IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 26, NO.

11, NOVEMBER 2011

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Theory and Implementation of a Simple Digital Control Strategy for Brushless DC Generators
Nikola Milivojevic, Mahesh Krishnamurthy, Member, IEEE, Ali Emadi, Senior Member, IEEE, and Igor Stamenkovic, Member, IEEE

AbstractPermanent magnet drives have frequently been used as a generator for a variety of applications. This is mainly due to their high-power density, reliability, robustness, and wide speed range. However, these systems often use expensive position sensors as well as complex controllers with high computational and memory capacity in order to control the drive at desired performance and operating range. This paper presents the concept of a simple digital control strategy for brushless dc generators. This technique is easy to implement and can be used for variety of applications including renewable energy systems, automotive systems, and ywheels. The control strategy shows satisfying performance, reliability, and robustness for both speed and voltage regulation, which are frequently used for industrial generator applications. Fundamental principles of the control technique have been presented with detailed simulation results. This scheme has been implemented and tested on a laboratory prototype generator to demonstrate feasibility and experimentally verify performance under various operating conditions. Index TermsBLDC generator, digital control, FPGA, low-cost control.

I. INTRODUCTION

HE last decade has seen a signicant increase in the demand for electricity. Conventional sources of power generation based on coal and other fossil fuels have issues such as depletion of resources, pollution, and global warming. This has brought about the development of power systems based on clean and renewable energy sources [1], [2]. Renewable energy generation systems such as wind and hydro units consist of a generator drive that is run by a prime mover (wind and water). Permanent magnet (PM) brushless dc (BLDC) machines controlled in generating mode offer several advantages such as high efciency over a wide operating range, low maintenance, greater durability, compactness, and higher power density. Therefore, they are

commonly used in various commercial, military, and renewable energy applications [3]. In addition, they can be employed as two- and four-quadrant drives in hybrid/electric vehicles or for ywheel applications used in energy storage systems [4][6]. This paper presents a simple digital control concept for BLDC drives in generating mode of operation. The main benet of this control technique is the simplicity in regulating the generators speed/voltage, which does not require a microcontroller with high computational and memory capacity. The proposed digital control strategy generates signals for control of power switching devices (insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) or power MOSFETs) in the inverter, which drives the BLDC generator within the desired operating range. In addition to being simple to implement, this control strategy is reliable and robust for a variety of operating conditions, as shown from experimental analysis. This paper is organized as follows. Section II describes the main principles and objectives of generator control as well as advantages and drawbacks of commonly used machines. Fundamentals of the proposed digital control strategy are explained in Section III. It presents the basic concept, operating principles, design parameters, and operating envelope of the generator controlled by the proposed strategy. Two different algorithms have been presented: 1) hysteresis; and 2) pulsewidth modulation (PWM) control. Simulation and experimental verication results using both algorithms are presented in Section IV. This section provides a detailed description of the hardware used for obtaining experimental results, testing methods for various operating conditions, and explains voltage and speed control of the BLDC generator. Section V discusses design parameters of the proposed digital control of generator with respect to parameter control and operating envelope. II. FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERATOR CONTROL

Manuscript received September 29, 2010; revised January 12, 2011 and February 21, 2011; accepted March 10, 2011. Date of current version November 18, 2011. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor J. Hur. N. Milivojevic and I. Stamenkovic were with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616 USA. They are now with MagDrive LLC, Arlington Heights, IL 60005 USA (e-mail: nmilivoj@iit.edu; istamenk@iit.edu). M. Krishnamurthy is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616 USA (e-mail: kmahesh@ece.iit.edu). A. Emadi was with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616 USA. He is now with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1 Canada (e-mail: emadi@mcmaster.ca). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2011.2135378

An electric machine can be used as a generator, which converts mechanical power into electrical power. Input mechanical power can be obtained from several sources including steam, wind, water, etc. Fig. 1 shows the relation between power and speed for hydro and wind turbines. It can be noted that maximum power of the turbine is achieved at a xed shaft speed, for one head value (small hydro turbine), or at certain wind speed (wind turbine). This has led to a widespread use of variable speed generators for such applications [8]. Synchronous generators have often been considered a popular choice for power generation units, which operate at constant rotational speed. Reactive power (voltage) control is usually realized through excitation current and is independent from active

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Fig. 2. Different generator topologies. a) IG directly connected to the grid. b) IG/PMG connected to the grid via back-to-back topology. c) DFIG connected to the grid via back-to-back topology. d) PMG connected to diode-rectier and buckboost converter.

