T(I) T!O)vn!O) (I) +VT(I) (1)\ e
y = e n(O) e n(0)2 ne e + n(O) Vne J (V.6)
e e e
The energy lost by the electrons owing to elastic collisions with
heavy particles is given by the function A in eq. (V.S), while the
energy transfer owing to ionisations and recombinations is given by
- 38 -.
m
A = 3n k (T - T) (v + v )
e m e el. ea
Eqs. (11.4) and (11.5) result in the following first order
relationships:
'lxE:(J)=0
-+,. -+ -+-lo--+
As E* 1S g1ven by = E + U x B and as no fluctuations for the
(V.7)
(V.8)
(V.9)
(V. 10)
-+ -+
quant1t1es u and B are assumed, it follows from eq. (V.IO) that the
vector field E:*(I) is curl free:
'J x = a
V.3. The calculation of critical values of the Hall parameter for
some special cases
V.3.1. The region where the Saha equation is valid
(V. I I)
In this section the region of the MHD generator will be considered,
where in the unperturbed situation the electron density is governed
by the Saha equation. The following assumptions will be made:
The zeroth-order energy equation of the electrons has the following
simple form:
'In(O)
e
In eqs. (V.s) and (V.6), terms of the order
n
e
(V.12)
are
- 39 -
'7n (I)
e
neglected compared to terms of the order or
n
e
. (I)'
T
e
The Saha equation remains valid, even during the fluctuations.
Phase shifts between the fluctuations of the various quantities
are neglected.
According to the third assumption, eq. (V.5) has been replaced
by the first-order Saha equation:
(I)
n
e
(6) =
n
e
3/2 kT(O) + E. T(I)
I e 1a e
2" kT(O) T(O)
e e
(V. 13)
The eq s (V. 4), (V. 5), (V. 9), (V. I I)
. (I) -t(1)
order that the funct10nS n , J ,
e
and (V.13) have to be solved in
T(I) and E,,(I) may be obtained.
e
These equations can be transformed into one linear homogeneous equation
in if one particular term of the Fourier series is concerned:
(I)
= n (I)
{ exp
.( +
rlt)} n 1 K.r -
e eo

J

= J
o
{exp
.( +
1 K.r - rlt)}
T(I) T(I)
{exp
.( +
- rlt)} = 1 K.r
e eo
E* (1)
=
E* (1) {exp
0
i(K. - rlt)}
In (V.14) the frequency rI is complex:
rI - irl.
r 1
(V. 14)
(V. 15)
The sign of rI. determines whether the medium is stable (positive sign)
1
or not (negative sign) with respect to the chosen Fourier component.
In the stability limit, given by rI. = 0, n(l) must be solvable from the
1 eo
following equation:
- 40 -
C
K2 + K2
d In cr
Kl.. (0)
d IIi.. A
n =n(O)
(I)
x y
+ 2 2J... un
n =
K2
d In n
n =n(O)
K2
d In n eo
e e
- e e e e
T =T(O) T =T(O)
e e e e
(V. 16)
The x-axis of the coordinate system is chosen Ilr(O) and the z-axis
.,. d
liB. The operator d In n is defined as follows:
e
d
d In n
e
(V. 17)
The existence of a non-trivial solution of n(l) from eq. (V.16) requires
(I) eo
the coefficient of n to be equal to zero. By defining for any
eo
K WT(O)b as the value of WT(O) in the stability limit, the following
sta
expression results from eq. (V.16):
(0)
K2
(K2 _ K2
In cr d In A
n =n (0)
x y d
(V. 18)
WT stab
KK
+
K2 d
In n
n =n(O)
d In n
x y
e e
- e e - e e
T =T(O) T =T (0)
e e e e
In comparison with the expression of WT(O)b derived by Louis (ref. 3.6),
sta
if applied to an unperturbed situation without fluctuations, eq. (V.18)
has one more term resulting from the fluctuations in the electrical
conductivity which are taken into account here. The critical Hall
parameter W T ~ ~ ) can be found from eq. (V.18) by deriving the minimum
value of WT(O)b with respect to the direction of K in the xy-plane.
sta
In Fig. 5.1, WT(O) is given as a functin of T(O) for a gas temperature
cr (0) e
of 5000 oK. The figure shows that for T - T > 2000 oK the critical
e '"
Hall parameter is about 2, which has also been found by other authors
(refs. 5. I, 3.6). At smaller amounts of electron temperature elevation
slightly lower values ofwT(O) may be expected, except when T(O) - T is
cr e
0
T=5000'K
2.0
1.5
- 41 -
..25 -3
n.= 1u m
24 -3
n l0 m
.-23 -3
n._1U m
10
22 -3
.= m
Fig. 5.1
Critical Hall parameter w,(O) as a function of electron temperature Te' for
cr .
several values of the neutral particle density, in Saha equilibrium situations.
very close to zero. As
grows to infinity when
may be seen from eqs. (V.20) and (V.9), WT(O)
cr
T(O) - T approaches zero.
e
V.3.2. The ionisation relaxation region
The relaxation region of an MHD generator consists of two parts:
one is characterised by the relaxation of the electron temperature,
the other by the ionisation relaxation (see Chapter IV). The former
part is generally small, while in many experimental arrangements
the latter cannot be neglected with respect to the dimensions of the
generator. Instabilities of the medium are of influence on the length
of the relaxation region as well as on the finally reached values of
the quantities considered.
The stability condition is studied for the ionisation relaxation
region, using the same assumptions as listed in the previous section,
- 42 -
except the first and the third assumption. With resptect to the
zeroth-order energy equation for the electrons, it has now been
assumed that terms of the order
are negligible compared with terms of the order
Vn(O)
e
(0)
n
e
In an analogous way as in the previous section, the stability condition
can be found, now from eqs. (V.3), (V.4), (V.5), (V.9) and (V.11),
resulting in the following expression for
WT(O)
K2
C; - d ln 0
A(O)
d ln A
= +
stab 2K K
K2 d
ln n
n =n(O)
. (0)2/ (0) d ln n
(0) x y e J 0 e
n =n
- e e - e e
T =T(O) T =T(O)
e e e e
E(O)
d
ln EIR
(oJ
IR
(V. 19)
.(0)2/ (0) d ln n
J 0 e
n =n
- e e
T =T(O)
e e
The coordinate system has been chosen in the same way as in the previous
section. For
.(0)2
J = A (0)
0(0)
and = 0, eq. (V.19) agrees with eq. (V.18). To express
. (0)2
J
+
- 43 -
in terms of the gas quantities, the zeroth-order energy equation for
electrons is used written in the following way:
(0) 2
... ]=_ = _ kT(O) + 'l (0) + A (0) + E(O)
(0) e u. ne IR
a
(V. 20)
Expressing the first term of the right-hand side as a raction 6 of
. (0)2
]
(0)
a
eq. (V.20) obtains the following form:
.(0)2 A(O) E(O)
+ IR
.... J =-<- = --;-----i=-
(0) 6
(J
It follows from eq. (V.20a) that
.(0)2
J
(0)
(J
is determined by the values of n(O), T(O) and 6. From (V.19) WT(O)
(V.20a)
e e (0) cr
may be found as the minimum value of WT b with respect to K and K
(0) (0) sta x y
for any choice of n ,n, T ,T and 6. As in this section only
e a e
Hall generators working at open circuit conditions are considerd, the
plasma velocity component in the main generator direction can be
calculated afterwards:
(
0) .(0)
u = - - , . , ~ J - . , , , , , ,
n(O)ewT(O)
e cr
Having u(O), the gradient of nCO) can be found:
e
'In(O)
e
6
kT
e
.(0)2
_J __
a
(0)
(V. 2 I)
(V.22)
- 44 -
The critical Hall parameter
for several values of ,
is given as a function of T(O) in Fig. 5.2
e
n , T and 0 which are listed in Table 5.1.
a
Table 5, I Values of the electron density n(O). the neutral density n the heavy particle temperature T,
and the parameter 6 which the influence of vn!O)7 used in the calculation of the
critical Hall parameter in the case of no Saha equilibrium.
n(O) (m-
3
)
-3
T(K) 0 curve n (m )
e

I. 10
19
1
3
I 0
Ib 10
20
x 10
24
5000
Ie 10
21
2.
\10
20
3 x 10
23
( 5000
\ 0
2b 3 x 10
24
2e 3 x 10
25
3.
\10
20
\3
4000
3b x 10
24
5000 0
3e 6000
i 5000
- 0.4
4.
(3XI0
24
10
20 - 0.2
4b
0
4e
Situations where u > 4500 m/sec are not considered. In addition to
WT (0) also a parameter a is plotted in the graph given by the
cr
following ratio:
a =
(0)
n
e d (I - R)
T(O) dne
e
/
"(1 - R)
(0) are
n =n .
e e
T =T(O)
e e
n =n(O)
e e
T =T(O)
e e
(V.23)
The value of a indicates whether the plasma is governed by ionisation
or recombination processes. The ionising and de-ionising reactions
considered are given in chapter II. For these processes the denominator
of eq. (V.23) is always> 0, while the numerator is either < 0 or > 0
if an increase in n stiumulates either the recombinations or the
e
-
6
S
4
3

:I

,!'1
3
I


3
0

- 45 -

6

. 1
S
.1
---:;:::-..--.
-----

-----
/
0 4
_.1
3
- ..


..
-.
- ..
3
6000 1000 10000
12000
0
10000
T.(OK} T.(OK)
.2 6
.,
S
--
---
--- -----
/
0
"
_.1

-2 2

..
-b
/
_.J 1
/
3
120:
0
o
Fig. 5.2 critical Hall parameter (solid lines) and "ionisation-recombination
parameter" CI'. @.ashed lines) as functions of electron temperature Te' for media
being not in Saba equilibrium. The parameter values corresponding to the
curves are listed in Table 5.1.
0
_.1
-..