Fig. 1. Power versus speed characteristics for a) microhydro and b) wind turbines [9], [10].

power (speed) control. Speed control of a turbine connected to a synchronous generator can be maintained by regulating water ow through the pipe of hydro, or gas pressure of gas/coal turbines. However, turbines in wind and microhydro applications do not have such a mechanism. They are, therefore, exposed to variable rotational speeds. Therefore, big advantage of variable speed operating drive in such applications is because it can reduce wear and tear of other components in the system (tower, gearbox, bearings), as well as reduce the power uctuation of output power [6]. Another machine commonly used for power generation is a squirrel-cage induction generator (IG) with soft starters and step-switched capacitors (used for power factor compensation) [see Fig. 2(a)]. In order to generate power, rotor speed of the IG has to be higher than synchronous speed (super-synchronous). Advantages of using an IG over a synchronous generator are lower cost and higher reliability. This can be attributed mainly to its simple construction and robustness [11]. However, IGs in stand-alone applications require selfexcitation, which then requires voltage regulator units (controlling voltage using variable VAR source). This tends to add complexity to the generation system and outweigh the advantages of an IG [12]. Also, conventional (variable voltage variable frequency) control of power converter connected to the IG does not provide expected exibility, due to dynamic nonlinearities of induction machines. This necessitates the application of eldoriented control (FOC) or vector control, which decouples active (speed) and reactive (voltage) control, eventually making control of IG similar to a synchronous machine. The generator is connected to the grid through two inverters (back-to-back

topology) in series and both inverters are sized for full generator power [13]. In order to decrease power rating of back-to-back inverters for megawatt generators, doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) has been introduced [see Fig. 1(c)]. Such a topology provides very stable constant voltage output and frequency, together with unity power factor, for variable speed operation. A key advantage is that power converter can be designed for 20%30% of rated power of DFIG while still operating at full power/speed range of the machine [14]. A switched reluctance machine (SRM) is another type of machine, which is very suitable for harsh operating conditions. This machine has an extended constant power region, which makes it ideal for super high speed applications. However, it employs a complex control strategy and can have high acoustic noise. In spite of these challenges, the SRM is a strong candidate for relatively high-speed generator applications, such as small wind or microhydro power systems owing to its simple construction, low manufacturing cost, and favorable torque-speed characteristics [15]. The electric machine used in this study is a permanent magnet (PM) synchronous machine. PM drives have been attractive candidates for renewable energy and hybrid/electric vehicle applications due to their high efciency (no rotor copper losses), high power density, and reliability. In order to use full capability of PM synchronous drive, FOC is typically implemented with estimated or measured rotor position. However, this strategy requires complex computations, increasing complexity of both software and hardware [16], [4]. The simplest and cost-effective solution for PM generator operation is using a diode-bridge (passive rectier) at its output electrical terminals and buckboost converter at the dc link [see Fig. 1(d)]. While diodes perform uncontrolled rectication, the buckboost converter adjusts speed/voltage of the generator in order to make it suitable for inverter (grid-tied) or energy storage (stand-alone) operations [17], [1]. If an active (controlled full bridge) rectier is connected instead to the generators terminals, there is no need for a buck/boost stage. In addition, unity power factor control of PM generator can also be achieved [see Fig. 1(c)]. In some applications, a generator is operated as a stand-alone system supplying electricity directly to the load or charging a

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Fig. 3.

BLDC generator variable speed drive: a) common topology and b) switching principle.

Fig. 4.

Common topology of variable speed BLDC drive.

battery bank. In such systems, dc link voltage needs to be regulated [18]. Fig. 3(a) shows basic topology of BLDC generator drive for variable speed applications. Electronic commutation is achieved using a microprocessor-based controller with a Halleffect position and a current sensor as input to generate gating signals for IGBTs [19]. For a BLDC drive, the main difference between motoring and generating modes of operation is that the polarity of phase current is opposite to its corresponding phase back emf. The voltage equation for one phase of BLDC generator can be written as dia (t) + Ea (t) (1) Va (t) = Ra ia (t) + La dt where, Va (t), ia (t), Ea (t), Ra , and La denote per phase voltage, phase current, per phase voltage back EMF, per phase resistance, and per phase inductance, respectively [20]. According to the switching pattern (commutation function), only two phases are active at the same time, while the third one is silent. Therefore, voltage equations when T2 and T5 conduct [see Fig. 3(b)] can be described by (2). During this period, phase current increases in magnitude: didc (t) + Eac (t) (2) dt where Vdc is the dc-link voltage of the generator drive system. When T2 and T5 are turned OFF, freewheeling diodes D1 and D6 conduct [see Fig. 3(b)]. During this interval, phase current decays. Voltage equation for this period is described by Vdc = 2 R idc (t) + 2 L Vdc = 2 R idc (t) 2 L didc (t) + Eac (t). dt (3)

In addition to voltage source converter, some authors have suggested the use of current source converter as a right solution for wind turbine application. The operation of such a converter requires a constant current source, which can be enabled by any of the converter (generator-side or grid-side). However, in certain situations such systems can be unstable, since the current source converter (inverter) has quite slow transient response [5].

III. FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROPOSED DIGITAL CONTROL STRATEGY A majority of motor/generator drives employ a current sensor in the dc link for protection. This sensor can also be used to implement hysteresis current control, which effectively controls machines torque- proportional to phase current magnitude. In this method, the magnitude of phase current is controlled within a narrow band using either T2/T5 or D1/D6 switches (when phases A and C are active) as shown in Fig. 3(b) [21]. On the other hand, applications desiring constant switching frequency for the power switches (MOSFETs, IGBTs, gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors) use a PWM scheme. Switching frequency for such systems is usually in order of 320 kHz [2], [22]. Conventional voltage and speed regulation of BLDC drives is achieved using an outer voltage/speed loop and an inner current hysteresis loop (see Fig. 4). Voltage/speed error is derived from reference and actual values of voltage/speed, and this error is used as an input to a PI regulator, which then sets the reference value for the current controller [23]. However, one of the issues with a PI regulator is its slow response time, which reduces operating range of the BLDC drive. If the drive is made to

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electromagnetic torque can be presented as T (t) = kt Iph (5)

where kt denotes instantaneous torque sensitivity. Substituting (5) into (4), average current at steady-state speed is given by I(ss ) = 1 kt T J ss m (6)

Fig. 5. Phase current and regulated output voltage waveforms of BLDC generator controlled by digital hysteresis strategy.

operate beyond this range, constants KP and KI of PI regulator need to be recalculated. This paper proposes very simple control strategy that treats the BLDC generator as a digital system. There are only two possible (predened) states in which generator drive operates. Selection of the active state at a given time depends on the comparator that regulates voltage/speed of the generator [24]. Digital control strategy can be implemented using two power electronic control concepts: hysteresis and PWM. It utilizes a current controller with two states for reference current (IH higher and IL lower reference value), for a xed hysteresis band. On the other hand, digital PWM control strategy is implemented with two different duty cycle values (DH and DL ) at a xed switching frequency. The following subsections describe these techniques in greater detail. A. Digital Hysteresis Control of BLDC Generator Digital control of the BLDC generator using hysteresis control is based on the application of two predetermined reference values of current. A higher reference current causes the speed of the BLDC generator to decrease (see state 1, Fig. 5). This is because higher electromagnetic torque developed at its shaft opposes torque from the prime mover (speed regulation). For voltage regulation, higher reference current value IH results in an increase in dc link voltage. When the BLDC is controlled in state 2, lower reference current value IL results in a higher speed because the prime movers torque opposes the smaller generator torque (speed-up). [25]. Equations used for calculating operating parameters for speed control of the generator can be derived from Newtons second law as d(t) + Tem (t) (4) dt where T, (t), J, b, and Tem denote prime mover (turbine) torque, shaft speed, moment of inertia, viscous friction constant, and electromagnetic torque of the generator, respectively. At the same time, from to six-step control of BLDC generator, T (t) = (t) b + J