_.3
_."
12000
.2
.,
0
-1
_.,

-..
-."
000
- 46 -
ionisations, which processes result in a damping or amplification of
the original change of n , respectively. The special situation given
e
by Cl = 0 is obtained when I = 3R.
Appendix show beside the values of
E(O)
IR '
.(0)2
J
(0) ,
(J
(0)
u ,
+(0)
u
(0) and
u
The Tables A.l up to A.4 of the
WT (0)
and Cl also those of
cr
(I - 3R) (0)
Some general features of WT(O) with respect to the conditions of the
cr
medium can be derived from Fig. 5.2 and the Tables A.l up to A.4:
- High values of WT(O) are achieved when the electron temperature
cr
elevation 'is small. As in that case also the current density must
be small, these situations do not apply to a good MED generator
performance.
- The values of
WT(O) will be
cr
WT(O) are strongly related to the values of Cl'
cr '
high for plasmas governed by recombinations in
contrast with media where ionisations are in the majority. The
decrease of WT(O) with T results from this effect.
cr e
- Variations in parameters which have no influence on Cl (variations
in T or 8) result in only small changes in WT(O)
cr
- In many situati'ons, namely those corresponding to moderate values
of the parameters, WT(O) has values between 1 and 3 as in the case
cr
of Saha equilibrium.
From the calculations of W T ~ ~ ) it appears that in non-equilibrium
MHD generators ionisation instabilities will occur in the ionisation
relaxation region. There, two conditions stimulate the development
of instabilities: the high values of WT(O) (see chapter IV) and the
ionising character of the plasma, resulting in a low WT(O)
cr
- 47 -
CHAPTER VI
ExperimentaZ arrangement
Several non-equilibrium phenomena, characteristic of MHO media are
studied in a short-time disc generator experiment. A survey of the
experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 6.1 and a diagramatic
representation is given by Fig. 6.2.
To make the analysis as simple as possible as well as to avoid
dissipation of electron energy by additional inelastic collision
processes, the impurity level of the argon is kept low. Therefore,
the plasma is produced by an inductive discharge of 99.998 % pure
argon. By electromechanicallY actuated fast valves the gas is
fig. 6.1 S u r v ~ y of the experimental set-up.
- 48 -
Fig. 6.2 Diagram of the experimental set-up.
a. Disc-shaped MHD channel, b. brass torus, c. central body, d. pyrex tubes,
e. pyrex cone, f. brass cone, g. fast valves, h. magnet coils.
Dimensions in mm.
supplied to both ends of a pyrex tube which is evaporable to
2 x 10-
5
Torr. The gas is heated, ionised and accelerated by
discharging each of the two capacitor banks over its brass conical
coil. The coils fit the similarly shaped ends of the pyrex tube. The
capacity of each capacitor bank is 30 and voltages can be applied
up to 18 kV. The oscillation of the current through the cone is
measured using a search coil, inserted between the brass plates
which connect the capacitor bank and the conical winding. A typical
signal of the search coil is shown in Fig. 6.3.
Fig. 6.3 Search coil signal. representing the current which flows through the brass
cone. Vertical scale: arbitrary units. Horizontal scale: 5
From the ringing-frequency, which is 100 kHz, the self-induction of
the system calculated to be 80 nH. The ohmic resistance as derived
from Fig. 6.3, is equal to 0.01 n. Applying a voltage of 10 kV to the
5
capacitor bank, the maximum current flowing through the Cone is 2 x 10 A.
For a more detailed description of this type of plasma production and
acceleration compare refs. (6.1) and (6.2).
- 49 -
Through the pyrex tube the gas is fed to the centre of the disc
generator. A central body made of glass stimulates the radial flow
velocity in the generator. The walls of the disc consist of two
circular, transparent glass plates with a diameter of 44 cm and a
thickness of 2.8 cm. The glass plates are connected to a brass torus
using two viton O-rings (see Fig. 6.4).
Fig. 6.4 Connection of the glass plates to the brass torus.
Rings of tungsten wire constitute the electrodes, namely four for
each electrode. The diameters of the anode rings are 14 cm, those
of the cathode rings 28 cm. The rings are kept in position by four
radially placed supports. The wires are mutually kept in position
by strips of boronnitride. The electrode configuration is shown in
Fig. 6.5. In order to make it possible to heat the electrodes
electrically as well as to establish any desired electrical connection
of the rings outside the generator, each support is composed of four
.molybdenum wires electrically insulated from each other by thin
layers of glass (thickness 0.2 mm). A circuit diagram of the
electrical connections of the electrode rings is given in Fig. 6.6.
The energy used for the opening of the electromagnetic valves, and
the delay-time between the gas inlet and the discharge of the
capacitor banks can be adjusted for each plasma gun independently.
By adjusting these quantities it is possible to compensate for small
geometrical deviations from the symmetry of the system, thus yet
- 50 -
Fig. 6.S Survey of the electrode configuration in the disc. (In this picture the glass
plates have been removed.)
72Vl
Fig. 6.6 Diagram of the electrical connections of the electrode rings. During the period
of electrode heating the rings are connected in series (switches S in positions
B). During the passage of the plasma the switches S are in positions A. thus
furnishing the external, independent connection points I up to 8 corresponding
to the eight rings.
- 51 -
obtaining a simultaneous arrival of the two portions of gas in the
centre. The passage of plasma through the disc is verified by
measuring the saturated ion current flowing towards an electrostatic
double probe inserted radially the disc. (For a description of
this diagnostic method, see chapter VII). Typical responses of the
probe, corresponding to the triggering of each gun and of both guns
together, are shown in Fig. 6.7. In addition to the similarity
of the signals representing the plasmas originating from each end
of the pyrex tube, it can be seen from Fig. 6.7 that the typical
duration time of the plasma passage is about 100 ~ s e c .
Fig. 6.7 Saturated ion currents flowing towards the electrostatic probe.
a. Signals corresponding to the discharges of each Bun, h. Signal corresponding
to the discharge of both guns together.
Verticale scales: 0.45 mA/div. Horizontal scale: 100 usec/div.
By adjusting the voltage across the capacitor banks, the argon pressure
in the plenum outside the valves, and the delay time between gas inlet
and discharges, the temperature, degree of ionisation and flow velocity
of the plasma can be varied over wide ranges. Only certain values of
the gas parameters of the produced plasma are considered. For the
reported experiments the values of the most important adjustable
parameters are given in Table 7.2 of chapter VII.
The magnetic field is provided by six coils. The magnetic induction
is measured in various positions in the plane of symmetry. In any
position the axial component of B appeared to be at least ten times
larger than the other components. B is found to be azimuthally
z
independent within 5 %. The radial dependency of B can be approximated
z
- 52 -
wi thin I % by:
B can be varied between 0 and O. I T.
o
(6. I)
(
- 53 -
CHAPTER VII
Measurements
VII.l Image convertor camera pictures
The motion of the plasma in the disc is visualised by a TRW image
convertor camera. Photographs taken at an exposure of 100 nsec are
given in Fig. 7.1, showing the plasma motion in one half of the
disc. The pictures indicate an azimuthally independent progress of
the light Eront. An estimation of the averaged radial velocity of the
light front yields some 1000 or 2000 m/sec. Furthermore it follows
from the photographs that the plasma fills the disc during about
100 /lsec.
(/lsec)
40
50
70
Fig. 7.1 Image convertor camera photographs at different times t after the discharge of the
plasma guns.
- 54 -
VII.2 Electrostatic probe measurements
Electron temperatures and densities are measured with electrostatic
double probes. The probes consist of two platinum electrodes inserted
in a piece of stumatite, which is fixed with araldite on the top of
a quartz tube with a diameter of 4 nnn (see Fig. 7.2).
.---
E E
E: E
C'l
,
t __
L __
stumatite
-;:-())
. O.5mm

Fig. 7.2 Outline of the electrostatic double probe.
I
:wlres to
I electrical
_
The electrodes have circular surfaces with diameters of 0.5 mID; the
distance between the two surface centres is 3 nnn. The electrical
circuit is given in Fig. 7.3.
(/)
Q)
"0
o
L-
-u
2
Q)
Q)
..0
o
L-
0.
o
-
2QV
--.Joscillo-
I SCope. I
Fig. 7.3 Electrical circuit for double probe measurements. For Rm resistances have been used
varying from 47 to 330 Q.
- 55 -
During the measurent the probe voltage V is varied from -20 to +20 V.
p
The probe theory can be based on two quite different concepts. Langmuir's
theory (ref. 7.1) considers the motion of the electrons towards the
probe as a "free fall" in a retarding potential as soon as they
arrive in the space charge "sheath" around the probe; the ions, too,
are assumed to move towards the probe without any collisions as soon
as they arrive in the sheath. This theory can be applied if the mean
free paths of the electrons and ions are large compared to the sheath
thickness. The second theory is suitable for plasmas at higher pressures.
Then the probe current is controlled by continuum equations describing
the diffusion of electrons and ions in the plasma and can be given in
terms of diffusion coefficients and mobilities (ref. 7.2). Cozens
shows that for double probes both theories result in the same relation-
ship between probe current i and voltage V :
p p
i = 1. tgh
p 1
eV
(zrl-)
e
where I. is the saturated ion current towards the probe.
1
(VII. I)
To given an impression of the value of several characteristic lengths
in the considered plasmas, the orders of magnitude are
Table 7.1 for n = 10
19
and 10
20
m-
3
and for n = 10
23
given in
24
and 10
-3
m
e a
T and T. are assumed to be 10
4
and 5 x 10
3
oK, respectively, and B
e 1
is taken to be equal to 5 x 10-
2
T. Especially the values of A. are
1
very rough estimations. The values of AD can be considered as a
measure for the sheath thickness. As A > AD' whereas A. < AD' it
e 1 'V
follows from Table 7.1 that neither the Langmuir theory nor the
concept of Cozens is suitable for the considered plasmas; a model
should be used, where the electron current towards the probe is
controlled by the "free fall" of electrons in the sheath and the ion
current by the continuum equations. Nevertheless, eq. (VII.I) is used
as a starting point for the interpretation of the experimental current
voltage characteristics. The same equation presupposes that the probe
surface can be considered as plane; this assumption is justified by AD
being much shorter than the surface diameter of the probe electrode.
- 56 -
Table 7. I Characteristic lengths corresponding to the plasmas considered, at a magnetic induction
of 0.05 T, an ion temperature of 5 x 10
3
oK and an electron temperature of 10
4
oK.
-3 -3
A (m) A. (m)
An(m) n (m ) n (m )
J;Le(m)
e a e 1
10
19
10
22
10-
3
10-
6
.10-
5
10-
5
10
20
10
22
10-
4
10-
6
10-
6
10-
5
10 19
10
23
10-
3
10-
7
10-
5
10-
5
10
20
10
23
10-
4
10-
7
.
-6
. 10. .
-5
.10 .
As the J;adius of the cyclotJ;on motion of the electJ;ons may have the
same oJ;deJ; of magnitude as the sheath thickness, the normal to the
probe surface is directed parallel to the magnetic field (see Fig. 7.4)
in all measurements, except run V (see Table 7.2), where different
orientations of the probe surface were necessary.
a
b
g
Fig, 7.4 Orientation of the probe surfaces with respect to the magnetic field and the plasma
flow; typical change of probe positions (indicated by arrows):
a. for measurement of radial dependences, h. for measurement of axial dependences.
- 57 -
Moreover, the normal to the probe surface is directed perpendicularly
to the plasma flow velocity in order to eliminate the influence of
the flow velocity on the ion current towards the probe. The
circumstance of A and A. being much shorter than the diameter of
e 1
the probe possibly leads to too low measured values of n
e
, because
n is measured in a region situated in the "shadow" of the probe.
e
The perturbation of the electron energy distribution function by the
probe is described by Waymouth (ref. 7.3). By comparing the depletion
time with the self-collision time for electrons as defined by Spitzer
(ref. 2.4), the following condition, which must be satisfied in order
that the perturbation may be neglected, can be found:
(VII. 2)
Taking the plasma volume V
pl
of plasma with approximately
T = 10
4
oK, it follows from
-3 3
to be equal to 10 m, being a volume
e
constant properties, and assuming
the area A of the probe
p
electrode, which is equal to
the value of
2 x 10-
7
m
2
,
that the left-hand side
of the inequality (VII.2)
of magnitude if n = 10
20
e
exceeds
-3
m
the right-hand side by four orders
Five runs of probe measurements are carried out with the object of
examining the behaviour of T and n The most important experimental
e e
parameters are listed in Table 7.2. The runs I to IV concern the
measurement of nand T as a function of r, realised by radial
e e
shifting of the probe (see Fig. 7.4a). In run V the axial dependence
of nand
e
(see Fig.
T is measured by turning the probe around its axis
e
7.4b). Run I is carried out without having inserted the
electrode rings into the disc; for the other runs only open circuit
generator conditions are considered. For the runs II to V a modified
gas inlet system is used, in order to realise a larger gas flow
into the channel.
The probe current resulting from one discharge of the guns and one
probe voltage is measured through V (see Fig. 7.3) which voltage is
m
- 58 -
displayed on an oscilloscope. An example of such a picture has
already been given in the preceding chapter (seeFig. 6.7b). V is
m
determined from pictures like Fig. 6.7b at three times t
l
, ti and t3
over a period of about 20 vsec; it has been tried by analysing the
shape of the probe signal to determine these times for each probe
position in such a way that for the various probe positions of one
series a similar quantity of gas is considered. Current voltage
characteristics are composed from pictures like Fig. 6.7b, as
obtained for the various probe voltages. As an example, in Fig. 7.5
a current-voltage characteristic of the probe is given, showing the
following deviations from the ideal curve as represented by
eq. (VII. I): the experimental curve does not pass through the origin
and the asymptotic values of the current are not independent of the
voltage. In this experiment, the relationship between the probe
current and voltage is assumed to be given by:
e(V - V )
i - i = 1. tgh {
2 0
} +
(a+)(V - V )
p po 1 2kT _ P po
e
where
a+
is used for V > V and a for V < V
P
po -
P
po
,
10
0
~
5