where m is the mechanical time constant. In order for the generator to reach steady-state speed ss , predened states for reference currents IL and IH can be calculated based on high and low speeds L and H , using (6). Operating principle of digital control strategy regulating generators speed can be described using two scenarios. 1) Reference (commanded) speed value is higher than measured speedBLDC generator is operated at lower reference value IL (state 1), tending to speed-up the generator. 2) Reference (commanded) speed is less than measured speedBLDC generator is operated at higher reference value IH (state 2), slows down the generator. For voltage regulation, a lower reference current IL results in a lower value of dc link voltage, while a higher current IH results in higher generated dc-link voltage. Therefore, the generators phase current is controlled within a narrow hysteresis band I. This technique of generator control is not computationally intensive. This enables the digital algorithm to be implemented as a part of existing code of DSP, eld-programmable gate array (FPGA) or any other microcontroller. Another advantage of using digital control strategy is that BLDC generator parameters are not required, and hence no additional operational adjustments are necessary. This makes digital control very exible in terms of scalability of the drive. 1) Digital PWM Control of BLDC Generator: Digital PWM control strategy is somewhat similar to digital hysteresis control. The only difference is that current is not the controlled variable. Therefore, the dc-link current sensor serves as current limiter, preventing it from exceeding the maximum value. Instead of employing predened current states IL and IH (explained for digital hysteresis control), two predened duty cycles DL and DH are used. Another difference between the two control strategies is that PWM digital control uses constant switching frequency, which is not the case in hysteresis control. Therefore, digital PWM control strategy actually performs time share between two digital states, meaning that for certain amount of time converter operates in one mode, while the remaining amount of time (with a xed switching frequency) is in different operation mode [3]. When lower duty cycle DL is applied, BLDC generator is excited with a lower phase current, since diodes are active more than switches for a majority of the time during one duty cycle. Therefore, phase current cannot build its value, resulting in a low value of generators electromagnetic (opposing) torque. This in turn causes the generator to speed-up when it is driven by a constant torque from the prime mover. On the other hand, when higher duty cycle DH is applied to the switches, the generators phase current increases in magnitude. This causes a higher opposing torque from the generator, causing the generator to slow

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Fig. 6.

DC link voltage (zoomed-in) and phase current waveforms for digital hysteresis control strategy.

Fig. 7.

Speed and phase current waveforms for digital PWM control strategy.

down. PWM digital control speed regulation at a steady-state value ss can be mathematically described using (4) as follows: ss = T Tem (D) m . J (7)

A. Simulation Results Simulation results of voltage control using digital hysteresis strategy are presented in Fig. 6. Voltage ripple was calculated to be 1%2% of reference value. This gure shows the zoomed-in waveform to highlight voltage changes during switching between two predened states: IL = 4 A and IH = 8 A. Whenever measured voltage drops below the desired value of 25 Vdc , IH state is applied, resulting in immediate voltage increase. Spikes in the phase current waveform are caused at the commutation interval (during which all three phases are active: two IGBTs and freewheeling diode are active). In this simulation, dc link voltage has been regulated at 25 Vdc by applying digital hysteresis control. Corresponding waveforms of three phase currents are shown in Fig. 7. Fig. 7 shows the control of the generator using digital PWM control. The resultant phase current waveforms are also shown in Fig. 7. It must be noted that this strategy does not regulate phase current. In this case, digital PWM strategy is used to regulate the generators speed for any given torque. Predened states chosen for presented scenario are DL = 0.2 and DH = 0.6. Speed ripple was observed within 5%7% of reference value. Apart from speed and voltage regulation, it is also possible to use digital control technique for power regulation. Fig. 8 shows phase and dc-link current, as well as, power and voltage during digital power regulation at certain value (110 W in this case). It is for expected that power error is signicantly higher than voltage and current errors.

In other words, higher duty cycle results in lower speed, and lower duty cycle causes a higher speed. If the desired operating range of generator drive is between speeds L and H , then duty cycles DL and DH can be obtain from L = T Tem (DH ) m J (8)

H =

T Tem (DL ) m . J

(9)

Voltage regulation using digital PWM control is accomplished using the same logic as hysteresis control strategy. In this case, duty cycle of the controlled bridge rectier determines output voltage value. Higher duty cycle results in an increase in dc link voltage. IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION In order to evaluate the operation of the BLDC using hysteresis and PWM digital control strategies, a model was created using commercially available modeling toolPSIM.

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Fig. 8. (a) Phase and dc link current, and (b) power and dc link voltage waveforms for power regulation using proposed digital hysteresis regulation techniques.

Fig. 9.

Testing setup used for experimental verication.

B. Experimental Verication In order to experimentally validate the proposed digital hysteresis and PWM control strategy for the BLDC generator, and verify the simulation results, a bench-scale test bed was built. A PM dc machine was used as a prime mover, whose shaft was coupled to the BLDC generator. The generator terminals were connected to three phase-legs of a six-step ac/dc inverter (full-bridge rectier) with six IGBTs and freewheeling diodes. The IGBT switches are controlled by digital control algorithm implemented on an FPGA board. It must be noted that the entire circuit has only two sensorsone for measuring dc-link current and another for dc-link voltage, as shown in Fig. 9. A 24-V battery bank was added to the dc-link terminals of the full-bridge rectier for energy storage. However, since the dc link voltage is one of the controlled values, the battery bank was decoupled from dc link capacitor using a diode. Speed of the BLDC generator was controlled for different values of prime mover torque, and the dc voltage was regulated for different prime movers speeds. Fig. 10 presents experimental results for
Fig. 10. Digital PWM speed control strategy for different prime mover torque: a) 0.4 Nm, b) 0.6 Nm, and c) 0.8 Nm.

speed control using hysteresis while Fig. 11 presents the measured wave forms for PWM digital control strategy for different values of prime mover torque. For testing the digital hysteresis strategy, commanded speed was set at 1800 r/min with IL = 2 A and IH = 7 A. It was observed that for a relatively small value of prime mover torque of 0.4 Nm, state IL was used most of the time, and IH was used occasionally [high spikes from Fig. 10(a)]. When torque from the prime mover was increased to 0.6 Nm, both predened states (IL ad IH ) were used for approximately equal intervals of time, which is shown as high hysteresis band [see Fig. 10(b)]. Finally, for a torque of 0.8 Nm, IH was found to be used most of the time. This is due to the fact that the generators torque has to overcome torque from the prime mover in some cases in order to keep speed constant [see Fig. 10(c)]. In conclusion, higher

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torque from the prime mover requires higher torque from the PM generator. This causes an increase in the usage of predened state IH . Since low and high values of the predened states are calculated by the operating range desired from the generator, IL and IH can be obtained by rewriting (6) as IL (ss = M IN ) = IH (ss = M AX ) = 1 kt 1 kt T T J ss m J ss m = IL = IH . (10) (11)