-1.0
~
II
K
.,
'0
15 10 5 o 10 15 20
probll! volhlge(Vl
Fig. 7.5 Double probe curt'ent-voltage characteristic, taken from run I, series J, probe
position r '" 0.09 m.
(VII. 3)
The parameters I" i ,
1 po
experimental points fit
- 59 -
v ,a, a and T are so chosen that the
po + - e
the curve. According to the theory of Bohm
(ref. 7.4) the ratio of saturated electron current and the saturated
ion current towards the probe is 0.7 ,I m/m
e
., resulting in the
following expression for n :
e
0.7 1.
1
n =
e eA
(VII. 4)
p
Eq. (VII.3) can be considered as a modification of eq. (VII. I), taking
into account the deviations of the experimental current-voltage
characteristic from the ideal one.
The results of the measurements of the runs I to V are given in the
Figs. 7.6 to 7.10. The three values of nand T , obtained in each
e e
probe position of a series from the current-voltage characteristics
belonging to the times t
l
, t2 and t
3
, are averaged. The given
experimental errors are calculated from the deviations of the
experimental points of the matched current-voltage characteristics.
Table 7.2 Experimental parameters referring to the probe measurements.
,"n series VB (kV) 1disch(\.Isec) Bo(T) probe position
I I 5 950 0
,

3.5.
, ,
4.5, 5, 6, 9, 13, 17 em;
,
0
oo
2
oo oo
0.01
oo oo
oo
3
oo oo
0.03
oo oo
oo , oo oo
0.05
oo oo
II I 8 1100 0.01
,

3.5, 8, 12.5
'"
;
,
0
.,
2
oo oo
0.04
oo oo
1II I 10 J 200 0
,

3.5. 8, 12, 16 om ;
,
0
oo
2
oo oo
0.07
oo oo
IV I 12 1300 0
,

J. 5. 8, 10, 15 ,m ;
,
0
oo
2
oo oo
0.07
oo oo
V 1 10 1200 0
, .
10 ,m ;
,

- I. 2.
- 0.6, 0, 0.6,
oo
2
oo
" 0.07
oo oo
1.1 ,m
- 60 -
"I
8, .0
16000
"
8,:0
12000
"
8000
':';
" Ii::!:
0"
~
'000
"
~
,
,
""
".
",
C-09
'"
0.13
'"
, ~
'" '"
", ".
'"
O.ll
'"
---",
rim) rim)
"
8,,0.01 T
16000
"
8.,0.01T
12000
..
! ,
8000
"
'\:
'"
2.
"
!
~ ..
0
003
'"'
'"
, .. 0.11
.,
0.15 .,
0
003
'"'
",
, .. .,
'"
O , l ~
'"
r'm)
nm)
"
a.,oon
11000
..
8,.0.0)1
'"
..

,
,
;
"
r
N.
t
"'"
"
,
'"
".
",
."
" "
"
, ,
'",
0.05
",
'" '" '" '"
----0;7
"m) rim)
"I
"
e.- 0.05 T
"
1&000
"
I,.O,O$T
12000
"
~ .. 000
~
"

''''
~ .
"
'",
.. ,
",
"" '" '"
0.'5
'"
,
'"
00'
"" '"
'"
C.1l
0'
'"
r ,,.,,
" ..
Fig. 7.6 Electron temperature T and density n
.,
measured in run 1.
e e
-
0000

,!'
0
16000
0
,
:"1,000
,!'
1600
1200
0.0,
0.,


B D.on
0.05
rIm)
9.: 0.04 T
0.0'
r (m)
8.:0
rim)
B.: 0.01 T
vetect rode
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0")7 0.0.
,
OD,
Fig.
Vlectrode
I
- 61 -

OJ
B.:O,ol T
I
I
..
!
I
I
I OJ.
I

N
I
Q
"
I
.!'.,
I
I
0
0"
DU 0.15 OOJ
0"
0.0, 0.0. O.fl 0.13 U15
rim!
OJ
B.: 0.04 T
..
I

'.


..
<02
0
0.11 0.1J 15 ,OJ
"
0
."
0.13 .15
rim)
7.7 As Fig. 7.6. corresponding to run II.

I
I
I
u
1.0
OJ
0.6
'2
.!'
Q2

OD) 0.05 0.01 0.09 0." on OJ5
rim)
1.,
1.0 B O.01T
0.'
Q.6
:<.,
::" 0.,
<
.,
.. :c,O----C0"0".----.0"171 ----.0".1.' ---1--0
0
"
."'o"',--o"' . "',--"o".'.----,0.0=, ----..'""..---c."I-' --'---,;."
Fig. 7.B As Fig. 7.6, corresponding to run Ill.
- 62 -
16000
.electrode positions"
..

'" a.. 0
B.: 0
12000
..
'00
...-" , E
2.
.' "
0
0
. "
0.0. 0"
DO. 0."
0.13 0.15 0.11
0.'
0.0. 0.' 00. 11.11 0.0 0 .. 0.17
rt 1111
r Ul'll
1O"J
..
B.:0.01T B 0.01 T
""
'000

..
:E:5!
i '00

'"
0
0
."
DO'
.. , DO.
,,, ,,,
11.15 0"
,.,
0.' 00' 0" 0"
Oil O.IS OJ?
rIm)
""'.
Fig. 7.9
A,
Fig. 7.6, corresponding to run IV.
16000
OA
B;O
8,:0
12000
0'

8000 "
0.2
0

No
0
.

4000
0,'
0
0
-,.

-, 10 15
.,.
-10
10 15
zllG" m}
z CHI-
3
m)
20000
B.=0.07
o
B.= 0.07
16000 0'
12000 0'
800
Ijt; 0.2

0
N
"

..

4000 0.'
0
0
.,.
10
.,
,
10 -,. -10
10
,
z (,O-3
m
)
zt to-
3
m)
Fig. 7.10 A, Fig. 7.0, corresponding to run V.
- 63 -
VII.3 Electrode voltage and floating potential measurements
The electrical potential in the plasma has been measured as a funtion
of the radius by meanS of the determination of the floating potential
of an electrostatic probe in various positions. The measurement has
two different objectives, namely the determination of the influence
of the electrode boundary layers on the electrode voltage, and the
determination of the effective Hall parameter. From the various
leakage processes occurring in MHD generators (ref. 7.5), two effects
are expected to be important in the present experiment, viz. the
influence of electrode boundary layers, and ionisation instabilities.
The former process can be examined by comparing the distribution of
the plasma potential along the radius with the measured electrode
voltage. The presence of ionisation instabilities has been investigated
by the determination of wTeff from the open circuit voltage, the
averaged plasma velocity, and the electron pressure difference at the
electrodes, which quantities are approximately related in the

4>

4>"0
.J:l
CO
0
c!::


.- u a.
O.!!
0-
... 4>
0 ... 4>
...
+
120K
120K
I
oscillo-
oscillo-
----t
scope
scope
I
Ru
l
Fig. 7.1 I Electrical circuit for measuring floating potentials and electrode voltages.
following way:
v =
oc
- 64 -
Ap
~ + wteff u
r
B L
n e
e
(VII.5)
where Ap is the electron pressure difference between the electrodes,
e
and n , WT ff' u and B the averaged electron density, effective
e e r
Hall parameter, radial velocity, and magnetic induction
respectively, and L the distance between the electrodes.
To determine the time when the plasma arrives at the inner and the
outer electrode rings, saturated ion currents were measured with a
double probe at r = 0.07 and 0.14 m. As a result of this measurement
characteristic passage times in both positions are given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Plasma passing times tin and tout at the inner
and Quter electrodes for different values of
the magnetic induction Bo'
B
t. t
0
~ n out
(T)
(psec) (psec)
0.01
170 250
0.02 185
260
0.03
200 270
0.04 215
280
0.05 2 ~
310
0.06 245
330
0.07
260 340
0.09 285
350
The measured open circuit voltage reaches its maximum values on the
outer electrode passage times. Apparently the generator is then filled
with plasma in an optimal way. The results of the measurements are
given for these times only. Moreover, a value of the averaged radial
plasma velocity can be derived from Table 7.3:
u = (1000 + 140) m/sec, not significantly depending on B
r _ 0
- 65 -
The el&ctrical potential in the plasma is determined by measuring
the floating potential of a single electrostatic probe relative to
the inner electrode. The electrical circuit is given in Fig. 7.11.
The considered experimental conditions are listed below:
capacitor bank voltage: VB = 5.5 kV;
discharge delay time 'disch = 950 psec (for both guns);
probe position r = 0,075,0.090,0.105,0.120 and 0.131 m;
magnetic induction
load resistance
B =
o
0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07 and
0.09 T;
R = 100, 2 and 0.2 n.
u
The floating potential relative to the inner electrode is given in
Fig. 7.12 as a function of r. The voltage of the outer electrode
with respect to the inner one is also given in Fig. 7.12.
Fig. 7.12 shows, that the electric field in the generator is not
significantly affected by the external resistance. This indicates that
the resistance of the electrode boundary layer exceeds by far the
plasma resistance, so that the measurements can give no information on
the behaviour of a loaded generator. The shifts of the potential
curves due to variations of the load may be explained by the lowering
of the electrode boundary layer resistance at larger currents
resulting from Joule heating. Open circuit voltages are derived from
Fig. 7.12 by linear extrapolation of the potential curves over the
regions from 0.075 to 0.070 and from 0.131 to 0.134 m. The measured
voltages are the measured floating potential differences AV
fl
between
inner and outer electrodes given in Table 7.4. AV
fl
is obtained for
each value of B as the average of the voltages resulting from the
o
various potential curves; the given error is calculated from the
scatter in these voltages.
Since for the used magnetic fields r
Li
is longer than AD and also
longer than the diameter of the probe electrode, the difference
between the floating potential and the plasma potential may be
given by (ref. 7.6):
- 66 -
12
8.= O.OlT 6 8.=O.02T
e
,
/1
.-1
O.
/A,//,/ I
,
.;>/ .
/
0
, , ~ / 0
"
4/
. 1
6.----
/r :
,
,
/
:;2
/'// I
/
-
/
~
./
,
I
-6 ____ -6 +
~
/
i
.-/
0.07 0.09 0.1\ 0.13
0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13
rem) r (m)
1 8.= O. O3T
12 8.:0.04T
~
r
~ /
8
I
8
,;;.
~
I
/
....
/
:::4
>4
...--:t1
/. /
-
,-- /
-
.1
0.07 0.09 OJl 0.\3
r (m)
rem)
o Electrode voltage at ~ : D)Q
+.. .. Ru:2 Q
N " Ru: 0.2Q
---0- ~ . 1 0 0 ~
--4-- 1t.2 Q
- --- It-0.2Q
Fig. 7.12 The floating potential V
fl
as a function of the radius for various values of Bo and
the load resistance.

16
B.:O.05T
12
Ij
,/
1/
1/
/-
/
I

0;

. "::::..A
-
>-
0
0.07 0.09
rem)
16
a,.O.07T
12
8
0.07 0.09
rem}
0.11
0.11
Ru100n
---4--- Ru. 2 n
------ Rue 0.2 Q
- 67 -
16
BrO.06T 1>---
I -
-0
12
//