In order to test the digital PWM strategy, the commanded speed was set to 1300 r/min. When torque of 0.4 Nm is applied by prime mover [see Fig. 11(a)], lower predened states DL dominates most of the time. Fig. 11 shows PWM signal of both DH (upper PWM signal) and DL (lower PWM signal). It can be seen that for the given conditions, DH is used more often for high torque from the prime mover to maintain speed at the desired value. In this experiment, predened states with duty cycle values of DL = 0.25 and DH = 0.4 were used. From Fig. 11, it can be seen that a smaller difference between the predened states results in a lower ripple. However, this also lowers the operating range of the drive. It must be noted that while predened states of reference current (digital hysteresis control) can be set to any values between 0 A and rated current of the generator, it must be mentioned that the predened value for duty cycle DH typically cannot be set to values higher than 0.5, since it could result in phase current exceeding the generators rated current. For verifying the effectiveness of digital PWM and hysteresis control for power regulation, two scenarios were tested with commanded power set to 110 and 70 W, respectively. Fig. 12 shows dc link voltage and current, as well as power and phase current waveforms in a case of power regulation. As the gure shows, in order to establish power regulation at higher power level, higher duty cycle DH has to be applied [see Fig. 12(a)]. On the other hand, for regulation of power at a lower value, regulation at lower duty cycle DL is used more [see Fig. 12(b)].

Fig. 11. Digital hysteresis speed control strategy for different prime mover torque: a) 0.4 Nm, b) 0.6 Nm, and c) 0.8 Nm.

V. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DIGITAL CONTROL OF BLDC GENERATORS In order to analyze the effectiveness of digital control of the BLDC generator, it is important to identify factors that affect its performance. This section presents an analysis of several key criteria that the system uses to control and provide feedback for the proposed control strategy. A. Choice of states DL and DH Choosing the proper values of high and low predened states depends on the expected operating range of the generator. Although extreme switching states results in a wide operating range, the regulated (voltage or speed) value also has a signicant ripple.

In a BLDC drive, only two phases are active, while third one is inactive (consequenceonly one current sensor required). Because magnitude of the current is the same through those two phases, but direction different, therefore relationship between voltage and angular velocity can be written as Vdc = Ra ia + Ea + ia = 2 (R I + E) Vdc = 2 (R I + k ). (12) dia dib + Rb ib + Eb + ib dt dt

Now if current representation from (5) is replaced by steadystate speed and load torque value, new equation can be written as ss = 1 kt I TL I = (b ss + TL ). b kt (13)

In addition to that, if now current from (13) is used for (12) then the nal relation between steady-state angular speed,

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Fig. 12.

Digital hysteresis power control for a) 110 W and b) 70 W.

load torque, machine parameters, and supply voltage is shown through ss = 1 (kt Vdc + 2 R TL ). 2 R b kt k (14)

Based on last three equations, two predened values of duty cycle have to be determined in accordance with the desired operating range of the generator drive. Therefore, low and high speed of the drive has to be dened, and that will map out the predened values for duty cycles DL and DH , as follows: H = 1 (kt VH + 2 R TL ) 2 R b kt k 1 (kt VL + 2 R TL ). L = 2 R b kt k

Fig. 13. Voltage control using digital hysteresis control strategy for different values of lower predened state.

dH = (15) dL =

H (2 R b kt k) 2 R TL kt L (2 R b kt k) 2 R TL . kt (16)

Fundamentally, (15) shows that if PWM signal VH is applied steady-state speed will be H , while if VL PWM signal is applied speed will be L . In order to calculate those duty cycle values for a given boundary speeds ( L and H ), the following equation has to be used:

In the same manner, digital hysteresis control is using predetermined low and high current values based on (10) and (11), and discussion from previous chapter. Fig. 13 shows phase current and dc link voltage waveforms for voltage regulation using digital hysteresis control. If IL is set to

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Fig. 15. Voltage control using digital hysteresis control for different values of high predened state: a) IH = 6 A, b) IH = 8 A, and c) IH = 10 A.

Fig. 14. Voltage control using digital PWM control strategies for different values of lower predened state.