1/

0
8
/J
/?
/-.
A/
.....
4
,/.'"
>
//
.....
Y

0.13
0.07

0.11 0.13
18
o
0.13 0.07 0.09 0.11 Q.13
r (m)
o Electrode voltage at lOOn
+.. .. R
u
.2 n
... .. Q
Fig. 7.12 Continued.
.., 68 -
Table 7.4 Measured floating potential difference ~ v between the electrodes, potential difference
-4 1
4.4 x 10 ATe between the electrodes caused by the difference between floating
potential and plasma potential, potential difference APe/nee between the electrodes
caused by the electron pressure gradient, and the Hall voltage WT U BLat
eff r .
variDus values of the magnetic induction B .
o
~ p
10-
4 - -
B (T)
6Vfl (V) 4.4 ~ T (V)
e
(V) BL (V) x
WT U
eff 0
0.01 0.78
0.02 3.48
0.03 9.5
0.04 9. I
0.05 10.6
0.06 11.1
0.07 11.8
0.09 15.0
+ 0.02
-
+ 0.12
-
+ 0.4
-
+ 0.4
-
+ 0.5
-
+ 0.1
-
+ 0.7
-
+ 1.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
kT
e
= Ie
e
0.2
~ 0.1
0.6 + 0.2
1.1 + 0.4
-
1.4 + 0.5
1.6
~ 0.5
1.6 + 0.5
1.7 + 0.5
1.7 + 0.5
-
m
In
(2!. -=.)
2 m
- r
n e
e
- 0.5 + 0.1 0.8 + 0.2
-
-
- 0.6 + 0.1 3.5 + 0.2
- -
- 0.8 + 0.2 9.2 + 0.6
- -
- 0.9 + 0.2 8.6 + 0.7
- -
- 0.9 + 0.2 9.9 + 0.7
- -
- 0.9 + 0.2 10.4 + 0.5
- -
- 0.9 + 0.2 11.0 + 0.9
- -
- 0.9 + 0.2 14.2 + 1.4
- -
(VII. 6)
According to eq. (VII.6) the values of tlV
fI
and the open circuit
-4
voltages differ by 4.4 x 10 tlT, where tlT is the electron temperature
e e
difference at the outer and inner electrode. Using eq. (VII.S), values
of w'eff can be calculated from
values of tlp In e, ~ , E and L.
e e r
the open circuit voltages and the
The values of 4.4 x 10-
4
tlT and
e
tlp In e are estimated from the results of the probe measurements of
e e
run I (see the preceding section, Fig. 7.6). In table 7.4 tlV
fl
,
4.4 x 10-
4
tlT , tlp In e and WT ff ~ E L are listed at various values
e e e e r
of B In Fig. 7.13 WT ff ~ E L is given as a function of E, where B
o e r
is equal to the value of E at r = 0.1 m, which is 0.85 B according
o
to eq. (IV.2). With u
r
= 1000 + 140 mlsec and L = 0.07 m, w'eff is
calculated. Fig. 7.14 shows how w'eff depends on B. The shaded area.
indicates the uncertainty in the "level" of the curve caused by the
uncertainty in the determination of u
r
and L. The discussion of
Fig. 7.14 is given in chapter VIII.
- 69 -
15
10
I
/
I
I
>
/
~
/
'01
I
l:i
I
5
/

13
/
A
/
/
/
/
/
,i
/
/
n02 OD4 0.06 0.08
em
Fig. 7.13 Hall voltage w1eff u
r
B L as a function of the magnetic induction B. The dashed
parabola through the origin fits the first three experimental points, assuming
Wl
etE
= ~ for these points.
6
5
4
3
2
!
!
/
I
o ~ - - - - - . ~ - - - - - - ~ ~ ____ - . ~ ______ ~
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
8m
Fig. 7.14 The effective Hall parameter w'eff' as a function of the magnetic induction B. The
dashed line through the origin fits the first three experimental points, assuming
w1"!ff = ~ for these points. The shaded region shows the uncertainty in the level
of the curve caused by the uncertainty in the determination of the plasma velocity
and the generator length.
-: 70 -
VII.4 Spectroscopic measurements
The electron temperature and density are also determined from the
intensity of some argon radiation lines for which the plasma is
optically thin. The experimental set-up is sketched in Fig. 7.15.
'<--.lJ----------
Fig. 7.15 Experimental arrangement of the spectroscopic measurements.
Radiation intensities are determined by measuring the anode current
of a photmultiplier connected to
to the plasma radiation and that
a monochromator. The response due
due to a calibrated
lamp are compared. Fig. 7.15 shows how two images of
tungsten ribbon
the tungsten
ribbon are formed: one in the disc and one at the slit S of the
monochromator. The magnifying factor of both images is equal to one
and the dimensions of the ribbon are larger than those of S, so that
S can be filled completely with light from the lamp. The aperture of
the monochromator is smaller than that of the rest of the optical
system. The light absorption of the glass walls is measured by comparing
the photomultiplier output resulting from the lamp situated either in the
position A (see Fig. 7.15) or just before S. The light intensity of the
lamp at A is reduced owing the absorption in the by 10 %, the
absorption being slightly dependent on the wavelength in the region
from 6000 to 9000 The resolution of the spectrometer is determined
by measuring the half-widths of the spectral lines of a mercury
discharge tube; a half-width of 0.33 is found, not depending on the
wavelength within a region from 6000 to 9000 R.
- 71 -
The intensity of some argon lines are determined, using the
emissivity of tungsten, as given by De Vos (ref. 7.7). As shifting
of the image of the tungsten ribbon in the disc over 1.5 cm yields
only a reduction of detected radiation by about 40 %, it has been
assumed that the detected plasma radiation originates from a volume,
which is given by the area of S and the distance between the glass
walls, which is 3 cm.
From the transition probabilities, as given by Olsen (ref. 7.S) and
from the measured line intensities, the populations of some excited
levels of the neutral and singly ionised argon atoms are found. To
derive the electron temperature from these levels, local thermodynamic
equilibrium (LTE) has to be assumed at least for the energy levels
considered. T then follows from Boltzmann's equations' of state:
e
and n from:
e
2
n
~ =
N
m
2g'
o
{ - (E - E )/kT }
m n e
exp { - (E. - E )/kT }
1a m e
where g' is the statistical weight of the ion ground state.
o
(VII.7)
(VII.S)
Eqs.
of a
(VII.7) and (VII.S) can be applied for N , being the population
m
neutral argon state, while (VII.7) can also be used when the
states of ionised atoms are involved. As pointed out by Griem (ref. 7.9),
the validity of LTE for any level can be examined by comparing the
total rate of collisional excitations of atoms in the level considered
and the probability of radiative decay from that level. Requiring
the collisional processes to exceed the radiative ones by a factor 10,
in the case of hydrogen-like atoms this procedure leads to the
following criterion for partial LTE:
n
e
7
z
17/2
n
q
- 72 -
kT
(_e_) 1/2
2
z EH
-3
m (VII. 9)
where z is the nuclear charge, n is the principal quantum number of
q
the considered atomic state and EH is the ionisation energy of hydrogen.
The temperature T appears in the formula, as for the plasmas considered
e
electron atom collisions constitute the majority of the collisional
excitations. Griem suggests that the criterion is approximately valid
for other than hydrogen-like atoms. Substituting in eq. (VII.9)
n = 3 x 10
20
m-
3
and T
e e
= 9000 oK, the critical value n is found to
q
be between 2 and 3 for neutrals and between 4 and 5 for singly ionised
atoms. In the present experiment AI lines from states with principal
quantum numbers equal to 3, 4 and 5 are examined, and All lines resulting
from states with principal quantum number equal to 4.
The experiment has been
0.05 T. A plasma volume
carried out for values of B equal to 0 and
o
at r = 0.1 has been examined. The other
experimental conditions are equal to those of run IV of the probe
measurements (see Table 7.2). In Table 7.5 the wavelengths, the used
transition probabilities of the detected transitions, their energy,
the weight factors of the initial states and their populations are
listed. The experimental errors in the populations are derived from
the scatters in three similar photomultiplier signals and from
estimated errors of the transition probabilities. Fig. 7.16 shows how
the values of N Ig are correlated with those of E By fitting the
m m m
experimental points to straight lines using the least squares method,
the values of Te have been found. Applying the Saha equation (VII.B)
with the found values of T and N for the neutral atoms substituted,
e m
ne is determined. The results are given in Table 7.6. They will be
discussed and compared with the results of the other diagnostics in
chapter VIII.

E In Cllfll JoIIl<l:J
.ID
Allin ...
8"o.oST
."
n'
'"
16,0

Em t Ur'-JouLe)
.'"
.,,
.,.
" .
. ,.
All
1.10.05 T
Fig. 7.16 Populations N
m
of excited states of A I and A II, divided by the weight factors gm
involved. as functions of the energy of the states.
- 74 -
7,5 h'aveLengths Aand transition probabilities Anm of the detected radi,.tions, and configurations,
weight factors gm' eOE'rgies Em' and populations N
m
of the lnitial states. The population
calculated from the 4164 R radiation in the case of B = 0 and that calculated from 4266 R
qR)
3949
4046
4159
4164
4182
4198
4251
4259
4266
4272
4300
4334
433.5
4345
4510
5559
5572
5607
5651
6032
6059
4347
4579
4610
4807
o
l-adiation in the case of B
o
O.OS T have been omitted for st.:ltistical reasons. The other
omissions are due to too low radiation intensities.
N
m
(m-
3
)
N

N
m
A (10
7
sec) config.
gm
E (10-
18
Joule) B
0 B 0.05 T
nm m 0 0
init. state
0.017
3P3
5 2.353 6.7 x 10
13
(22 %) I. 7 x 10
13
(24 %)
0.037 3P
3
5 2.353 5.0 x
1013
(12 %) L3x
10 13
(17 %)
0.119
3P6
5 2.328 8.4 x
1013
(53 %) l. 7 x
10 13
(51 %)
0.022 3P
7
3 2.327
- 2.0 x
10 13
(28 Z)
0.041 3P
2
3 2.353 6.1 x 10
13
(17 %) 1.6 x 10
13
(29 %)
0.245 3P
5
I 2.335 7.2
x 1013
(21 %) I. 7 x 10
13
(20 %)
0.008
3PlO
3 2.317 10.1 x 10
13
(22 2.6 x 10
13
(42 %)
0.324 3p
,
I 2.361 5.6 x
10 13
(27 X) 1.5 x
1013
(30 %)
0.027
3P6
5 2.328 6.1 x 10
13
(20 %) -
0.061
3P7
3 2.327 7.8 x
1013
(26 X) 2.2 x 10
13
(23 %)
0.034
3P6
5 2.324 5.6 x 10
13
(17 X) 2.3 x
1013
(24 %)
0.048
3P
3
5 2.353 5.0 x 10
13
(26 X) 1. 8 x 10
13
(30 %)
0.037
3P2
3 2.353 4.5 x 10
13
(26 X) 1.5 x
1013
(31 X)
0.027
3P4
3 2.352 5.0 x
10 13
(20 X) 1.5 x
10 13
(34 %)
0.102 3P
5
I 2.335 5.0 x 10
13
(23 %) 2.5 x
10 13
(36 %)
0.083 5d
3
5 2.425 2.4 x 10
13
(33 X) 0.9 x 10
13
(31 X)
0.039
5, I 7 2.454 2.6 x 10
13
(33 %) 1.1 x 10
13
(39 %)
0.150 5d
5
3 2.422 2.6 x 10
13
(30 X) 1.0 x 10
13
(31 %)
0.190 5d
, I 2.419 4.1
x 10 13
(34 %) 1.1 x 10
13
(35 %)
0.210 5d
4
9 2.424 2.1 x
10 13
(33 %) 6.6 x
1013
(35 %)
0.038
4'1
5 2.396 3.2 x
lOll
(35 %) -
11.5 8 3.119
- 6. I
x 1011
(15 X)
7.44 2 3.196
- 3. I
x 1011
(12 %)
9.06 8 3.383
- 6.8 x
10 11
(14 %)
7.86 6 3.076 - 10.0 x
1011
(22 X)
Table 7.6 Electron temperatures Te and densities ne as measured in the spectroscopic investigation,
at two values of the magnetic induction Bo,from A I and A II lines.
B = 0, A I B = 0.05 T, A I B = 0.05 T, All
0 0 0
T (7800 800)
OK
. (8900 ...
1100)
0
.(8900 400)
OK
+ .. K. +
e - - -
(4.5 + 1.0)
x
10
20 -3
(3.0 0.8) .10
20 -3
-
n m +
x
.m
e - -
- 7S -
VII.S Microwave measurements
The electron density is also examined by means of the
reflexion of microwaves against the plasma. A wave guide, inserted
in the plasma through the torus of the disc is used as a microwave
probe. The probe can be used, either separated from the plasma by a
thin window (thickness much smaller than the wavelength), or by a
window of a thickness equal to (2q + 1)/4 times the wavelength
(with q an integer).
The reflexion coefficient R for the reflexion of the wave against the
plasma in the case of a thin window is given by:
with N
w
plasma,
N - N
R = I RI eiq, =
w p
(VII. 10)
and N the refraction coefficient of the wave guide and the
p
respectively. The total reflexion coefficient in the case of
a (2q + 1)/4 lambda window is given by:
N
2
- N N
W P
N
2
+ N N
(VII. lOa)
W P
where N is the refraction coefficient of the window. The refraction

coefficients N ,N and N can be expressed in characteristic properties
p w
of the plasma, the waveguide and the window material as follows:
w
}1/2
w
}1/2
N
=
{ I
_(2/
'V {
I -

(VII.II)
p w I - iv Iw
'V
W
c
N
=
{ I - (A/2b)2
}1/2
(VII. 12)
w
N

=
{
r
_ (A/2b)2 }1/2
(VII. 13)
- 76 -
where w is the plasma frequency, w/2n the microwave frequency, v
p c
the collision frequency of the electrons, A the wavelength in vacuum,
"r the relative permittivity of the window material, and b the length
of the lowest side of the waveguide cross-section. Writing was:
p
2
n e /
w = (_e_) I 2
pm"
e 0
(VII. 14) .
it follows from eq. (VII. II) that N can be expressed in the electron
p
density:
N
P
(I - n /n )1/2
e ecr
(VII. II a)
with the critical electron density n being the electron density at
ecr
which wp equals w:
n
ecr
2
w " m
o e
2
e
(VII. 15)
Inserting eqs. (VII. II a), (VII. 12) and (VII. 13) in eqs. (VII. 10) and
(VII. lOa), it follows that I RI = I and phase shifts occur,
In the cases of a thin window and of a (2q + 1)/4 lambda
ifn
e
> n
ecr
window, the
phase changes are given by the following expressions, respectively:
, -- '",0 [ C:
n
;:;,:" )"']
(VII. 16)
~ = TI - 2 arc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - -
tg
[(
{ 1- (A/2b)2} (ne/necr - I) )1/2]
{" _ (A/2b)2 }2
r
(VII. 16a)
By measuring ~ the electron density can be determined. A (2q + 1)/4
lambda window with high "r results in a smaller ~ compared with a
thin window,
measurement,
at the same ne. This may enhance the accuracy of the
especially if n n
e ecr
- 77 -
The measurement of is carried out with a 4 mm microwave bridge at
a wave frequency of 68.5 Gcls and using a 514 lambda window of
polyethylene (E = 2.3). The probe is enveloped in teflon tape in
r
order to achieve electrical insulation from the plasma. A diagram
of the bridge is shown in Fig. 7.17.
5tobillnd
power $\lppt,
modulalor
V--_...JJ
----"
to oscilloscope
to os ilto5tope
&dB
diredionot micrawan probe
coupler
Fig. 7.17 Microwave bridge diagram.
The measuring branch and the reference branch have unequal lengths.
Let the difference between the two paths be introducing at the
hybrid tee a phase difference The response of the hybrid tee is
schematically given in Fig. 7.18 with Al and A2 the amplitudes of
waves in the measuring branch and the reference branch respectively.
H E
- - A, ... A.sin(wt.q,I- .... ... ,
Fig. 7.18 Scheme of the response of the hybrid tee.
- 78 -
The responses
R]
and R
Z
of the crystals are given by:
R]
1. A Z
+
1. A
Z
- A A cos (</> -
l!.4
!
Z ] Z Z I Z
(VII. 17)
R
Z
=
1. A
Z
+ 1. A
Z
+
AIA
Z
cos (</> - ll</
Z ]
Z Z
Subtraction of the two signals with a differential amplifier yields
the final signal:
(VII. 18)
In the given experiment the clystron is modulated with a block pulse
causing a frequency modulation QV 40 Mc/s. This results in a
modulation of ll<P:
(VII. W
c { I - (J.../Zb) }
With III 1.7 m, adjusting of the amplitude of the block pulse and the
phase shifters in the reference branch results in two signals on the
oscilloscope, one with ll</> = TI/Z and one with ll</> = 0 (see Fig. 7.19).
The ratio of the two signals is equal to tg <p.
Fig. 7.19 Signal obtained from an electrostatic probe (upper signal) and signals obtained from
the microwave reflexion probe (lower signals). The height of the middle signal is
proportional to the sine and that of the lower signal proportion;l to the cosine of
the phase angle .
Vertical scales: 2mA/div (upper signal), arbitrary units (lower signals). Horizontal
scale:
For a more detailed description of this method of determining the
electron density, compare refs. 7.10, 7.11 and 7.IZ.
- 79 -
Table 7.7 Phase changes ~ of waves reflected against the plasma and values of the electron density
ne at various values of the radius r and the magnetic induction Bo'
(in degrees)
n (10
20
m-
3
)
e
r(m) B = 0 B = 0.05 T B = 0 B = 0.05 T
0 0 0 0
0.035 115 + 10 115 + 10 9.9 + 2.3 9.9 + 2.3
- - -
-
0.08 106 + 10 119 + 10 7.3 + 1.5 11.5 + 2.8
- - -
-
O. 10 109 + 10 115 + 10 8.0 + 1.7 9.9 + 2.3
-
- - -
O. 12 100 + 10 114 + 10 6.0 + 1.2 9.5 + 2.2
- - -
-
0.16 90 + 10 92 + 10 4.4
""
.0.8 4.7 + 0.9
- - - -
The experiment has been carried
By shifting the microwave probe
out for values of B equal to 0 and 0.05 T.
o
radially the electron density has been
determined at various values of the radius: 3.5, 8, 10, 12 and 16 em. The
other experimental conditions were equal to those of run IV of the
electrostatic probe measurements (see Table 7.2). The measured phase
angles and the electron densities are given in Table 7.7.
The results are discussed in chapter VIII.
VII.6 Piezo-electric crystal measurements
TIle total gas pressure has been measured with a quartz piezo-electric
pressure transducer mounted on a probe which can be moved radially in
the disc. The charge signal of the transducer is amplified and trans-
formed to a proportional output voltage in a charge amplifier. A block
diagram is given in Fig. 7.20.
r ""] ~
L + j""u L..-__ .......Jloutput<at/V)
piezoelec:tric
transducer
e lec:trostatic
c:harge! amplific:r
Fig. 7.20 Scheme of the pressure measurement with the piezo-electric crystal.
- 80 -
The system is capable of measuring pressures in the range of 0.005 to
2.5 at. at a time-resolving power of 10 The total gas pressure
has been measured at various values of the radius: 4.5, 8, 10, 12 and
16 em, in the case of
conditions were equal
B equal to 0 and 0.05 T. The other experimental
o
to those of run IV of the electrostatic probe
measurements (see Table 7.2). Electric insulation of the probe is
obtained by enveloping it with teflon tape. As an example, the response
of the pressure transducer is shown in Fig. 7.21.
Fig. 7.21 Response of the piezo-electric pressure transducer.
Verticale scale: 0.01 at/div. Horizontal scale: 50
The results of the measurement are shown in Table 7.8.
Table 7.8 Total gas pressuresPgmeasured by means of a piezo-electric pressure transducer at various
values of the radius r and the magnetic induction B .
o
p (Torr)
rem)
B
=
0 B =
0.05 T
0
0
0.045
27.4 + 3. 1 35.0 + 3.8
0.08
12.2 + 2.3 15.2 + 1.5
0.10
11.4 + 1.5
9.9 + 1.5
0.12
9. 1 + 1.5
7.6 + 1.5
0.16
6. 1 + 1.5 3.0 + 2.3
The results are discussed iu the following chapter.
- 81 -
CHAPTER VIII
Discussion of the experimentaZresuZts
The results of the probe measurements show a good evidence of electron
temperature elevation (see Figs. 7.6 to 7.9). The differences between
the values of the electron temperature at the inlet of the channel
and the maximum values of the series with B
o
o
~ 0.03 T vary from 3000
to 8000 K. As expected, no enhancements are found
0.01 T. The experimental points, especially those
for B = 0 and
o
belonging to run I,
show a drop of Te at longer radii. No unique explanation of this effect
can be given.
The importance of heat transport to the walls correlated to wall
friction has been investigated by considering the gas as a one-
dimensional, fully developed turbulent flow. The influence of the
process on the gas temperature has been examined assuming the wall
temperature to be much smaller than the gas temperature by.means of
the following equation (ref. 8.1):
dT
T
2f ~
D
(VIlLI)
with D the hydraulic diameter of the channel and f the friction
coefficient, given by:
-2
f = 4.6 x 10 (VIII. 2)
ReD is the Reynolds' number related to the hydraulic diameter and ~ is
the viscosity of the medium. The reduction of the temperature after
0.15 m appeared to be < 300 oK for the experimental conditions
considered. An experimental argument for the flow being one-dimensional
and turbulent is found in the measurement of nand
e
the axial distance, carried out at B = 0 and 0.05 T
T as functions of
e
(see Fig. 7.10).
Although the measurement at B = 0.05 T can only be interpreted with
o
some restrictions, because different directions of the probe surface
with respect to the magnetic field are used, there is no indication of
- 82 -
cosine-shaped temperature profiles characterizing a laminar flow
between cold walls.
The electron temperatures as measured by the spectroscopic method
may be compared with the probe measurements of run III (see Table 7.2);
only the magnetic field strengths differ (0.05 T in the former and
0.07 T in the latter case), and the position r = 0.1 m, Z = 0 is not
examined explicitly by the probe. For B = 0 the two methods agree,
o
whereas for B + 0 lower values of T
o e
are found by the spectroscopic
method. From the analysis of chapter IV, no indication can be found
that the discrepancy may be caused completely by the magnetic field
strengths being different. The problem connected with the interpretation
of the spectroscopically determined state populations is the assumption
of LTE. Eq. (VII.9) cannot be considered as a sharply defined criterion,
as strictly speaking the relationship is only valid for hydrogen-like
atoms. If eq. (VII.9) is valid, then the existence of LTE is still
questionalble in the
n = 4 for A II. The
q
may have been caused
case of the states with n = 3 for A I and with
q
disagreement at B + 0 with the probe measurements
by the circumstance that in the non-equilibrium
plasma conditions the LTE assumption is not applicable to the particles
of all levels considered, so that the populations of the states are no
longer completely controlled by the electron temperature.
No significant electron density enhancement due to magnetically induced
ionisation has been found, neither by the probe measurements, nor by
the spectroscopic or microwave methods. Moreover, the values given by
the first method differ by almost one order of magnitude from those
obtained by the second and the third.
The development of NEI.is much more difficult to observe than the
development of ETE, because the ionisation relaxation length has the
same magnitude as the dimension of the disc. If the relaxation length
is increased by ionisation instabilities, as suggested in chapter V,
the result may be a complete vanishing of the effect in the experiment
described. The NEI is also made observable with difficulty by the
circumstance that the electron density at the channel inlet is much
higher than predicted by the Saha equation. For the positions
- 83 -
concerned (r ~ 0.16 m) only a small increase of n can be expected
e
from the analysis of chapter IV. The predicted increase of the degree
of ionisation should be verified experimentally by comparing the
behaviour of ne as a function of r for Bo = 0 and for Bo ~ o. This
comparison is made difficult by the circumstance that the production
of the plasma and its transport through the pyrex tube is affected
by the magnetic field, generally resulting in higher values of n at
e
the channel inlet for B ~ 0, as shown by the probe measurements.
o
Besides from the probe measurements an indication of this correspondence
between a higher degree of ionisation and a higher magnetic field
strength is found as a result of the spectroscopic measurements.
When applying the magnetic field, the excited states of neutral argon
are depopulated (see Table 7.6), whereas the population of the A II
levels increases (at B = 0 the radiation could not even be measured).
o
It may be expected that the microwave method results in too high
values of the electron density, because the normal to the window
surface was directed opposite to the flow. However, this effect cannot
explain the difference between the values measured by the electrostatic
probe and the microwave probe. In chapter VII it has already been
suggested that the values of n as measured by the probe would be too
e
low because the probe dimensions are larger than the electron mean
free path. The first order agreement between the values obtained by
the other diagnostic methods indicates in any case that the probe
value is too low.
The plasma velocity is determined by comparing probe signals at
different probe positions as well as by comparing photomultiplier
responses due to plasma radiation originating from differently
located volumes (see Fig. 8.1).
Fig. 8.1 Photomultiplier respoqses owing to radiation from plasma volumes at r = O.lOm (left) and at
r = 0.14 m (right).
-6 -6
Vertical scales: 8.9 x)O A/div. (left) and 3.9 x to A/div. (right). Horizontal scales:
50 ]..Isee/div.
- 84 -
Both methods show the same difficulties: the time shifts are smaller
than the time interval defined by the signals and the displayed
pictures show a deformation; especially the part representing the gas
front is affected, as might be expected. Both methods result in
estimations of the radial plasma velocities between 1000 and 1500 m/sec.
The basic equations of chapter III predict only good generator
performance if u is larger than sound velocity: otherwise the flow
r
stagnates and the Lorentz force tends to zero. Flow stagnation does
not occur in the experiment, as can be concluded from the measured
velocities and from the measured open circuit Hall voltages. However,
the increase of the plasma velocity as predicted by the analysis of
chapter IV has not been observed, which indicates a deviation from
the stationary behaviour.
The displayed responses of the piezo-electric crystal have similar
shapes as the signals of the probe and the only as
far as the first part of the pulse is concerned (see Fig. 7.21).
Apparently the plasma is followed by an amount of colder gas with a
comparatively high density. Since the normal to the crystal surface
was directed opposite to the flow, the flow stagnates against the
crystal surface, thus causing the pressures measured to be too high.
No cold gas is found to flow in advance of the plasma. The degree
of ionisation derived from the measured n and from n as determined
a e
by the microwave method and from the plasma radiation, is about I %.
At that ionisation rate the Coulomb collisions constitute the majority
of the electron elastic collisions.
The measurement of the floating potentials of the electrostatic probe
have shown that the electrode boundary layers represent an electrical
resistance greater than the plasma resistance. It has been tried
to improve this situation by heating the cathode electrically up
to 2400 oK before the passage of the plasma. The current through
the load is enlarged by a factor two owing to the heating of the
cathode (see Fig. 8.2), demonstrating the reduction of the
resistance of the electrode boundary layer. However, the latter
remains greater than the plasma resistance. The presence of
ionisation instabilities is demonstrated in Fig. 7.14. The behaviour
- 85 -
Fig. 8.2 Generator output voltage at an external resistance of 0.2 n and a magnetic induction Bo equal
to 0.07 T. The lower signals correspond to measurements with preheated cathode rings, the
upper signals correspond to measurements with cold electrodes.
wTeff shows agreement with the results of other experiments (refs. 8.2,
8.3, 8.4 and 8.5). For B < 0.03 T, WT ff is proportional to B and it
o '" e
may be assumed that for those values of the magnetic field wTeff is
equal to WT. If B exceeds 0.03 T, apparently WT reaches the critical
o
value. The measured WT
cr
is equal to 5.0 ~ 0.5, which is a rather
high value. However, especially the dependence on the plasma
velocity determination makes the absolute measurement of WT inaccurate.
cr
For WT >
WT. The
5 the ionisation instabilities cause wTeff to
critical Hall parameter as calculated from eq.
be smaller than
(V.20) is equal
to 2.2, presupposing the following plasma conditions are
of the whole generator volume: n = 3 x 10
20
m-
3
; n = 3
e 0 a
representative
x 10
22
m-
3
u
er
= u = 1000 m/sec; T
r e
12000 oK; T 8000 ~ and B = 0.025 T.
(This value of B represents the situation where WT = WT .) The
cr
influence of ionisation instabilities on the electrical properties of
an MED medium has been described in detail in ref. 8.6 from a plane
wave model. Fig. 7.14 shows first order agreement with the results of
that theory.
Assuming ;;eff = WT for Bo ~ 0.03 T, the total electron elastic
collision frequency is determined as:
- 9 -I
v = (1.0 + 0.2) x 10 sec If n = 3 x
c - e
Spitzer's theory (ref. 2.4) predicts
experimental value of v and from n
c e
v =
c
= 3 x
scalar electrical conductivity is derived:
in an internal resistance of the generator
20 -3
10 m and T = 12000
9 _I e
3 x 10 sec From the
20 -3
10 m the averaged
a = 8500 mho/m, resulting
-3
equal to 4.6 x 10 n at
- 86 -
B = 0.02 T. (This value of B corresponds to a situation where
o 0
WT < WT .) For a load of about 0.2 Q the electrode voltage has dropped
cr
to half the open circuit value, which demonstrates that the electrode
boundary layers represent a greater resistance than the plasma.
The experimental determinations of T ,n and n are compared with
e ea.
the solutions of the basic equations in one case, namely run III.
The initial conditions for the differential equations of Table 3.2 are
chosen as close as possible to the following experimental results:
20 -3
T = 7500 oK at r =
e
if Bo = 0; na = 3 x
0.035 m if B
22 -3 0
10 m at r
= O' n = 3 x
, e
10 m at r = O. I m
= 0.1 m if B = 0; u =
o r
u ,i.e.
er
slightly higher than sound velocity at the channel inlet; furthermore
it has been assumed that T = T at the channel inlet. For B = 0
eo'
0.05 and 0.07 T solutions are given in Fig. 8.3. The experimental values
of T ,n and
e e
n are also given in Fig. 8.3. The most important
a
results of the comparison between analysis and experiment can be
summarised as follows:
- The electron temperature is higher than predicted, if B = 0, and
o
lower if B
o
+ O. ETE has been demonstrated, although the effect
is not as large as predicted. The values of T
e
as obtained by the
spectroscopic measurement and those of the electrostatic probe
measurement differ if B + O.
- The results of the electron density measurements show a discrepancy
between the different diagnostic methods. The occurrence of NEI
cannot be concluded from the graph, partially because no clear
evidence of the effect can be expected from one single curve.
- The measured total gas pressures show first-order agreement with
the analysis, although the decrease of the pressure as a function
of the radius due to the expansion of the medium is less than
expected.
16
11(0)
000
22.0
"0 *
'00
- 87 -
,