0, regulated voltage has signicant ripple. This ripple reduces as the IL is increased. Consequently, it results in a narrower operating range of the generator drive as well. Fig. 13(a) shows results for IL = 0 A, Fig. 13(b) for IL = 1 A, Fig. 13(c) for IL = 2 A, and Fig. 13(d) for IL = 3 A. In each case, IH is maintained at 8 A. DC link voltage is regulated at 27 V for any given speed of the prime mover. On the other hand, Fig. 14 presents results for different values of DL . Exactly the same experiment was performed as for digital

hysteresis control. Once again, ripple is lower for higher value of DL , resulting in less difference between DL and DH . Fig. 14(a) shows results for duty cycle of DL = 0, Fig. 14(b) for DL = 0.1, Fig. 14(c) for DL = 0.2, and Fig. 14(d) for DL = 0.3. Again, for all the experiments, value of DH is maintained at 0.5, while dc link voltage is regulated at 27 V for any given speed of the prime mover. Fig. 15 shows the phase current and dc link voltage waveforms for digital hysteresis control while Fig. 16 shows the same waveforms for digital PWM technique when higher state (DH or IH respectively) was varied. Unlike the case with variation of lower predened state, any change in the magnitude of the higher state results in signicant voltage ripple. . Fig. 13(a) shows results measured for IH = 6 A, Fig. 13(b) with IH = 8 A, and Fig. 13(c) for IH = 10 A. In each test, IL was maintained at 2 A. On the other hand, Fig. 16 presents results of very same experiment for digital PWM control for different higher predened values: 1) DH = 0.5; 2) DH = 0.6; and 3) DH = 0.7. B. Effect of Position Feedback Device Speed is a mechanical parameter, unlike voltage. Its measurement depends on the feedback signal from the generator.

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Fig. 16. Voltage control using digital PWM control for different values of high predened state: a) DH = 0.5, b) DH = 0.6, and c) DH = 0.7.

Hysteresis algorithm typically operates with an inner current loop and outer voltage/speed loop, while digital PWM usually does not have an inner loop. For this control scheme, predened states are applied based on the speed/voltage error (from comparator). Sampling frequency for digital hysteresis voltage regulation depends only on the bandwidth of the inner loop, which is dened by switching frequency of the IGBTs. For the experimental setup designed, the maximum switching frequency of modules was 20 kHz. In case an encoder is used as a feedback, speed information can be derived from the amount of time between two pulses (incremental encoder) or two least signicant bits (absolute encoder). A common technique for controlling BLDC drive is to use Hall-effect sensors instead of a position encoder. In this case, speed is obtained by measuring time between two Hall-effect signals, which is related to electric frequency of the generator fe for any given speed fe = n 60 p (17)

Fig. 17. Digital hysteresis voltage control for different position feedback: a) encoder, b) Hall-effect edge, and c) Hall effect for a speed of 1800 r/min.

Fig. 17(a)(c) presents three different feedback scenarios for speed regulation using digital hysteresis control. If transistor transistor logic pulses from an incremental encoder are used for measuring shaft speed of the generator, outer speed loop needs to be sufciently fast to maintain it within the desired band [see Fig. 17(a)]. However, a higher speed ripple is seen when Hall-effect signals are used as opposed to a position encoder. Fig. 17(b) shows the measured speed derived from the ascending and descending edge of the Hall-effect pulse. The scenario where speed is regulated every half electrical cycle is presented in Fig. 17(c). Therefore, it can be concluded that speed regulation can show better results at higher speeds if Hall-effect sensors are used for feedback. C. Sensitivity to Sampling Time The effectiveness of digital speed control depends on the accuracy of feedback signal. Therefore, it depends on the accuracy of the sampled voltage magnitude and frequency of sampling. If the bandwidth of outer (voltage) loop is not fast enough, the

where n and p denote the generators shaft speed and pole pairs, respectively. Therefore, speed regulation could be better at higher speeds if Hall-effect sensors are used for feedback.

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it just means poorer dynamics of inverter (slower response due to power changes).

VI. CONCLUSION This paper presents a simple and effective digital control strategy for BLDC generator drives. Two different variations of this control strategy are presented: digital hysteresis and digital PWM. The simplicity of the proposed digital control is in its working principle, where generator operates at two specic predened operating states: state 1lower reference value and state 2higher reference value. The choice of the references depends on the comparison between actual and desired regulated value. Digital hysteresis algorithm uses phase current control with two predened reference current states (lowIL and high IH ), while digital PWM uses predened duty cycle values: DL and DH . In general, the rst control strategy results in better performance due to direct phase current, therefore, torque control and has lower ripple than the digital PWM strategy. However, the use of digital PWM control does not require current transducer and can be a good supplement when the current sensor does not operate correctly. Due to its simplicity, digital control strategy can be used for low-cost small wind or microhydro turbines as well as redundant/auxiliary control for automotive applications. Simulation and experimental results for speed and voltage control for different operating conditions of generator drive show the effectiveness of this scheme.