probe measurements.

<\0'
e,..O.D7T
<\00
EI,oOOST

/ I
/
r (m)
0, , 0,07
OD'
probe measurements, a,. 0
.8.- o.on
D. spectroscopic .9.,- 0
... .a..0.05T
o m"rtIW .. ,e,.. 0
,e.,. O,01T
a
0.11
b

, '
0.13 0.15
",

Fig. 8.3
rCm)
c
pino -tItdric: crystal me"'l.ftITIenlS. s.- 0
.1\.0005r
Comparison between the experiments and the analysis:
a. variations of the electron temperature T with the radius
e
b. variations of the electron density ne with the radius r,
c. variations of the total
g"' pres sure P g with the radius r.
r,
- 88 -
CHAPTER IT
Conclusions
Starting from Boltzmann's equation and Maxwell's equations, a method
has been developed of analysing the medium of Hall type MHD generators.
The relaxation processes as well as the behaviour of the two-temperature
plasma have been described. The Hall electric field appears to be
essentially influenced by the presence of space charge, for exact
electric neutrality yields overdetermination of the problem by
imposing n. to be equal to n
~ e
to n , it has been possible to
e
with respect to the calculated
Assuming n. to be approximately equal
~
find solutions that are consistent
variations in the electric field.
In this way of tackling the problem, Poisson's equation of space
charge has only been used to verify whether variations in the Hall
field are in agreement with the assumption of n ~ n ..
e ~ ~
The conditions for the set-in of ionisation instabilities have been
studied starting
the relationship
from the conservation equations for the electrons,
7 +
9.J = 0, and 9 x E = O. By comparing the ionisation
relaxation region of an MHD generator and the region where the two-
temperature plasma has been fully developed, it appears that the
ionisation instabilities are stimulated in the former region by two
effects:
The Hall parameter is larger there, as appears from the stationary
flow analysis.
The critical Hall parameter is smaller there, as follows from the
stability calculations.
The electron temperature has been measured in a direct way, using two
independent diagnostics, viz. electrostatic probes and detection of
optical radiation. The values obtained by the various methods agree
with each other if B = O. If B + 0 the spectroscopic method yields
lower values, probably because the populations of the excited stes are
not entirely controlled by the electron temperature in that case. The
- M -
measurements show an electron temperature elevation which qualitively
is in good agreement with the theory presented, demonstrating the
possibility of reaching ETE in an MHD generator.
The electron density has been determined by three diagnostic methods,
viz. the electrostatic probe, optical radiation and microwaves. The
values measured with the probe are considerably lower than those
measured using the other diagnostics, possibly caused by the
circumstance that the electron mean free path is smaller than the
probe dimensions. No evidence of non-equilibrium ionisation has been
found. The following two effects may be mainly responsible for the
absence of NEI:
In the experiment the flow cannot be considered stationary.
Ionisation instabilities will lengthen the ionisation relaxation
region.
The first effect is related to the described experiment only, whereas
the second has to be taken into account in practical MHD generators.
In the geometry considered, the most important mechanisms which
reduce the performance of the generator are the electrical resistance
of the electrode boundary layers and the ionisation instabilities. A
considerable influence of the ionisation instabilities on the Hall
voltages has been found in agreement with other experiments and
existing theories. The results confirm the statement that repression
of the ionisation instabilities will be necessary in order that
Hall type generators may be useful (ref. 9.1).
The theory presented, when adapted to the gas conditions of a
practical MHD generator, predicts sufficiently high electrical
conductivity in non-equilibrium conditions. After having achieved
in this experiment the experimental verification of ETE, the.
predictions about the behaviour of non-equilibrium media of MHD
generators will be examined further in our laboratory using plasmas
consisting of seeded argon with pressures> 1 atm and gas temperatures
of about 2000 oK. The next phase of the experimental investigations
- 90 -
concerns the performance of a non-equilibrium generator and the
properties of its working medium in MHD devices mounted on a
shock tube.
- 91 -
APPENDIX
Tables at the calculation of critical values of the Hall parameter
in the case of no Saha equilibrium
- 92 -
Table A.I Values of the electron temperature r(O), the electron enerRv loss due to elastic collisions A(O).
e .
T!O) (OK)
6000
6200
6400
6600
6800
7000
7200
1400
,
1600
1800

8000
8200
8400
8600
8800
9000
9200
9400
9600
6000
6200
6400
6600

" .. ol0

1000
7200
74"0
7600
7800
6000
6200
6400
6600
6800
1000
7200
7400
7600
7800
8(100
8200
8400

8600
:
8800
B
9000
9200
9400
9600
9BOO
10000
10200
10400
10600
10800
11000
11200
11400
the energy lost or gained by the electrons due to ionisations and recombinations ,
the Joule heating j(O)2/ a (O). the plasma velocity u, the electron density gradient in the
direction of the plasma velocity the number of ionisation minus three times the
e
number of recombinations (I - 3R){O), the "ionisation-recambinar.ion parameter" .<. and the
(0)
critical Hall parameter W1cr relating to the curves la, lh and Ie of Fig. 5.2 (see also Table 5.1) .
A(O)(Jm-
3
see-
1
) (Jm -3.
ec
-I)
. (0)2 -3 -I
-,
7n!O) lu(m-
4
)
(1-3R) (0) (m -3
sec
-1)
(0)
;roT (Jm uc )
u{msee )
"
.'
0<
1. S4 10+5 -
3.06 10+3 1.5 I I J+5
2)6 0 - 3.43 10+21 - 0.31 3. )0
1.80 10+5 - 2.18 10+3 1.18 lJ+5 295 0 - 2.5 ] 10+21 - 0.28 2.90
2.05 10+5 - 1.46 10+3 2.03 lJ+5 370 0 - 1.83 10+21 - 0.23 2.50
2.29 10+5 -
1.56 10+2 2.28 467 0 - 1.28 10 .. 21 - 0.14 2.13
2.52 ]0+5 6.83
10"1
2.52 1l"5 573 0 - 1.57 10 .. 20 - 0.07 I.B4
2.74 10+5 1.19
10"3
2.75
u"
5
66'
0 - I.B8
\0 ..
20 - 0.01 1.6i
2.96
\0+5 2.85 10"3 2.99 10"5
746 0 5.34 10"20
0.02 I. 5 7
3.11 10+5 5.39
10"3
3.22 \0 .. 5
."
0 1.54 10 .. 21 1.52
3.31 10+5 9.28
10"3
3.41 \0 .. 5 873 0 3.01 10 .. 21 0.'05 1.47
3.51 10+5 1.52 10 ..
4 3.72 10 .. 5 93'
0 5.17 10"21
0.05
3.71 10+5
10"4
4.01 \0"5
1011 0 B.34 10 .. 21 0.06 I. 3,.
3.96 10+5 3.68
10"4
4.33 10 .. 5 1099 0 1.29 10 .. 22 0.06 1. 34
4.15 10+5 5.53
10"4
4.70 10 .. 5 1110 0 1.95 10 ..
22 0.06 1.28
4.34 10+5 8.16 10 .. 4 5.15 10+5 1354 0 2.88 \ 0 ..
22 0.06 I
4.52 10 .. 5 1. 18 10 .. 5 5.10
10"5
1546 0 4.17
10"22
0.06 1. I]
4.70 10 .. 5 1.68 10"5 6.38
10"5 '807 0 5.93 10"22
0.06 1.01
4.88
10"5
2.36 10"5 7.24
10"5
2171 0 8.30 10 .. 22 0.07 G.90
5.06 10 .. 5 3.26 10+5 8.32
10"5
2693 0 1. 15 10 .. 23 0.07 0.79
5.24 10+5 4.45 10 .. 5 9.69 10"5
3410 0 1.56 10"23
0.01 0.66
5.41
10"3
4.51 10+0 5.42 10"3
744 0 -
6.21 10"]7 - 0.01 1.06
6.51 10+3 1. 38 10 .. 1 6.52 10"3
1069 0 3.33 1 0"]8
1.02 0.C1
7.62
10"3
3.05 10+ 1 1.65 10"3
1321 0 9.83 10 .. 18 J.04 0.11
8.13
10"3
6.06
10"1 8.19 10"3
IS 16 0 2. II 10"]9
0.04 C.66
9.86 10+3 1.13 10 .. 2 9.97
\0"3
1693 0 4.04 10"19 O.CS e.63
1.10 10 .. 4 2.04 10+2 1. 12 10 .. 4 1882 0 7.31 10 .. 19 o .P5 (,60
1.11 10+4 3.53
10"2
l. 25
10+
4 2112 0 1.21 10+20 0.05 C .56
]. 33
10+4 5.95 10 .. 2 1.39 10+4 0
7.IA
10+10 0.05 r. 51
1. 45 10 .. 4 9.14 10+2 1.55 \0 .. 4 2894 0 3.50 10"20
1).06 C.45
I. 57 10 .. 4 1.55 10"3 1.72 10 .. 4 3714 0 5.57 10"20 0.06 0.37
9.54 10+6 -
3.14
10"6
6.40
10+
6 >2, 0 - 3.46 10+24 - 0.33 5.13
1.10 10 .. 7 - 2.34
10"6
8.69 10 .. 6
'"
0 - 2.57 10 .. 14 - 0.34 4.06
I. 24 10 .. 1 - I. 78 10 .. 6 1.06 10+7 245
,
- 1.95 10+24 - 0.35 3.52
1. 37
10'" -
I. 31 10 .. 6 1.24 10+7 296 0 - 1.50 10+24 - 0.35 3.19
I. 49 10 .. 7 - 1.07 10 .. 6 1.39 10+7 14J
,
- 1.11 10+
24 - 0.36 2.96
1.61
10"7 -
8.35
10"5
1.52
10'"
389 0 - 9.12 10 .. 23 - 0.35 2. i8
1.71 10+7 - 6 . .52 10+5 1.65 10+7
'"
0 - 7.32 10 .. 2) - ').34 J .63
1.8\
10"1
- 4.99
10"5
I. 76
10'"
485 0 - 5.83 10 .. 23 - }.l0 2.48
1.91
10"1
- 3.62 10+5 1.87 10+1 539 0 - 4.60 10+
23 - 0.25 2.33
2.00 10+1 - 2.25 10 .. 5 1.97 10"1
597 0 -
3.54 10+
23 - 0.18 2.19
2.08 10+1 - 7.58 10 .. 4 2.01
10"7 65'
0 - 2.55 10 .. 23 - O. II 2.07
2.16
10"1
1.02 10 ..
5 2.17
10"1
'"
0 -
1.55 10+23 - 0.05 1.98
2.23 10+7 3.21
10"5
2.27 10+7 765 0 - 4.63 10 ..
22 - 0.01 1.9]
2.10 10+1 6.22
10"5 2.37 10+7
'"
0 8.17 10+
21 0.02 1.86
2.31
10"7
1.0 I 10+6 2.47 10+
7 865 0 2.39 10 ..
23 0.03 1.81
2.44
10"7
I. 54 10 .. 6 2.59 10+7 9>9 0 4.39 10 .. 23 0.05 I. 76
2.50
10+1 2.23 10+
6 2.12
10"1
98> 0 6.91 10+23 0.05 I. 72
2.56 10+7 3.15 10 .. 6 2.81
10 ..
7 1054 0 1.03 10 ..
24 0.06 1.66
2.61 10 .. 7 4.36
10"6
3.05
10"7
1143 0 \.46 10"14
0.06 1.59
2.67 10+7 5.<12
10+6 3.26 10 .. 7 1254 0 2.0\ 10 .. 24 0.07 1.51
2.72 10+1 7.93 10+
6 3.51 10+1 1392 0 2.71 10+24 0.07 1.44
2.77 10 .. 7 1.05 10+1 3.82 10+7 1568 0 3.60 10+24 0.07 1. 34
2.82 10+7 1.37
10'"
4.19 10+7 1792 0 4.72 10+24 0".07 1.24
2.86 10+7 1.77 10 .. 1 4.64
10'"
2019 0 6.11 10 ..
24 0.01 1.14
2.91 10+7 2.21 10+1 5.18
10'"
2446 0 7.82 10 .. 24 0.08 1.03
2.95 10 .. 7 2.89
10"7
5.84 10+7 2917 0 9.93 10 .. 24 0.08 0.93
2.99 10 .. 7 3.64 10+7 6.63 10+7 3521 0 1.25
0.(1-
0
.81
3.03 10+7 4.55 10+1 1.58 10+7 4291 0 1.56 10+25 0.08 0.13
- 93 -
Table A.2 As Table A.I. relating to the curves 2a and 2c of Fig. 5.2
<0) (<)K) A (0) (Jm-l.ec - \)
(Jm-
3
sec:-
I
)
. (0)2 -3 _\
-,
vn!O) lu(m-
4
)
(I-JR) (0) (m -3
se
c: -I) wT (0)
Be" ) u(mBec: ) 0
,
"
6000 1.17 10"S - 3.13 10. 3 1.14
10.5 22, 0 - 3.45
10+21 - n,33 J. 52
6200 1.35
10 ..
5 - 2.33
10 .. 3 \,J3 \0+5 265 0 - 2.57
10+21 - 0.33 3.22
6400 1,52
10
+5 - l. 75 10+3 1.50 10+5 J09 0 - 1.94 10+21 - 0,)3 3.00
6600 1. 67
10+5 - 1.31
10+3 1.66 10+5 J54 0 -.1.48
10+21 - 0.32 2.80
6800 1.82
10+5 - 9.63
10+2 1.81
10+5 405 0 -
1.13
10+21 - 0.28 2.60
7000 1.95
10+
5
-
6,51
10+2 1.94 10+5 464 0 - 8.55
10+20 - 0,22 2.39
7200 2.07
10+5 3. J3
10+1 2.07 lJ+5 528 0 - 6.17
10+20 - 0.14 2.21
7400 2.19
10+5 3.64
10+
1 2.19
10+
5
59'
0 - 3.90
10. 20 - 0.07 2,06
7600 2.30
10+
5 5.15
10+
2 2.31
10+5 644 0 - 1.45
10+
20 - 0.02 1.97
7800 2.40
10+5 1.17
10+3 2.42
10+5
6" 0 I. 48 10 .. 20 0.01 1.92
8000 2.50
10"5
2.11
10"3
2.52
10"5 "6 0 5.26
10"20 0.03 1".89
8200 2.59
10"5
3.44
10"3
2.63 10+5 760 0 1.04 10+21 0.05 1.86
84.0 1.68
10+
5 5.:n 10") 2.73 10+5
'"
0 1.13 10 .. 21 0.05 1.84
8600 2.76
10"5
7.98
10"3
2.84
10"5
829 0 2.69
10 .. 21 0.06 1.83

8800 2.84
10+5 1.17
10+
4 2.95 10+5 868 0 4.01
10+21 0.06 1.80
:
9000 2.91
10+
5 1.67
10+4 3.08 10+5 912 0 5.79 10 .. 21 0.06 1.77
B
nco 2.98
10+5 2.35
10+4 3.t1
10"5 964 0 8.18 10+21 0.06 1.74
9400 1.04
10"5
3.25
10 .. 4 3.37
10"5
1026 0 1.14 10 .. 22 0.07 1.69
9600 3.11
10"5
4.44
10"4 3.55 10"5 1101 0 1.55
10"22 ".Ill 1.64
9800 3.17
10+5 6.00
10+4 3.77 10+5 1195 0 2.09
10+22 0.07 1.57
10000 3.22
10"5
8.00
lu+4 4.02 10 .. 5 1312 0 2.79 10+22 0.07 1.50
10200 3.28
10"5
1.05
10"5 4. J3 10"5 1459 0 3.67 10 .. 22 0.07 1.41
10400 3.3J 10"5 1. 38 10+5 4.71 10+5 1646 0 4.78
10+22 0.07 1.32
10600 3.38
10+5 l. 78 10 .. 5 5.16
10"5 1883 0 6.16
10+22 0.06 1.22
10800 3.43 \0"5 2.28
10"5 5.71 10"5 2185 0 7.87
10"22
0.06 1.12
11000 3',47 10"5 2.89
10"5
6.37 10+5 2571 0 9.97
10 ..
22 0.08 1.01
11200 3.52 10+5 3.64 10+5 7.16 10+5
"64
0 1.25 10+23 o.oa 0.91
\\1<00 ". <;6 10+5 1<.55
10"5
11.11
10"5
3693 0 1.56 1 0.08 0.81
11600 3.60 10 .. 5 5.64
10"5 9.2'> 10"5 44':''' 0 I. 9 3
10"23
0.08 0.72
6000 5.20 10+5 - 2.37
10+
3 5.17 10"5 J5I 0 - 3.17 10+21 - 0.1" 2.23
6200 6.26 10+5 - 7.31
10"2
6.26
10"5 565 0 - 1.98 10+21 - 0.10 1.52
6400 7.34 10+5 1.45 10+3 7.36 10+5 894 0 - 7.72 10+20 - 0.03 1.04

6600 8.43
10"5 4.82 10+3 8.48 10+5 1290 0 7. 54 10+20 0.01 0.77

6800 9.53 10+5 1.04 10+4 9.64 10+5 1679 0 2.99
10+21 0.03 0.63
7000 1.07 10+6 1.96 10 .. 4 1.08 10 .. 6 2045 0 6.48 10+21 0.04 0.55
7200 1. 18 10 .. 6 3.47
10"4
1.21
10"6 2432 0 1.20 10+22 0.05 0.49
7400 1.29 10 .. 6 5.90 10+4 1.35 10"6
i
2938 0 2.08
10+22 0.05 0.42
7600 1.41 10+6 9.69 10+4 l.51 10+6 3800 0 3.105"
10 .. 22 0.05 0.35
- 94 -
Table A.3 As Table A.I, relating to the curves 3a and 3c of Fig. 5.2 .
f!Ol,OK) A(O) (Jm-\ec-
1
)
. (0)2 _) _\
-,
;:;"/n!O) lu(m-
4
)
(I-3RJ (0) (m -3
sec
-\) ",T
:-ror-(Jrn sec ) u(msec ) ,
,
5000 1.79

- 1.90 J n+
4 1.60 10+5 '34
a - 2.11
10+
22 -
,
'"
3. IB
5200 2.07
10+5 - 1.26 10+
4 l. 9 5 10+5 m a - 1.40
10+
22
_ 0
_0
? .85
5400 2.34
10+5 - B.55 HI+ 3 2.26 \0+5 344 a - 9.48
10+
21 - o. W 2.65
5600 2.60
10+5 - 5.97 10+3 2.54
10+
5
'"
a - 6.62 10+21 - 0.31 1.52
5800 2.84
10+5 - 4.26 10+) 2.60 10+5 434 0 - 4.72 \0+21 - 0.31 I
6000 ).07
10+5 - 3.06 \0+
3 3.04 10+5 m a
-
3.43
10+
21 - 'l.31 2. 1
6200 ). )0
10+5 - 2.18 10+ 3 3.27 10+5
'"
a - 2.51 10+21 - 1,28 2.20
6400 3.51
10+5 - 1.46
10+3 3.49 10+5
'"
a - 1.83 10+2 I - 1.23 2.r6
6600 3.72 10+5 -
7.56 10+2 ),71
10+
5 670 a - l. 28 10+
21 - :1.14 1.f9
6800 3.92
10+5 6.83 10+ 1 3.92 10+5 IS'
0 - 7.57 10.20 - 0.07 l. 7S
7000 4. II
10+5 1.19 10+) 4.12 \0+5
""
a - l. 88
10+
20 - 0.01 J .66
7200 4.30 10+3 2.85 10+3 4.33 10+
5 883 a 5.34 10 ... 20 0.02 1.60