REFERENCES
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voltage response is much poorer. Fig. 18(a)(c) presents digital voltage control for different voltage sampling time. As expected, lower the sampling time (higher bandwidth), better the regulation, and lower the voltage ripple. Fig. 18(a) shows digital voltage control with 5-kHz sampling frequency, and has very stable voltage regulation, almost without ripple at all. If sampling sample frequency is decreased, voltage ripple increases, resulting in a poor voltage response, affecting the performance of the generator drive. For applications where acceptable voltage ripple is below 5%, 1-kHz sampling time is adequate, and any other sampling frequency below will certainly cause higher ripple. Such applications may include microhydro turbines, generative mode in four quadrant drives for heavy industry applications (fork-lifts, elevators, etc). Voltage precision in those applications is not affecting its operations. If however much lower tolerance in voltage level is required less than 1%, than sampling frequency should not go below 5 kHz. Those are applications where performance of the system highly depends on the voltage value. One of examples is gridtied wind turbine system. If dc link voltage has high ripple value,

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Nikola Milivojevic received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia, and the Ph.D. degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, in 2010. He is currently the Chief Technology Ofcer of MagDrive Technologies, LLC, Arlington Heights, IL. He has several years experience in a eld of Renewable Energy Sources as well as Energy Storage systems. He was engaged in Research and Development projects on control of ac/dc electric drives. His current research interest includes maximum power point tracking techniques for renewable energy systems as well as low-cost electrical drives control in generating mode applications. Dr. Nikola was one of student team leaders that won International Future Energy Challenge 2005 with low-cost adjustable-speed motor-drive solution. Mahesh Krishnamurthy (S02M08) received the M.S. degree from the University of Missouri- Rolla, Rolla, in 2004 and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, in 2008. Since 2008, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. His current research interests include numerical analysis of energy conversion in electric machines, design, analysis and control of power electronics and drives in renewable energy, hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicular applications. Dr. Krishnamurthy is the Program Co-Chair of the 2011 Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference in Chicago. Ali Emadi (S98M00SM03) received the B.S. and M.S. degrees (with highest distinction) from the Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and the Ph.D. degree from Texas AM University, College Station, all in electrical engineering. He is currently the Canada Excellence Research Chair (CERC) in Hybrid Powertrian and Director of the McMaster Institute for Automotive Research and Technology (MacAUTO). Before joining McMaster University, he was the Harris Perlstein Endowed Chair Professor of Engineering and the Director of the Electric Power and Power Electronics Center and Grainger Laboratories, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago, where he established research and teaching facilities as well as courses in power electronics, motor drives, and vehicular power systems. In addition, he is the Founder and Chairman of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technologies, Inc. (HEVT) a university spin-off company of IIT. He is the author or coauthor of over 250 journal and conference papers as well as six books. Dr. Emadi was the inaugural General Chair of the rst IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC05). He is also the General Chair of the 7th IEEE VPPC (VPPC11) and the rst IEEE Transportation Electrication Conference and Expo (ITEC12). He is currently the Chair of the Technical Committee on Vehicle and Transportation Systems of the IEEE Power Electronics Society. He has been named as a Chicago Matters Global Visionary in 2009.

Igor Stamenkovic (S99M10) received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia, and the Ph.D. degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, all in electrical engineering. He is currently the Chief Scientist at MagDrive LLC, Arlington Heights, IL, where he develops intelligent controlled electric drives for the applications in renewable energy and more electric transportation. His research interests include energy efciency, electrical drives with unconventional magnetic topologies, numerical electromagnetic and advanced modeling methods, and sustainable product design. Dr. Stamenkovic is a member of the Sigma Xi and the Mensa.