7400 4.49
10"'5
3.39 10+ 3 4.34
10"'5
937 a l. 54 10"'21
n .nb 1.''';

7600 4.67 10+3 9.28 10. 3 4.76 10+5 990 a 3.01
10+
21 0.05 l. 52
7800 4.85
10+5 1.52 10+
4 5.00 10+5 1047 0 5.17
10 ...
21 0.05 1.49
WOO 5.03 10+5 2.40 10+
4 5.26 10"'5
1112 a 8.34
10 ...
21 0.06 ].45
8200 5.20
10"'5
3.68 10 ...
4 5.57
10"'5
1190 a 1.29 10+
22 0.06 1.40
8400 5.37
10+5 5.53 10+
4 5.92 10+5 1288 a .. 10+
22 0.06 l. 35
8600 5.54
\0+5 8.16 10+
4 6.36 10 .. 5 1415 0 2.88
10 ..
22 0.06 1.28
8800 5.71
\0+5 l. 18 \ 0+5 6.89 10+5 1583 a 4.17
10 ...
22 0.06 1.20
5.88 10+5 1.68 10+5 7.56
10+
5 1809 a 5.93
\ 0+
22 <1.06 1. 10
9200 6.04
10+5 2.36 10+5 8.40 10. 5 2120 a 8.30
10+
22 0.07 ).00
9400 6.21
10+5 3.26 10+5 9.47 \0+5 2539 a 1. IS 10+23 0.07 fl.88
9600 6.37 )0+5 4.45 10+5 1.08 10+5 3193 a 1.56 10+23 0.07 0.76
9800 6.54
10+5 6.01 10+5 1.25 10+5 4152 a 2.10
10+
23 C.07 0.63
/uuu 1.37 10 .. 5 1.19 10+ 3 1.3tl 10+:> 405 0 - 1.18 10+2v - oJ.Ol 1.70
7200 1.61 10+5 2.85 10+3 1.64
10
+5 57B a 5.34
10+
20 0.02 1.50
7400 1.85 10+5 5.39 10+) 1.90 10+5 667 a 1.54
10+
21 :1.04 ].42
7600 2.08 10+5 9.28 10+ 3 2.17 10+5 145 a 3.01
10+
21 1.05 1.36
7800 2. )0 10+5 1.52 10 .. 4 2.45 10+5 814 a 3.17
10+
21 ).05 J. 32
8000 2.51 10+5 2.40 10+4 2.75 10+5
'"
a 8.34
10+
21 1.06 1.28

8200 2.72 \0+5 3.68 10+10 3.09 10+5 10\6 a ].29
10+
22 ).06 1.22
l
,
8400 2.93 10+5 5.53 10 .. 4 3.48 10+3 1148 a 1.95 10 +22 0.06 l. 16
c
B600 3. !J 10+5 B.16 10 .. 4 3.95 10+5 1321 a 2.B8 10+22 0.06 1.08
8eoo 3.33 10+3 1.18 10+5 4.5\ 10+5 1552 a 4.17
10+22 0.06 0.99
9000 3.53 \0+5 1.68 10+5 S.21 10+5 a 5.93
10+22 0.06 0.88
9200 3.72 10+5 2.36 10+5 6.08 10+5 2338 a 8.30 10+22 0.07 0.77
91000 3.91 10+5 3.26 10+5 7.17 10+5 3002 a 1. 15 10+23 0.07 0.65
9600 4.10
10+5 10.45 10+5 8.55
"
10 .. 5 10066 a 1.56 10+23 0.07 0.53
- 95 -
Table A.4 As Table A.I, relating to the curves 4a and 4b of Fig. 5.2 .
(oK)
A(O) (Jm-
3
aec:-
1
) (Jm-] ... c: -1)
. (0)2 -3 -1
-,
;;.t'n!Ol/um-
4
) (1-3R) (0) (m -]8ec -1) w, (0)
7of- (Jm sec: ) u( .... ec: ) 0
'"
6000 1.54 10+5 - 3.06 10+3 1.26 10+5
",
1,70.
10+21 - 3.43 10+21 - 0.31 3.96
6200 1.80 10+5 - 2.18 10+3 1.48 10+5 223 10+21 - 2.51 10+21 - 0.28 3.50
6400 2.05 10"5 -
1.46 10+3 1.69 10+5
'SO
I. 37 10+21 - 1.83 10+21 - 0.23 '.02
6600 2.29 10+5
-
7.56 10+2 1.90 10+5 m I. 18 10+21 - 1.28 10+21 - 0.14 2.57
.800 2.52 10+5 6.83
10+ 1 2.10 10+5
'"
1,03 10+21 - 7.57 10+20 - 0.07 2.22
7000 2.74 10+5 1.19 10+3 2.29 10+5 505 9,40 10+20 - 1.88 10+20 - 0.0 I 2.01
7200 2.96 10+5 2.85 10+3 2.49 10+5 5" 8.88 10+20 5.34 10+20 0.02 1.90
7400 3.17 10+5 5.39 10+3 2.68 10+5
'"
8.58 10+20 1.54 10+21 0,04 1.83
7600 3.31 10+5 9.28 10+3 2.89 10+5
."
8.35 10+20
I
3.01 10+21 0.05 1.78
.
7800 3.57 10+5 1.52 10+4 3.10 10+5 708 8.15 10+20 5.17 10+2 ] 0.05 1.73
.
8000 3.77 2.40 10+4 3.34 762

10+5 10+5 7.94 10+20 8.34 10+21 0.06 1.68
8200 3.96 10+5 3.68 10+4 3.61 10+5
'"
7.70 ]0+20 \.29 10+22 0.06 1.62
8400 4.15 10+5 5.53 10+4 3.92 10+5
,,,
7.43
10+20 1.95 ]0+22 0.06 1.55
8600 4.34
10+5 8.16
10+
4 4.29 10+5 1016 7. ]2 ]0+20 2.88 10+22 0.06 1.46
8800 4.52 10+5 1. 18 10+5 4.75 10+5 1157 6.76 10+20 4.17 10. 22 0.06 1. 36
9000 4.70
10+5 1.68 10+5 5.32 10+5 1346 6.36 10+20 5.93 10+22 0.06 l. 24
,"0
4.88 10+5 2.36 10+5 6.03 10+5 1606 5.92 10.20 8.30 10+22 0.07 1. 12
9400 5.06 10+5 3.26 10+5 6.94 10+5 ]97] 5.42 10+20 1. ]5 10+23 ').07
96"
5.24 10+5 4.45 10+5 8.08 10+5 2496 4.81\ 10+20 1.56 10+23 0.07 0.84
9800 5.41 10+5 6.01 10+5 9.51 10+5 3280 4.29 10+20 2.\0 10+23 0.01 0.70
.000 1.54 10+5
-
3.06 10.3 1.08 10+5
'"
3.67 ]0.21
-
3.43 ] 0+22 - 0.3\ 4.65
6200 1.80 10+5
-
2.18 10. 3 l. 21 10+5
'"
3.35 10+21 - 2.5] 10+22 - 0.28 4.09
6400 2.05
10+5 - 1.46
10+
3 1.45 10+5
'"
2.97 10+21
-
1.83 1 0. 22 - 0.2) 3.54
6600 2.29 10.5 - 7 .56 10+3 1.63 10+5
'"
2.56 10+21
-
1. 28 10. 22 - 0.14 3.01
6800 2.52
10+
5 6.83 \0+1 '.80 10+5
'"
2.24 10+21
-
7.57
10+
21 - 0.07 2.61
7000 2.74 10+5 1.19 10+3 1.97 10+5
'99 2. 04 10+21 - 1.88 10+21 - 0.01 2.36
7200 2.96 10+5 2.85 10+3 2. \3 10.5 446 1.93 10+21 5.34 10.21 0.02 2.22
7400 J.17 lotS
5.39 10+3 2.30 10+5
,.,
1.86 10+21 1.54 10+22 0.01 2.14
7600 3.37 10+5 9.28 10+3 2.48 10+5
'"
1.81 10+21 3.01 10+22 0.05 2.09
7800 3.57 10+5 I. 52 10+4 2.66 10+5 559 1.17 10+21 5.17 10+22 0.05 1.03
!
8000 3.71 10+5 2.40 10+4 2.86 10+5
."
1.72 10+21 8.34 10+22 0.06 1.97
,
8200 3.96 10+5 3.68 10+4
'.09
10+5 653 1.67 10+21 1.29 10+23 0.06 1.90
8400 4.15 10+5 5.53 10.4 3.36 10.5
'"
1.62 10.21 1.95 10+2) 0.06 1.82
8600 4.)4
10+5 8.16 10+4 3.68 10.5 800 1.55 10+21 2.88 10+23 0.06 1.72
8800 4.52 10+5 I. 18 10+5 4.07 10+5
",
1.48 10+2 \ 4.17 10+23 0.06 1.60
9000 4.70 10+5 1.68 10+.5 4.56 10+5 1055 1.39 10+21 5.93 10+2) 0.06 1.41
9200 4.88 10+5 , .36
10+5 5.17 10+5 1254 1. 30 10+2 \ 8.10 10+2) 0.0; 1.32
9400 5.06 10+5 3.26 10+5 5.9/0 10+5 1531 1.20 10+21 I. 15 10.2/0 0.07 1.17
9600 5.24 10+5 4.45 10+5 6.92 10+5 1921 , .M
10+21 1.56 10+24 n."7 1.01
9800 5.41 10+5 6.01 10+5 8.15 10+5 2486 9.10
10+
20 2.10 10+24 0.07 0.1'15
10000 5.59
10+
5 8.00 10+5 9.71 10+5 3339 11./03 10+20 2.79 10+
24 0.o,
- 96 -
REFERENCES
ref. I. I
ref. 1.2
Joint ENEA/lAEA International Liaison Group, The 1969
status report, ENEA organisation for economic co-operation
and development (1969).
Petrick, M. and Roberts, J.J., J. Spacecraft, i, p. 967,
(1967).
ref. 1.3 Azalbert, J.P., e.a., Proc. Int. Symp. on MHD, Warsaw,
3., p. 1213, lAEA, Vienna (1968).
ref. I. 4
ref. I. 5
ref. 1.6
ref. 1.7
ref. I. 8
ref. I. 9
Kerrebrock, J.L., Second Symp. on Engin. Asp. of Magneto-
hydrodynamics, p. 327, Columbia University Press,
New York (1962).
Mori, Y, e.a., Proc. Int. Symp. on MHO, Salzburg, 1, p. 209,
lAEA, Vienna (1966).
Zauderer, B. , Proc. Int. Symp. on MHD, Salzburg,
1,
p. 239,
lAEA, Vienna (1966)
I
Zauderer, B. , Proe .. Int. Symp. on MHO, Salzburg,
3.,
p. 597,
lAEA, Vienna (1966)
Blackman, V.H., e.a., Proc. Int. Symp. on MHD, Salzburg,
3., p. 365, IAEA, Vienna (1966).
Rosebrock, T.L., e.a., Proc. Int. Symp. on MHD, Salzburg,
3., p. 583, lAEA, Vienna (1966).
ref. 1.10 Schneider, R.T. and WilheUn, H.E., Proc. Int. Symp. on
MHD, Salzburg, 3., p. 551, lAEA, Vienna (1966).
ref. 1.11 Decner, R. and Kerrebrock, J.L., Proe. Ninth Symp. on
Engin. Asp; of MHD, p. 142, University of Tenessee Space
Institute, Tullahoma, Tenn. (1968).
- 97 -
ref. 1.12 Louis, J.F., Proe. Int. Symp. on MHO, Warsaw, ~ , p. 825,
lAEA, Vienna (1968).
ref. 1.13 Yano, S., e.a., Proe. Int. Symp. on MHO, Warsaw, ~ , p. 881,
lAEA, Vienna (1968.
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